dassault rafale - wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Rafale

Dassault Rafale F1 of the French Air Force

Role Multirole fighter aircraft

National origin France

Manufacturer Dassault Aviation

First flight 4 July 1986

Introduction 18 May 2001

Status In service

Primary users French Air ForceFrench Navy

Produced 1986present

Number built 131 (as of July 2014)[1][2][3]

Program cost 45.9 billion (FY2013)[4]

(~US$62.7 billion)

Unit cost Rafale B: 74 million,US$101 million (flyaway cost,FY2013)[4]

Rafale C: 68.8 million,US$94 million (flyaway cost,FY2013)[4]

Rafale M: 79 million,US$108 million (flyaway cost,2011)[4]

Unit cost: 64 million,US$90.5 million (dependent ontype/variant and can be as high as90 million/US$124 million,2009)[5]

Dassault RafaleFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Rafale)

The Dassault Rafale (French pronunciation: [afal], squall)[6] isa French twin-engine, canard delta-wing, multirole fighteraircraft designed and built by Dassault Aviation. Dassaultdescribes the Rafale as an omnirole fighter,[7][8] with a highlevel of agility,[9] capable of simultaneously performing airsupremacy, interdiction, reconnaissance, and airbornenuclear deterrent missions. The Rafale is distinct from otherEuropean fighters of its era in that it is almost entirely builtby one country, involving most of France's major defencecontractors, such as Dassault, Thales and Safran.

In the late 1970s, the French Air Force and Navy wereseeking to replace and consolidate their current fleets ofaircraft. In order to reduce development costs and boostprospective sales, France entered into an arrangement withfour other European nations to produce an agile multi-purpose fighter. Subsequent disagreements over workshareand differing requirements led to France's pursuit of its owndevelopment program. Dassault built a technologydemonstrator which first flew in July 1986 as part of aneight-year flight-test programme, paving the way for thego-ahead of the project.

Many of the aircraft's avionics and features, such as directvoice input, the RBE2 AA active electronically scannedarray radar and the Optronique secteur frontal infra-redsearch and track sensor, were indigenously developed andproduced for the Rafale programme. Originally scheduled toenter service in 1996, post-Cold War budget cuts andchanges in priorities contributed to significant delays to theprogramme.

Introduced in 2001, the Rafale is being produced for boththe French Air Force and for carrier-based operations in theFrench Navy. While the Rafale has been marketed forexport to several countries, it has only been selected forpurchase by the Indian Air Force. The Rafale has been usedin combat over Afghanistan, Libya, Mali and Iraq; featuressuch as the SPECTRA integrated defensive-aids systemhave been crucial advantages in these theatres. Severalupgrades to the radar, engines, and avionics of the Rafale areplanned to be introduced in the near future.

Dassault Rafale - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafale

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Contents

1 Development1.1 Origins1.2 Design phase and prototype1.3 Testing1.4 Production and upgrades

2 Design2.1 Overview2.2 Cockpit2.3 Avionics and equipment2.4 Radar and sensors2.5 Armaments and standards2.6 Engines

3 Operational history3.1 France3.2 Potential operators3.3 Failed bids

4 Variants5 Operators6 Accidents7 Specifications8 See also9 Notes10 References11 Bibliography12 External links

Development

Origins

In the mid-1970s, both the French Air Force (Arme de l'Air) and Navy (Marine nationale) had requirementsfor a new generation of fighters to replace those in or about to enter service.[10] Because their requirementswere similar, and to reduce cost, both departments issued a common request for proposal.[11] In 1975, theFrench Ministry of Aviation initiated studies for a new aircraft to complement the upcoming and smaller Mirage2000, with each aircraft optimised for differing roles.[12]


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The logo of the Dassault Rafaleprogramme

In 1979, Dassault joined the MBB/BAe "European CollaborativeFighter" (ECA) project which was renamed the "European CombatAircraft".[13] The French company contributed the aerodynamic layoutof prospective twin-engine, single-seat fighter; however, the projectcollapsed in 1981 due to differing operational requirements of eachpartner country.[12] In 1983, the "Future European Fighter Aircraft"(FEFA) programme was initiated, bringing together Italy, Spain, WestGermany, France and the United Kingdom to jointly develop a new fighter, although the latter three had theirown aircraft developments.[14]

A number of factors led to the eventual split between France and the four countries. Around 1984 Francereiterated its requirement for a carrier-capable version and demanded a leading role. It also demanded aswing-role fighter that was lighter than a design desired by the other four nations. West Germany, UK and Italyopted out and established a new EFA programme.[10][15] In Turin on 2 August 1985, West Germany, UK andItaly agreed to go ahead with the Eurofighter; and confirmed that France, along with Spain, had chosen not toproceed as a member of the project.[16][17] Despite pressure from France, Spain rejoined the Eurofighter projectin early September 1985.[18] The four-nation project would eventually result in the Eurofighter Typhoon.

Design phase and prototype

In France, the government proceeded with its own programme. The French Ministry of Defence required anaircraft capable of air-to-air and air-to-ground, all-day and adverse weather operations. Unlike othercontemporary European fighter projects that required some level of international collaboration and cost-sharing,France was the sole developer of the Rafale's airframe, avionics, propulsion system and armament, and as suchthe aircraft was to replace a multitude of aircraft in the French Armed Forces. The Rafale would perform rolespreviously filled by an assortment of dedicated platforms, including the Jaguar, F-8P Crusader, MirageF1C/CR/CT, Mirage 2000C/-5/N, Etendard IVP/M and Super Etendard.[10][19]

During OctoberDecember 1978, prior to France's joining of the ECA, Dassault received contracts for thedevelopment of project ACT 92 (Avion de Combat Tactique). The following year, the National Office forAviation Studies and Research began studying the possible configurations of the new fighter under thecodename Rapace. By March 1980, the number of configurations had been narrowed down to four, two ofwhich had a combination of canards, delta wings and a single vertical tail-fin.[12] In October 1982, the FrenchMinistry of Defence announced that Dassault would build a technology demonstrator named Avion de CombateXprimental (ACX). France wanted to collaborate with West Germany and the UK on the project, but wasprepared to build the ACX by itself. In 1984, the government decided to proceed with a combat variant of theACX due to the conflicting technical criteria of the respective FEFA participant nations.[12][20]

The resultant Rafale A technology demonstrator was a large-delta winged fighter, with all-moving canards,embodying fly-by-wire (FBW) flight control system.[10] Construction of the demonstrator commenced in March1984, even before a contract was signed with the DGA, France's defense procurement agency.[12] Thetechnology demonstrator was rolled out in December 1985 in Saint-Cloud, and took its maiden flight on 4 July1986 from Istres-Le Tub Air Base in southern France.[10] During the one-hour flight, the project's chief testpilot Guy Mitaux-Maurouard took the aircraft to an altitude of 11,000 metres (36,000 ft) and a speed ofMach 1.3. The 9.5-tonne (21,000 lb) demonstrator stopped in 300 metres (980 ft) upon landing.[21]

Throughout the flight test programme, the Rafale A performed numerous day and night take-offs and landingsaboard the carriers Clemenceau and Foch to investigate the pilot's field of view during carrier operations. It


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The Dassault "Rafale A" technologydemonstrator in 2006

