dc. 51p. - ericby m. agran, s. moore, j. fodor-davis, & m. deer "an analysis of the effects...

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Agran, Martin; Moore, Stephen C.How To Teach Self-Instruction of Job Skills.Innovations: AAMR Research to Practice Series, Number2

American Association on Mental Retardation,Washington, DC.Special Education Programs (ED/OSERS), Washington,DC.

ISBN-0-940898-34-9; ISSN-1072-403694000853005151p.

American Association on Mental Retardation, 444 NorthCapitol Street, NW, Suite 846, Washington, DC20001-1512 ($21.95; $19.95 members).Guides Non-Classroom Use (055)

MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.Adult Basic Education; Group Instruction; IndividualInstruction; Job Skills; *Job Training; *MentalRetardation; Peer Teaching; *Problem Solving; SelfEvaluation (Individuals); *Self Management; SkillDevelopment; *Supported Employment; Task Analysis;*Training Methods

Individuals with significant disabilities who havebeen trained to enter independent employment often depend too much ontheir job coaches. This guide describes strategies to enhance theproblem-solving skills of learners with mental retardation byteaching them to use self-instruction or self-directed verbalcommands. It details procedures for teaching self-instruction andprovides sample scripts for common tasks. An introductory chapterdiscusses the value of self-instruction and identifies principles onwhich the recommended strategies are based. Chapter 2 describes thebasic self-instructional training package, which includes: (1) a taskanalysis of the skill to be taught; (2) training sequences ofself-instruction, verbal instructions, modeling, behavioralrehearsal, corrective feedback, and praise; and (3) procedures tomonitor performance. Chapter 3 describes modifications of the basicpackage to include booster training, verbal labeling, and/or acombination of self-instructional training and one or moreself-management strategies. Chapter 4 addresses principles ofteaching self-instructional techniques in groups, and chapter 5considers peer-delivered self-instructional training. The finalchapter stresses the use of self-instruction to help students withmental retardation acquire, maintain, and generalize work behaviors.Sample training scripts are appended. (Contains 19 references.)(DB)

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American Association on Mental Retardation Research To Practice Series

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ResearchFoundations

The information in this book was based primarilyon the following research. See the bibliographyfor full citations.

"Teaching Self-Instructional Skills toPersons With Mental Retardation: ADescriptive and Experimental Analysis"by M. Agran & R. Martella

"Applying a Technology of Self-Control inCommunity Environments for MentallyRetarded Individuals"by M. Agran &J. E. Martin

"The Application of a Self-ManagementProgram on Instruction-Following Skills"by M. Agran, S. Moore, J. Fodor-Davis, & M. Deer

"An Analysis of the Effects of a Social SkillsTraining Program Using Self-Instructionson the Acquisition and Generalization ofSocial Behaviors in a Work Setting"by M. Agran, C. L. Salzberg, & J. Stowitschek

"Independent Performance Among Indi-viduals With Mental Retardation: PromotingGeneralization Through Self-Instruction"by C. Hughes

4NOYATIONS

How to TeachSelf- Instruction

of Job Skills

Martin Agran

Stephen C. Moore

Diane BrowderEditor, Innovations

American Association on Mental Retardation

4

AcknowledgmentsThe authors express appreciation to the following people for their helpin the development and publication of this book:

Marlene Deer, Julie Fodor-Davis, and Darrell Peatross,for research-assistance,

Susan Nash, for typing,

Kristle Agran, for initial suggestions for graphic design,

Julie Fodor-Davis, for photography,

and the students, teachers, and staff of theDavis School District (Utah) and

the Pioneer Adult Rehabilitation Center,for their assistance and feedback.

© 1994 by the American Association on Mental Retardation. All rights reserved.

Printed in the United States of America.

Published byAmerican Association on Mental Retardation444 North Capitol Street, NWSuite 846Washington, DC 20001

The points of view expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarilyrepresent the official policy or opinion of the American Association on MentalRetardation. Publication does not imply endorsement by the editor, the association,or its individual members.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataAgran, Martin.

How to teach self-instruction of job skills/Martin Agran, Stephen C. Moore.p. cm. (Innovations, ISSN 1072-4036; no. 2)

Includes bibliographical references.ISBN 0-940898-34-9: $21.951. Mentally handicapped Employment. 2. Occupational training.