A two-seater Rafale B during an aerialrefueling

reached a speed of Mach 2 and a height of 13,000 metres (42,000 ft).[22]

The demonstrator was initially powered by General ElectricF404-GE-400 afterburning turbofans from the F/A-18 Hornet, instead ofthe Snecma M88, to reduce the risk that often comes with a first flight,and since the M88 was not considered sufficiently mature for the initialtrials programme.[6][10] It was not until May 1990 when the M88replaced the port F404 in the demonstrator, allowing the aircraft to reachMach 1.4 and demonstrate supercruise, or sustained supersonic flightwithout use of afterburners. After 865 flights with four pilots, Rafale Awas retired in January 1994.[10][22]

At the time of the Rafale A's maiden flight, France entered unsuccessfultalks with Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands and Norway about a possible collaboration on the Rafale as amultinational project; at the time, Belgium was reportedly interested in the Rafale B. In June 1987, primeminister Jacques Chirac declared that the country would proceed with the US$30 billion project. Subsequently,on 21 April 1988, the French government awarded Dassault a contract for four Rafale prototpesone Rafale C,two Rafale Ms and one Rafale B. The first out of an expected 330 Rafales was scheduled to enter service in1996.[23][24][25][26] However, with the fall of the Berlin Wall and the subsequent collapse of the Soviet Union,signalling the end of the Cold War, the French government drastically reduced its defense budget. The FrenchAir Force was reorganised, the Mirage 5F was completely phased out and a total of 55 Mirage F1Cs wereupgraded to a tactical fighter configuration, redesignated as Mirage F1CT. The budgetary cuts prolonged theRafale's development considerably.[10]

During the Rafale A flight test programme, the French government in 1989 looked at the F/A-18 Hornet as apotential replacement for the rapidly aging F-8 Crusader, which has been serving since the 1950s. The FrenchNavy entered talks regarding the purchase of second-hand F/A-18s with Australia, Canada and the US, after thedecision was made not to upgrade the Crusaders. The US Navy agreed to supply two F/A-18s to the FrenchNavy for "interoperability testing" aboard the carrier Foch.[27][28] The French government would not proceedwith a purchase of the twin-engine fighter.

Testing

To meet the various roles expected of the new aircraft, the Air Forcerequired two variants: the single-seat "Rafale C" (chasseur, meaningfighter) and the "Rafale B" (biplace, or two-seater). The prototype of theC model (designated C01) completed its first flight on 19 May 1991,signalling the start of a test programme which primarily aimed to test theM88-2 engines, man/machine interface and weapons, and expand theflight envelope.[29] Due to budget constraints, the second single-seatprototype was never built.[30]

The C01 differed significantly from the Rafale A. Although superficiallyidentical to the technology demonstrator, it was smaller and morestealthy through the coating the canopy with gold, re-designing thefuselage-fin joint, and the addition of radar-absorbent materials (RAM). This aircraft also saw extensiveapplication of composite and other materials, which both reduce the radar cross-section (RCS) and weight.Moreover, Dassault opted to reject variable engine inlets and a dedicated air brake, which lessens maintenanceloads and saves weight.[31] The B01, the only prototype of the two-seat B variant, made its maiden flight on 30


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A French Navy Rafale M with tailhook deployed during landing aboardUSS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)

April 1993.[29] It is 350 kilograms (772 lb) heavier than the single-seater, but carries 400 litres (106 US gal) lessfuel. The aircraft was used for weapon-systems testing. Later it saw validation roles regarding weaponseparation and, specifically, the carriage of heavy loads. The aircraft's typical loadout consisted of two2,000-litre (528 US gal) external tanks, two Apache/Scalp cruise missiles, in addition to four air-to-airmissiles.[32]

The Navy, meanwhile, sought a carrier-based aircraft to supersede itsfleet of ageing Etendard IPVMs, F-8P Crusaders and Super EtendardModerniss. While the Navy initially modernised the Crusaders, in thelong term, the requirement was met with the Rafale M, a navalisedvariant. The M01, the naval prototype, first flew on 12 December 1991,followed by the second on 8 November 1993.[29][33] Since France had noland-based catapult test facility, catapult trials were initially carried outbetween during JulyAugust 1992 and early the following year, at NASLakehurst in New Jersey. The aircraft then carried out trials aboard thecarrier Foch in April 1993. Flown by Dassault's chief test pilot, YvesKerherv, M02 made its maiden flight in November that year, while thefirst prototype completed the third round of testing at Lakehurst inNovember and December 1993.[34]

The Rafale M features a greatly reinforced undercarriage to cope with the additional stresses of naval landings,an arrestor hook, and "jump strut" nosewheel, which only extends during short takeoffs, including catapultlaunches.[29] It also features a built-in ladder, carrier-based microwave landing system, and the new fin-tipTelemir system for syncing the inertial navigation system to external equipment.[32] Altogether, the navalmodifications of the Rafale M increased its weight by 500 kilograms (1,100 lb) compared to other variants.[34]

The Rafale M retains about 95% commonality with Air Force variants including,[35] although unusual for acarrier-borne aircraft, being unable to fold its multi-spar wings for reducing storage space. The size constraintswere eased by the introduction of the Charles de Gaulle, France's first nuclear-powered carrier, which wasconsiderably larger than previous carriers, the Foch and Clemenceau.[32]

Production and upgrades

Initially, the Rafale B was to be just a trainer, but the Gulf War showed that a second crew member is invaluableon strike and reconnaissance missions. Therefore, in 1991 the Air Force switched its preferences towards thetwo-seater, announcing that the variant would constitute 60% of the Rafale fleet.[36] The service originallyenvisaged taking delivery of 250 Rafales, but this was initially revised downwards to 234 aircraft, made up of 95"A" and 139 "B" models",[33][37] and later to 212 aircraft.[36] The Navy, meanwhile, had 60 Rafales on order,down from 86 due to budget cuts.[33][36] Of the 60, 25 would be M single-seaters and 35 two-seat Ns.[37] Thetwo-seater has been cancelled.[22]

Production of the first aircraft series formally started in December 1992, but was suspended in November 1995due to political and economic uncertainty. Production only resumed in January 1997 after the Ministry ofDefence and Dassault agreed on a 48-aircraft (28 firm and 20 options) production run with delivery between2002 and 2007.[36] A further order of 59 F-3 Rafales was announced in December 2004.[38] In November 2009the French government ordered an additional 60 aircraft to take the total order for the French Air Force andNavy to 180.[39] As of 2014, a total of 180 Rafales have been ordered by France.[40] The Rafale is planned to bethe French Air Force's primary combat aircraft until 2040 or later.[41]


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The Rafale final assembly site islocated adjacent to BordeauxMrignac Airport

During the Rafale's design phase, Dassault took advantage of Dassault Systemes' CATIA (Computer AidedThree-dimensional Interactive Application), a three-dimensional computer-aided design, manufacture andengineering software suite that would become standard across the industry.[42] CATIA enabled digitisation andefficiency improvements throughout the Rafale programme, including implementing recently developedprocesses such as digital mockup (DMU) and product data management (PDM). It consists of 15 GB databasesof each of the Rafale's components, assisting with various aspects of the design, manufacture and through-lifesupport. The use of such software made the Rafale a "truly virtual aircraft", according to Dassault officials.[42]

According to the French magazine L'Usine nouvelle, apart from severalnon-sensitive components sourced from the United States, the Rafale ismanufactured almost entirely in France. Different elements are producedin numerous factories across the country, and final assembly takes placenear BordeauxMrignac Airport. For example, the flight controlsurfaces are fabricated in Haute-Savoie, the wings and avionics inGironde, the centre fuselage in Val-d'Oise, and the engines inEssonne.[43] Roughly 50% of the Rafale is produced by Dassault and theother half divided between two major partners, Thales and Safran, whorely on a network of 500 subcontractors. Altogether, the programmeemploys 7,000 workers. As of 2012, the fabrication process of eachfighter took 24 months, with an annual production rate of elevenaircraft.[43]

Deliveries of the Rafale's naval version was a high priority to replace the Navy's considerably aged F-8Crusaders, and so the first production model for the French Navy undertook its first flight on 7 July 1999.[44]

Their first naval deployment was in 2002 on board the Charles de Gaulle; by March 2002, the aircraft carrierwas stationed in the Gulf of Oman, where its complement of Rafales undertook training operations.[45] InDecember 2004, the Air Force received its first three F2 standard Rafale Bs at the Centre d'ExpriencesAriennes Militaires (CEAM) at Mont-de-Marsan, where they were tasked to undertake operational evaluationand pilot conversion training.[33]

The total programme cost, as of FY2013, was around 45.9 billion,[4] which translated to a unit programme costof approximately 160.5 million. This figure takes in account improved hardware of the F3 standard, and whichincludes development costs over a period of 40 years, including inflation.[46] The unit flyaway price as of 2010was 101.1 million for the F3+ version.[47]

In 2008, French officials were reportedly considering equipping the Rafale to launch miniaturised satellites.[48]

In 2011, upgrades under consideration included a software radio and satellite link, a new laser-targeting pod,smaller bombs and enhancements to the aircraft's data-fusion capacity.[49] In July 2012, fleetwide upgrades ofthe Rafale's battlefield communications and interoperability capabilities commenced.[50][51]

In January 2014, the Defence Minister Jean-Yves Le Drian announced that 1 billion is allocated towards thedevelopment of the F3R standard. The standard will see the integration of the Meteor BVR missile, among otherweapons and software updates. The standard is to be validated by 2018.[52][53]

Design

Overview


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Diagram showing theemployment of differentconstruction material

Forward section of Rafale on displayat the Paris Air Show, 2005

The Rafale was developed as a modern jet fighter with a very high level ofagility; Dassault chose to combine a delta wing with active close-coupled canardto maximize maneuverability. The aircraft is capable of withstanding 9 g or 3g.[54] The Rafale is an aerodynamically unstable aircraft and uses digitalfly-by-wire flight controls to artificially enforce and maintain stability.[54][N 1]

The aircraft's canards also act to reduce the minimum landing speed to 115 knots(213 km/h; 132 mph); while in flight, airspeeds as low as 15 knots (28 km/h;17 mph) have been observed during training missions.[54] According tosimulations by Dassault, the Rafale has sufficient low speed performance tooperate from STOBAR-configured aircraft carriers, and can take off using aski-jump with no modifications.[56]

Although not a full-aspect stealth aircraft, the cost of which was viewed asunacceptably excessive, the Rafale was designed for a reduced radar cross-section (RCS) and infra-red signature.[57][58] In order to reduce the RCS,changes from the initial technology demonstrator include a reduction in the sizeof the tail-fin, fuselage reshaping, repositioning of the engine air inlets underneath the aircraft's wing, and theextensive use of composite materials and serrated patterns for the construction of the trailing edges of the wingsand canards.[41][57] Many of the features designed to reduce the Rafale's visibility to threats remain classified.[55]

Cockpit

The Rafale's glass cockpit was designed around the principle of data fusion a central computer intelligentlyselects and prioritises information to display to pilots for simpler command and control.[59] The primary flightcontrols are arranged in a hands-on-throttle-and-stick (HOTAS)-compatible configuration, with a right-handedside-stick controller and a left-handed throttle.[60] The seat is inclined rearwards at an angle of 29 to improveg-force tolerance during maneouvering and to provide a less restricted external pilot view.[61] An intelligentflight suit worn by the pilot is automatically controlled by the aircraft to counteract in response to calculatedg-forces.[62]

Great emphasis has been placed on pilot workload minimisation acrossall operations.[55] Among the features of the highly digitised cockpit is anintegrated direct voice input (DVI) system, allowing a range of aircraftfunctions to be controlled by spoken voice commands, simplifying thepilot's access to many of the controls.[60] Developed by Crouzet, the DVIis capable of managing radio communications and countermeasuressystems, the selection of armaments and radar modes, and controllingnavigational functions.[63] For safety reasons, DVI is deliberately notemployed for safety-critical elements of the aircraft's operation, such asthe final release of armaments.[64]

For displaying information gathered from a range of sensors across theaircraft, the cockpit features a wide-angle holographic head-up display (HUD) system, two head-down flat-panelcolour multi-function displays (MFDs) as well as a central collimated display. These displays have beenstrategically placed to minimise pilot distraction from the external environment.[65] Some displays feature atouch interface for ease of Humancomputer interaction (HCI).[12] A head-mounted display (HMD) for targetcontrolling, while optional according to customer preferences, can also be integrated.[2][60] The cockpit is fully


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Annotated diagram of SPECTRA'selements

compatible with night vision goggles (NVG).[60]

In the area of life-support, the Rafale is fitted with a Martin-Baker Mark 16F "zero-zero ejection seat, capableof operation at zero speed and zero altitude. An on-board oxygen generating system, developed by Air Liquide,eliminates the need to carry bulky oxygen canisters.[66] The Rafale's fight computer has been programmed tocounteract pilot disorientation and to employ automatic recovery of the aircraft during negative flightconditions. The auto-pilot and auto-throttle controls are also integrated, and are activated by switches located onthe primary flight controls.[60]

Avionics and equipment

The Rafale core avionics systems employ an integrated modular avionics (IMA), called MDPU (modular dataprocessing unit). This architecture hosts all the main aircraft functions such as the flight management system,data fusion, fire control, and the man-machine interface.[55][N 2] The total value of the radar, electroniccommunications and self-protection equipment is about 30% of the cost of the entire aircraft.[67] The IMA hassince been installed upon several upgraded Mirage 2000 fighters,[68] and incorporated into the civilian airliner,the Airbus A380.[69] According to Dassault, the IMA greatly assists combat operations via data fusion, thecontinuous integration and analysis of the various sensor systems throughout the aircraft, and has been designedfor the incorporation of new systems and avionics throughout the Rafale's service life.[55]

The Rafale features an integrated defensive-aids system namedSPECTRA, which protects the aircraft against airborne and groundthreats, developed as a joint venture between Thales and MBDA.[70]

Various methods of detection, jamming, and decoying have beenincorporated, and the system has been designed to be highlyre-programmable for addressing new threats and incorporating additionalsub-systems in the future.[71][N 3] Operations over Libya were greatlyassisted by SPECTRA, allowing Rafales to perform missionsindependently from the support of dedicated Suppression of Enemy AirDefenses (SEAD) platforms.[72]

The Rafale's ground attack capability is heavily reliant upon sensory targeting pods,[73] such as ThalesOptronics's Reco New Generation/Areos reconnaissance pod and Damocles electro-optical/laser designationpod.[67] Together, these systems provide targeting information, enable tactical reconnaissance missions, and areintegrated with the Rafale's IMA architecture to provide analysed data feeds to friendly units and groundstations, as well as to the pilot.[74] Damocles provides targeting information to the various armaments carried bythe Rafale and is directly integrated with the Rafale's VHF/UHF secure radio to communicate target informationwith other aircraft. It also perform other key functions such as aerial optical surveillance and is integrated withthe navigation system as a FLIR.[74]

An upgraded pod, designated as Damocles XF, features additional sensors and added the ability to transmit livevideo feeds.[75] Thale's Areos reconnaissance pod is an all-weather, night-and-day-capable reconnaissancesystem employed on the Rafale, and provides a significantly improved reconnaissance capability over precedingplatforms.[76][N 4] Areos has been designed to perform reconnaissance under various mission profiles andcondition, using multiple day/night sensors and its own independent communications datalinks.[74]


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The OSF is visible upfront, below thecockpit and to the side of the refuelingboom

Radar and sensors

The Rafale is typically outfitted with the Thales RBE2 passive electronically scanned multi-mode radar. Thalesclaims to have achieved unprecedented levels of situational awareness through the earlier detection and trackingof multiple air targets for close combat and long-range interception, as well as real-time generation of three-dimensional maps for terrain-following and the real-time generation of high resolution ground maps fornavigation and targeting.[77] In early 1994, it was reported that technical difficulties with the radar had delayedthe Rafale's development by six months.[58] In September 2006, Flight International reported the Rafale's unitcost had significantly increased due to additional development work to improve the RBE2's detection range.[78]

The RBE2 AA active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar isplanned to replace the existing passively scanned RBE2. The RBE2 AAis reported to deliver a greater detection range, improved reliability andreduced maintenance demands over the preceding radar.[79] A Rafaledemonstrator began test flights in 2002 and has totaled 100 flight hoursas of December 2011. By December 2009, production of the pre-seriesRBE2 AA radars was underway.[76] In early October 2012, the firstRafale equipped with an RBE2 AA radar arrived at Mont-de-Marsan AirBase for operational service (the development was described by Thalesand Dassault as "on time and on budget").[79] By early 2014, the first AirForce front-line squadron will receive Rafales equipped with the AESAradar, following the French Navy which was slated to receiveAESA-equipped Rafales starting in 2013.[80] RBE 2 Aesa radar is knownto have maximum range of 200km against a fighter size target .In future plans are there for conformal aesa radarinstalled in wings & fuselarge of the plane & incorporation of GaN T/R modules[81]

To enable the Rafale to perform in the air supremacy role, it includes several passive sensor systems. The front-sector electro-optical system or Optronique Secteur Frontal (OSF), developed by Thales, is completelyintegrated within the aircraft and can operate both in the visible and infrared wavelengths.[82] The OSF enablesthe deployment of infrared missiles such as the MICA at beyond visual range distances; it can also be used fordetecting and identifying airborne targets, as well as those on the ground and at sea.[83] Dassault describes theOSF as being immune to jamming and capable of providing covert long-range survelliance.[77] In 2012, animproved version of the OSF started being used operationally;[79] earlier OCF versions were described as"lacking competitiveness" when compared to rivals such as the Sniper and LITENING pods.[84]

Armaments and standards

Initial deliveries of the Rafale M were to the F1 ("France 1") standard, these had been equipped for theair-to-air interceptor combat duties, but lacked any armaments for air-to-ground operations.[85] Later deliverieswere to the "F2" standard, which added the capability for conducting both air-to-ground and reconnaissanceoperations; the first F2 standard Rafale M was delivered to the French Navy in May 2006.[86] Starting in 2008onwards, Rafale deliveries have been to the nuclear-capable F3 standard, increased integration with other it hasbeen reported that all aircraft built to the earlier F1 and F2 standards are to be upgraded to become F3s.[2][60]

F3 standard Rafales are capable of undertaking many different mission roles with a range of equipment: airdefence/superiority missions with Mica IR and EM air-to-air missiles, precision ground attacks typically usingSCALP EG cruise missiles and AASM Hammer air-to-surface armaments, anti-shipping using the AM39 Exocet


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Weapons of the Rafale

Closeup of the rear of the airframe andthe two engine nozzles

sea-skimming missile, reconnaissance via a combination of onboard andexternal pod-based sensor equipment, and nuclear deterrence operationswhen armed with ASMP-A missiles.[87] In 2010, France ordered 200MBDA Meteor beyond-visual-range missiles which will greatly increasethe distance at which the Rafale can engage aerial targets when it entersservice.[7][88]

For compatibility with armaments of varing types and origins, theRafale's onboard store management system is compliant withMIL-STD-1760, an electrical interface between an aircraft and itscarriage stores, thereby simplifying the incorporation of many of theirexisting weapons and equipment.[55] The Rafale is typically outfitted

with 14 hard points, five of which are suitable for heavy armaments or equipment such as auxiliary fuel tanks,and has a maximum external load capacity of nine tons. In addition to the above equipment, the Rafale carriesthe 30 mm GIAT 30 DEFA cannon and can be outfitted with a range of laser-guided bombs and ground-attackmunitions.[55] According to Dassault, the Rafale's onboard mission systems enable ground attack and air-to-aircombat operations to be carried out within a single sortie, with many functions capable of simultaneousexecution in conjunction with another, increasing survivability and versatility.[55]

Engines

The Rafale is fitted with the Snecma M88 engine, capable of providingup to 50 kN (11,250 lbf) of dry thrust and 75 kN (16,900 lbf) withafterburners. The engines feature several advances, including anon-polluting combustion chamber, single-crystal turbine blades andpowder metallurgy disks, and technology to reduce electromagnetic andinfrared signatures; Dassault describe the engine as providing"exceptional controllability, especially during acceleration".[55] The M88enables the Rafale to supercruise while carrying a loadout of fourmissiles and one drop tank.[89][90]

Qualification of the M88-2 engine ended in 1996 and the first productionengine was delivered by the end of the year.[91] Due to delays in engineproduction, some of the early Rafales were temporarily powered by the General Electric F404 engine.[92] InMay 2010, a Rafale flew for the first time with the M88-4E engine, an upgraded variant with greater thrust andlower maintenance requirements than the preceding M88-2.[93] The engine is of a modular design for ease ofconstruction and maintenance and to enable older engines to be retrofitted with improved subsections uponavailability, such as existing M88-2s being upgraded to M88-4E standard.[91] There has been considerableinterest in improved M88 engines by potential export customers, such as the United Arab Emirates.[94] As of2007, a thrust vectoring variant of the engine designated as M88-3D was also under development.[85]

Operational history

France

In December 2000, the French Naval Aviation (Aronavale), the air arm of the French Navy, received its firsttwo Rafale M fighters. On 18 May the following year, the squadron Flottille 12F, which had previously


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Two Rafale Ms aboard USS Harry S.Truman (CVN-75) in 2008

Formation of five Rafales making aflypast in 2006

operated the F-8 Crusader, became the first squadron to operate theRafale after it was officially re-activated prior to the delivery of the sixthRafale.[95] Flottille 12F immediately participated in Trident dOr aboardthe aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle with warships from ten othernations. During the maritime exercise, the Navy tested the Rafale'savionics during simulated interceptions with various foreign aircraft, inaddition to carrier take-offs and landings.[95][96] After almost four yearsof training, the Rafale M was declared operational with the French Navyin June 2004.[97]

The Rafale M is fully compatible with US Navy aircraft carriers andsome French Navy pilots have qualified to fly the aircraft from US Navy flight decks.[98] On 4 June 2010, duringan exercise on the USS Harry S. Truman (CVN-75), a French Rafale became the first jet fighter of a foreignnavy to have its engine replaced on board an American aircraft carrier.[99]

In 2002, the Rafales were first deployed to a combat zone; seven Rafale Ms embarked aboard the Charles deGaulle of the French Navy during "Mission Hracls", the French participation in "Operation EnduringFreedom". They flew from the aircraft carrier over Afghanistan, but the F1 standard precluded air-to-groundmissions and the Rafale did not see any action. In June 2002, while Charles de Gaulle was in the Arabian Sea,Rafales conducted several patrols near the India-Pakistan border.[12][100]

Rafales were delivered to the French Air Force several years after thenaval variant, initially with the Centre dExpriences AriennesMilitaires (French Air Force Evaluation Centre) at Mont-de-Marsan AirBase in the trials and training role. By this time, it was expected thatEscadron de Chasse (Fighter Squadron) 1/7 at Saint-Dizier wouldreceive a nucleus of 810 Rafale F2s during the summer of 2006, inpreparation for full operational service (with robust air-to-air and standoff air-to-ground precision attack capabilities) starting from mid-2007(when EC 1/7 would have about 20 aircraft, 15 two-seaters and fivesingle-seaters).[97][101]

In 2007, after a "crash program" enhancement six Rafales were giventhe ability to drop laser-guided bombs, in view of engaging them in Afghanistan. Three of these aircraftbelonging to the Air Force were deployed to Dushanbe in Tajikistan, while the three others were Rafale Marineof the Navy on board the Charles De Gaulle.[102] The first mission occurred on 12 March 2007, and the firstGBU-12 was launched on 28 March in support of embattled Dutch troops in Southern Afghanistan, marking theoperational dbut of the Rafale.[103] Between January 2009 and December 2011, a minimum of three Rafaleswere stationed at Kandahar International Airport to conduct combat operations in support of NATO groundforces.[104]

On 19 March 2011, French Rafales began conducting reconnaissance and strike missions over Libya inOpration Harmattan, in support of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973; initial targets wereartillery pieces laying siege around the rebel city of Benghazi.[105] The Rafale could operate in Libya without thesupport of Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD) aircraft, using the onboard SPECTRA self-defensesystem instead.[72] On 24 March 2011, it was reported that a Rafale had destroyed a Libyan Air ForceG-2/Galeb light attack/trainer aircraft on the runway.[106]


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A French Air Force Rafale B duringthe Operation Serval in Mali (2013)

During the conflict, Rafales typically conducted six-hour sorties over Libyan airspace, carrying an armament offour MICA air-to-air missiles, four or six AASM "Hammer" bombs, a Thales Damocls targeting pod and twodrop tanks;[72] these patrols required multiple aerial refuelling operations per sortie from coalition tankeraircraft.[8] The AASM precision-guidance weapon system, using bombs weighing between 125 kilograms(275.6 lb) and 1,000 kilograms (2,204.6 lb), allowed the Rafale to conduct high-altitude bombing missions.[8]

Reportedly, Rafale crews preferred to use GPS-guided munitions due to greater reliability and range. StormShadow SCALP weapons were deployed on only one or two sorties, such as against a Libyan airbase atAl-Jufra.[107]

In 2011, aviation journalist Craig Hoyle speculated that the Rafale's performance in Libya is likely to be pivotalto the aircraft's export future, reporting that the Rafale had managed to maintain a high operational ratethroughout the Libyan deployment. Hoyle also noted that the Libyan combat experience had caused severalurgent operational requirements to present themselves, such as the need for a lighter ground-attack munition andfor modifications to the AASM weapon to be more effective when used in the close air support role.[8]

In January 2013, the Rafale took part of "Opration Serval", the Frenchmilitary intervention in support to the government of Mali against theMovement for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa.[108] The first missionwas carried out on 13 January, when four Rafales took off from anairbase in France to strike rebel training camps, depots and facilities inthe city of Gao, eastern Mali.[109] Subsequent airstrikes in the followingdays by Rafale and Mirage fighters were reportedly instrumental in thewithdrawal of Islamist militant forces from Timbuktu and Douentza.[110]

Both Rafale and Mirage 2000D aircraft used in the conflict have beenbased outside of North Africa, making use of aerial refuelling tankeraircraft to fly long range sorties across Algerian airspace and intoMali.[111]

In August 2013, it was proposed that France may halve the number of Rafales to be delivered over the next sixyears for a total of 26 aircraft to be delivered during this period; foreign export procurements have been viewedas critical to maintain production under this proposal. While production would be slowed, France would stillreceive the same number of Rafales overall.[112]

In September 2014, French Rafales began flying reconnaissance missions over Iraq as part of an internationaleffort to combat Islamic State militants. Six Rafales are stationed at an airbase in the nearby country of theUnited Arab Emirates. Their initial focus was only on identifying IS positions in support of Americanairstrikes,[113] but on 19 September Rafales joined American operations to conduct attacks, launching fourairstrikes near the Northern Iraqi town of Zumar that destroyed a logistics depot and killed dozens of IS fighters.More strikes by French warplanes are planned.[114]

Potential operators

India

The Rafale was one of the six fighter aircraft competing for the Indian MRCA competition for 126 multi-rolefighters. Originally, the Mirage 2000 had been considered for the competition, but Dassault withdrew the Miragein favour of the Rafale.[115] In February 2011, French Rafales flew demonstrations in India, including air-to-air


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Rafale taxies to the runway for take offduring Aero India 2011.

combat against Su-30MKIs.[9]

In April 2011, the Indian Air Force (IAF) shortlisted Dassault Rafale and Eurofighter Typhoon for theUS$10.4 billion contract.[116] On 31 January 2012, the IAF announced the Rafale as the preferred bidder in thecompetition.[117][118] Under the proposed contract, 18 Rafales would be supplied to the IAF by 2015 in fly-awaycondition, while the remaining 108 would be manufactured by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) in Indiaunder transfer of technology agreements.[119][120] The contract for 126 Rafales, services, and parts could beworth as much as US$20 billion.[121][122]

The deal was stalled from disagreements over the fighter production inIndia. Dassault refused to take responsibility for the 108HAL-manufactured Rafales, as it had reservations about the ability ofHAL to accommodate the complex manufacturing and technologytransfers of the aircraft. Instead, Dassault said it would have to negotiatetwo separate production contracts by both companies. The IndianDefence Ministry instead wanted Dassault to be solely responsible forthe sale and delivery of all 126 aircraft.[123][124] In May 2013, The Timesof India reported that negotiations were "back on track", with plans forthe first 18 Rafales to be delivered in 2017.[125]

As of January 2014, the MMRCA contract is still being negotiated. In addition to the primary aforementioneddisagreement, another point of contention is a provision where Dassault will have to reinvest 50 percent of thedeal's earnings into India's defense sectors, either through purchases or technological expertise. Althoughnegotiations were initially expected to end in March 2013, the Rafale deal is unlikely to be signed until April2014 due to defence budget cuts.[126][127] The first aircraft would arrive in 2017.[128]

In March 2014 the two sides were reported to have agreed that the first 18 aircraft would be delivered to Indiain flying condition and that the remaining 108 would be 70% built by HAL.[129]

Canada

The Rafale has been amongst various aircraft proposed to meet Canada's need for a modern jet fighter to replacethe aging McDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornet of the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF).[130] In 2005, accordingto Canada.com, a report compiled by Canada's Defence Department reviewing several competing aircraft hadnoted concerns over the Rafale's interoperability with US forces; Dassault had also then been unable to confirmengine performance during cold weather conditions.[131] In July 2010, the Canadian government announced thereplacement for the CF-18 was to be the F-35 Lightning II, as the country has been a partner in the Joint StrikeFighter Program since 1997 and a Tier 3 partner for the F-35 since 2002.[132][133]

Then in December 2012, the Canadian government announced that the purchase of the F-35 had beenabandoned due to greatly escalating costs, and that a fresh procurement process would begin.[134] In January2013, Dassault responded to a request for information from the Canadian government and announced itsreadiness to enter a future competition for a future fighter procurement.[135] Various aircraft are to beconsidered to meet the requirement, including the F-35.[136] In January 2014, it was reported that Dassaultoffered a contract with full transfer of technology for much lower long-term support costs.[137]

Kuwait


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In February 2009, French President Nicolas Sarkozy announced that Kuwait was considering buying up to 28Rafales.[138] In October 2009 during a visit to Paris, the Kuwaiti Defense Minister expressed his interest in theRafale and said that he was awaiting terms from Dassault.[139] Islamist lawmakers in the Kuwaiti nationalassembly threatened to block such a purchase, accusing the Defense Minister of lack of transparency and beingmanipulated by business interests.[140] In January 2012 the French Defence Minister said that both Kuwait andQatar were waiting to see if the UAE first purchased the Rafale and that Kuwait would look to buy 1822Rafales.[141]

Qatar

The Qatar Emiri Air Force was, as of January 2011, evaluating the Rafale together with the Lockheed MartinF-35 Joint Strike Fighter, the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, the Boeing F-15E and the Eurofighter Typhoonto replace its then inventory of Dassault Mirage 2000-5s. The decision for an order for 2436 aircraft wasscheduled to take by the end of 2012.[142][143][144] By June 2014, Dassault claimed it was close to signing acontract with Qatar for 72 Rafales. Delivery would likely occur in two batches of 36 aircraft. Qatar may sign thefirst official export contract for the Rafale, given the delays in India's attempts to negotiate a deal for theirorder.[145]

United Arab Emirates

The United Arab Emirates Air Force is interested in an upgraded version of the Rafale with more powerfulengines and radar, and advanced air-to-air missiles.[146] but also started to explore a purchase of the EurofighterTyphoon[147] or the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet.[148] This is reported to be because France's Defense MinisterHerv Morin asked the UAE to pay 2 billion of the total cost to upgrade the Rafale.[149] Deputy SupremeCommander of the Union Defence Force, Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan, has called the French offer"uncompetitive and unworkable".[150] The French newspaper La Tribune reported on 2 February 2012, that theUAE is still interested in buying up to 60 Rafales in a deal worth US$10 billion. Interoperatibility among theGulf air forces has led to renewed interest in the Rafale from Qatar and Kuwait.[151] On 9 January 2013, Frenchpresident Francois Hollande stated that he would be discussing the potential sale of Rafale to the UAE during anofficial visit.[152]On 19 December 2013 it was announced that UAE had decided not to proceed with a deal forthe supply of defence and security services, including the supply of Typhoon aircraft.[153]

Poland

Poland is planning to purchase 64 multirole combat aircraft from 2021 in an update to the country'smodernisation plans, it has been revealed. The new fighters will replace the Polish Air Force's fleet of SukhoiSu-22M4 'Fitter-K' ground attack aircraft and Mikoyan MiG-29 'Fulcrum-A' fighter aircraft. The planned opentender procedure could include the F-35 Lightning II, JAS 39 Gripen E/F, the newest variants of EurofighterTyphoon and Dassault Rafale, and Boeing's F/A-18E/F Advanced Super Hornet.[154][155][156][157]

Failed bids

Although the Rafale has been marketed for export to various countries, so far the most likely foreign operator ofthe type remains the Indian Air Force. Various commentators and industry sources have highlighted the highcost of the aircraft as detrimental to the Rafale's sales prospects. Its acquisition cost is roughly US$100 million(2010),[158] while its operational cost hovers around US$16,500 (2012) for every flight-hour.[159] The Saab JAS


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39 Gripen, in comparison, costs only US$4,700 per flight-hour to operate.[159] According to a 2009 article by theInstitute for Defense Studies and Analysis, unlike the American government and its relationship with Boeing andLockheed Martin, the lack of communication between the French government and Dassault has hampered aworldwide cooperative sales effort, as demonstrated by the case with Morocco in 2007.[160]

Brazil

In June 2008, the Brazilian Air Force issued a request for information on the following aircraft: F/A-18E/FSuper Hornet, F-16 Fighting Falcon, Rafale, Su-35, Gripen NG and Eurofighter Typhoon.[161] In October 2008,the Brazilian Air Force selected three finalists for F-X2 Dassault Rafale, Gripen NG and Boeing F/A-18E/F.[162] On 5 January 2010, media reports stated that the final evaluation report by the Brazilian Air Forceplaced the Gripen ahead of the other two contenders on ground of unit and operating costs.[163][164] In February2011, the press announced that the new president of Brazil, Dilma Rousseff, had decided in favour of theAmerican F-18.[165] After much delays due to budget constraints,[166] in December 2013, the Braziliangovernment selected the Gripen NG in a US$5 billion deal to equip the country's air force.[167]

Singapore

In 2005, the Republic of Singapore Air Force embarked on its Next Generation Fighter (NGF) programme toreplace the ageing A-4SU Super Skyhawks. The Defense Science & Technology Agency (DSTA) conducteddetailed technical assessment, simulations and other tests to assess the final selection, and the original list ofcompetitors was shortlisted to the final two Dassault Rafale and the F-15SG Strike Eagle. On 6 September2005, it was announced that the Boeing F-15SG Strike Eagle had won the contract over the Rafale.[168]

United Kingdom

During 2006, while there was potentially trouble with Anglo-American negotiations over the F-35 Lightning II,there was talk of purchasing the Rafale M for the British Royal Navy.[169] In October 2010 the UK amendedtheir JSF requirement from the STOVL F-35B to the conventional F-35C CATOBAR carrier variant and theirQueen Elizabeth-class aircraft carriers would be fitted with catapults capable of launching aircraft such asRafales. However in May 2012 the UK reverted to purchasing the F-35B, citing the cost of equipping the UK'snew aircraft carriers for the F-35C.[170][171][172]

Switzerland

In February 2007, it was reported that Switzerland was considering the Rafale and other fighters to replace itsNorthrop F-5 Tiger IIs.[173] The one-month evaluation started in October 2008 at Emmen Airforce Baseconsisting of approximately 30 evaluation flights. The Rafale along with the JAS 39 Gripen and the Typhoonwere to be evaluated.[174] Although a leaked Swiss Air Force evaluation report revealed that the Rafale won thecompetition on technical grounds,[175] on 30 November 2011, the Swiss Federal Council announced that it wasplanning to buy 22 Gripen NGs due to its lower acquisition and maintenance costs.[176]

Libya

In January 2007, the French newspaper Journal du Dimanche reported that Libya sought 1318 Rafales "in adeal worth as much as US$3.24 billion".[177] In December 2007, Saif al-Islam Gaddafi declared Libya's interest


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Rafale B/C and M

in the Rafale.[178] Libya would not order any Rafales; however, during the 2011 Libyan civil war French Rafaleswere dispatched over Libya in the international military intervention.[179]

Others

In 2002, the Republic of Korea Air Force chose the F-15K Slam Eagle over the Dassault Rafale, EurofighterTyphoon and Sukhoi Su-35 for its 40 aircraft F-X Phase 1 fighter competition.[180]

In September 2007, La Tribune reported that a sale to Morocco had fallen through, the government selecting theF-16C/D instead.[181][182] In October 2007, La Tribune 's earlier report appeared to have been confirmed that theRafale would not be bought.[183]

In February 2009, France offered Rafales to Oman to replace its ageing fleet of SEPECAT Jaguars.[184] InDecember 2012, Oman placed an order for 12 Typhoons, after reports surfaced that the country had preferencefor the fighter in 2010.[185][186]

Variants

Rafale ATechnology demonstrator, first flying in 1986.[10]

Rafale DDassault used this designation (D for discrte) in the early 1990sto emphasise the new semi-stealthy design features.[187]

Rafale BTwo-seater version for the French Air Force[29]

Rafale CSingle-seat version for the French Air Force.[29]

Rafale MCarrier-borne version for the Aronavale, which entered service in2001. For carrier operations, the M model has a strengthenedairframe, longer nose gear leg to provide a more nose-up attitude,larger tailhook between the engines, and a built-in boarding ladder.Consequently, the Rafale M weighs about 500 kg (1,100 lb) more than the Rafale C.[29][188]

Rafale NOriginally called the Rafale BM, was a planned missile-only two-seater version for the Aronavale.[45]

Budgetary and technical constraints have been cited as grounds for its cancellation.[22]

Rafale RProposed reconnaissance-oriented variant.[57]

Operators


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FranceA total of 180 have been ordered out of a planned 286, with an option for another 9.[2] Approximately150 are confirmed to be delivered by 2019.[189][190] As of January 2014, 126 have been delivered.[2]

French Air Force 87[2]

Escadron de Chasse 01-007 "Provence" (2006present)[191]

Escadron de Chasse 01-091 "Gascogne" (2009present)[191]

Escadron de Chasse 03-030 "Lorraine" (2010present)[191]

Escadron de Chasse 02-030 "Normandie-Niemen" (2012present)[191]

Escadron de Transformation Rafale 02-092 "Aquitaine" (October 2010present, French Air ForceOperational Conversion Unit (OCU) jointly operated by French Air Force and French navalAviation)[191]

French Navy 39[2]

Flottille 12F (2001present)[95]

Flottille 11F (2011present)[191]

Accidents

On 6 December 2007, a French Air Force twin-seat Rafale crashed during a training flight. The pilot, whosuffered a black out, was killed in the accident.[192]

On 24 September 2009, after unarmed test flights, two French Navy Rafales returning to the Charles deGaulle, collided in mid-air about 30 kilometers (19 mi) from the town of Perpignan in southwest France.One test pilot, identified as Franois Duflot, was killed in the accident, while the other was rescued.[193]

On 28 November 2010, a Rafale from the carrier Charles de Gaulle crashed in the Arabian Sea. Thisaircraft was supporting Allied operations in Afghanistan. The pilot ejected safely and was recovered by arescue helicopter from the carrier. Later reports said the engine stopped after being starved of fuel due toconfusion by the pilot in switching fuel tanks.[194]

On 2 July 2012, during a joint exercise, a Rafale from the carrier Charles de Gaulle plunged into theMediterranean Sea. The pilot ejected safely and was recovered by an American search and rescuehelicopter from the carrier USS Dwight D. Eisenhower (CVN-69).[195]

Specifications

Data from Dassault Aviation,[196] Superfighters,[197] French Navy,[198] International Directory of Military Aircraft[199]

General characteristics

Crew: 12Length: 15.27 m (50.1 ft)


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AASM-Hammer family of weapons

MICA: short- to medium-rangeair-to-air missile

Wingspan: 10.80 m (35.4 ft)Height: 5.34 m (17.5 ft)Wing area: 45.7 m (492 ft)Empty weight:

C: 9,500 kilograms (20,900 lb)B: 9,770 kilograms (21,540 lb)M: 10,196 kilograms (22,480 lb[198])

Loaded weight: 14,016 kg (30,900 lb)Max. takeoff weight: 24,500 kg (C/D),22,200 kg (M) (54,000 lb)Powerplant: 2 Snecma M88-2 turbofans

Dry thrust: 50.04 kN (11,250 lbf) eachThrust with afterburner: 75.62 kN(17,000 lbf) each

Fuel capacity: 4,700 kg (10,360 lb) internal

Performance

Maximum speed:High altitude: Mach 1.8 (1,912 km/h,1,032 knots)Low altitude: Mach 1.1 (1,390 km/h, 750 knots)

Range: 3,700+ km (2,000+ nmi) with 3 drop tanksCombat radius: 1,852+ km (1,000+ nmi) on penetration missionService ceiling: 15,235 m (50,000 ft)Rate of climb: 304.8+ m/s (60,000+ ft/min)Wing loading: 306 kg/m (62.8 lb/ft)Thrust/weight: 0.988 (100% fuel, 2 EM A2A missile, 2 IR A2Amissile) version MMaximum g-load: +9/3.2 g

Armament

Guns: 1 30 mm (1.18 in) GIAT 30/M791 autocannon with 125roundsHardpoints: 14 for Air Force versions (Rafale B/C), 13 for Navyversion (Rafale M) with a capacity of 9,500 kg (20,900 lb)external fuel and ordnance and provisions to carry combinationsof:


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Missiles:MBDA MICA IR or EM or Magic II andMBDA Meteor air-to-air missiles in the future

Air-to-ground:MBDA Apache orStorm Shadow-SCALP EG orAASM-Hammer orGBU-12 Paveway II or GBU-49 Enhanced Paveway IIGBU-24 Paveway IIIAS-30L

Air-to-surface:AM 39-Exocet

Deterrence:ASMP-A nuclear missile

Other:Thales Damocles targeting podAREOS (Airborne Recce Observation System)reconnaissance pod[200]

up to 5 drop tanksBuddy-buddy refuelling pod[60]

Avionics

Thales RBE2 radarThales SPECTRA electronic warfare system.Thales/SAGEM-OSF Optronique Secteur Frontal infra-red search and track system.

See also

Related lists

List of fighter aircraftList of military aircraft of France

Notes

^ "Longitudinal stability is moderately negative with a full fly-by-wire digital control system. The system isquadruple redundant with three digital channels and one separately designed analog channel. Design independencebetween channels is pivotal in preventing fatal flaws simultaneously affecting several channels due to softwaremisconceptions."[55]

1.

^ Quote: "The core of the enhanced capabilities of the RAFALE lies in a new Modular Data Processing Unit2.


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(MDPU). It is composed of up to 18 flight line-replaceable modules, each with a processing power 50 times higherthan that of the 2084 XRI type computer fitted on the early versions of Mirage 2000-5."[55]

^ Quote: "SPECTRA provides all-weather reliable long-range detection, identification and location of threats, shortresponse times and cutting-edge defensive measures based on combinations of jamming, decoying and evasivemanoeuvres and on state-of-the-art technologies such as DRFM (Digital Radio Frequency Memory) signalprocessing."[55]

3.

^ Quote: "According to DGA, Areos provides day identification capabilities that are two-and-a-half times betterthan those of the Mirage F1CRs Presto wet-film system and 8 times better than those of the legacy SDS250photo pod of the Super-tendard."[74]

4.

References

^ "Dassault Rafale 2014" (http://www.dassault-aviation.com/wp-content/blogs.dir/1/files/2014/07/EN-Dassault-Aviation-_-H1-_-07-25-2014.pdf) 25 July 2014

1.

^ a b c d e f g "Frances Rafale Fighters: Au Courant In Time?" (http://web.archive.org/web/20140118143350/http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/frances-rafale-fighters-au-courant-in-time-05991/). Defense Industry Daily. 12January 2014. Archived from the original (http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/frances-rafale-fighters-au-courant-in-time-05991/) on 18 January 2014. Retrieved 19 January 2014.

2.

^ Lancement du nouveau standard du programme Rafale [Launch of the Rafale program new standard](http://www.defense.gouv.fr/dga/actualite/lancement-du-nouveau-standard-du-programme-rafale) (in French), FR:Dfense, 10 January 2014 Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140110233852/http://www.defense.gouv.fr/dga/actualite/lancement-du-nouveau-standard-du-programme-rafale) January 10, 2014 at the Wayback Machine

3.

^ a b c d e "Projet de loi de finances pour 2014 : Dfense : quipement des forces et excellence technologique desindustries de dfense" (http://www.senat.fr/rap/a13-158-8/a13-158-813.html#toc178) (in French). FR: Snat. 21November 2013. Retrieved 2014-07-02.

4.

^ "Projet de loi de finances pour 2009" (http://www.webcitation.org/6JBGVb8PU). Senate (in French). 2009.Archived from the original (http://www.senat.fr/rap/a08-102-5/a08-102-516.html#toc236) on 27 August 2013.Retrieved 5 November 2011.

5.

^ a b Spick 2000, p. 433.6. ^ a b "Rafale, the omnirole fighter" (http://www.dassault-aviation.com/wp-content/blogs.dir/1/files/2012/08/Fox_Three_N_14_UK2.pdf) (PDF). Fox Three (Rafale International) (14). December 2009. Retrieved 5 January2012.

7.

^ a b c d Craig Hoyle (14 June 2011). "France's Rafale fighter proves its omnirole skills" (http://wayback.archive.org/web/20110930011123/http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/frances-rafale-fighter-proves-its-omnirole-skills-357687/). Flightglobal. Archived from the original (http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/frances-rafale-fighter-proves-its-omnirole-skills-357687/) on 30 September 2011. "Dassault describes its Rafale as being an omnirolefighter, a tag that it says denotes the type's ability to perform multiple mission types simultaneously."

8.

^ a b Prashanth, G. N. (12 February 2011). "French Rafale is best at dogfight" (http://wayback.archive.org/web/20130825081654/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-02-12/bangalore/28543581_1_su-30-aircraft-dogfight). Times of India. Archived from the original (http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-02-12/bangalore/28543581_1_su-30-aircraft-dogfight) on 25 August 2013. Retrieved 30 March 2011.

9.


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^ a b c d e f g h i Williams 2002, p. 9210. ^ "Omnirole by design" (http://wayback.archive.org/web/20130502082456/http://www.dassault-aviation.com/en/defense/rafale/omnirole-by-design.html). Dassault Aviation. Archived from the original (http://www.dassault-aviation.com/en/defense/rafale/omnirole-by-design.html) on 2 May 2013. Retrieved 18 January 2013.

11.

^ a b c d e f g "Storm warning: the Dassault Rafale is poised to become Europe's premier fighter-bomber"(http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-133468254.html#). Journal of Electronic Defense. Horizon House Publications via HighBeam Research (subscription required). 1 June 2005. Retrieved 9 January 2013.

12.

^ Buttler 2000, p. 134.13. ^ Eden et al. 2004, p. 16814. ^ Flight International, December 1983, p. 1509, "Dassault demands design leadership as the price for Europeanco-operation."

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^ Lewis, Paul (3 August 1985). "3 European Countries plan Jet Fighter Project" (http://wayback.archive.org/web/20120411102841/http://www.nytimes.com/1985/08/03/business/3-european-countries-plan-jet-fighter-project.html). New York Times. p. 31. Archived from the original (http://www.nytimes.com/1985/08/03/business/3-european-countries-plan-jet-fighter-project.html) on 11 April 2012.

16.

^ Donne, Michael (3 August 1985). "Why three into one will go; Europe's new combat aircraft". The FinancialTimes.

17.

^ "Eurofighter: Spain joins the club." The Economist, 17 September 1985, p. 68.18. ^ Sweetman, Bill (1 November 2002). "Killer angels: France's Rafale has fire, but will glory remain a mirage?"(http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-94407848.html). Journal of Electronic Defense. Horizon House Publications via HighBeam Research (subscription required). Retrieved 13 January 2013.

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^ Flight International January 1983, p. 445.20. ^ Sedbon 1986, p. 4.21. ^ a b c d "Dassault-Aviation Rafale M" (http://wayback.archive.org/web/20120902171744/http://www.ffaa.net/aircraft/rafale/rafale_fr.htm). French Fleet Air Arm (in French). Archived from the original (http://ffaa.net/aircraft/rafale/rafale_fr.htm) on 2 September 2012. Retrieved 16 January 2013.

22.

^ Cody, Edward (21 July 1987). "France Decides to Build Own Advanced Warplane; Aircraft May Compete WithEurofighter" (http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1328845.html). Washington Post. via HighBeam Research(subscription required). Retrieved 13 January 2013.

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^ Sedbon and De Wulf 1986, p. 9.24. ^ Sedbon 1986, p. 11.25. ^ Flight International 1991, p. 34.26. ^ Sedbon 1989, p. 6.27. ^ "France to test F/A-18 on carrier this fall" (http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-7830293.html). Defense Daily.Access Intelligence via HighBeam Research (subscription required). 7 July 1989. Retrieved 14 January 2013.

28.

^ a b c d e f g Eden et al. 2004, p. 169.29. ^ Williams 2002, pp. 9293.30. ^ Williams 2002, p. 93.31. ^ a b c Williams 2002, p. 94.32. ^ a b c d "Le programme Rafale" (http://www.avions-militaires.net/rafale/programme.php). Avions-militaires.net (inFrench). 15 October 2010. Retrieved 11 January 2013.

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