I. Moore, Stephen C. II. Title III. Series: Innovations(Washington, D.C.: 1994); no. 2.HV3005.A37 1994 93-48119362.3'84'07155 dc20 CIP

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Table of ContentsCHAPTER 1 Introduction and Overview 1

The Value of Self-Instruction 2

Purpose of This Book 2

CHAPTER 2 The Basic Self-Instructional Training Package 5

Prerequisite Skills for Self-Instructional Training 5

Task Analysis 6

Training Sequences 7

Problem Solving 7

Did-Next-Now 8

What-Where 8Interactive (Did-Next-Ask) 9

Selecting a Training Sequence 10

Training 11

Monitoring Performance 13

CHAPTER 3 Modified Self-Instructional Training Package 15

Booster Training 15

Verbal Labeling 16

Combined Training Packages 16

Goal Setting 16

Self-Reinforcement 16

Picture Cues 17

Self-Monitoring 17

Alternative Communication Training 18

Signing 18

Augmentative Communication Systems 18

CHAPTER 4 Teaching Self-Instructional Techniques in Groups 19

Advantages of Group Training of Self-Instruction 19

Efficiency 20

Incidental Learning 20

Summary 20

CHAPTER 5 Peer - Delivered Self-Instructional Training 21

Training Peer Tutors 21

Peers Training Students 22

CHAPTER 6 Final Recommendations 23

BIBLIOGRAPHY 25

APPENDIX A: "Did-Next-Now" Training Script 27

APPENDIX B: "Did-Next" Training Script 33

APPENDIX C: Interactive Training Script 35

APPENDIX D: Group Self-Instructional Training Script 43

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About InnovationsThe Innovations series was created to help bridge the gap betweenresearch and practice. As a person who is involved in both realms, I haveseen how long that bridge must be! However, the knowledge gleaned fromresearch gains its significance in its application to improve the lives ofpeople with disabilities. This series is designed for practitioners. Eachissue will present planning ideas around a single theme. It also will makea contribution to the world of scholarship by creating a unique outlet fordissemination of research. Our challenge is to translate a line of researchinto usable, innovative ideas. How well did we succeed? I welcome yourfeedback on this new series. What was most useful or least useful in thisissue? We need your help to plan future issues. What research ideas wouldyou like to see translated into implementation? What problems do youencounter? Maybe we can find some answers in the research literature.I look forward to hearing from you.

Diane Browder, Editor InnovationsLehigh University219A Iacocca Hall, Bethlehem, PA 18015

If learning is to be enhanced,students must learn ways

to control their ownenvironments and makechokes for themselves.

0 N E

ntroductionand Overview

Many employees with mental retardation experi-ence job difficulties because they fail to respondappropriately and independently to changingcircumstances in their work environments. Theyoften depend too much on their trainers tomanage their behaviors. Employees experiencethese problems because of their low indepen-dence levels and their need for continuoussupervision. Many fail to maintain acceptablework performance and are unable to changework tasks as needed.

In supported employmentmodels, trainers present behav-iors or situations before and aftera desired target behavior isexhibited (antecedent andconsequent events) in order toshape approximations of desiredbehavior. Trainers control thework environment in this way(e.g., extrinsic reinforcement,instructional cues) until thedesired "target" behavior isnaturally reinforced in the dailywork environment. Sometimestrainers may inappropriately

acquire discriminative control, leading theemployee to exhibit critical work behaviors onlywhen the trainer is present. This can make itharder for the worker to maintain the targetbehavior and to generalize the behavior to other,new situations. This reliance on the trainerimpedes development of independence. Forpeople with mental retardation, this may result injob failure.

1

8

Limited practice in making decisions maycause (1) poor employee work attitudes, and (2)failure to maintain work performance. If learningis to be enhanced, students must learn ways tocontrol their own environments and makechoices for themselves.

Teachers in employment preparation pro-grams often ignore opportunities to teachstudents to adapt to changing circumstances intheir community placements. Many programsassume that dependence upon a job coach isacceptable; however, the employment outcomedata suggest otherwise. Vocational and supportedemployment programs need to provide studentswith learning goals and strategies they can use tobe as independent as possible. This independencewill promote their employability over the longterm. If enhancing the independence of studentswith mental retardation is indeed a major goal oftransition and employment-preparation pro-grams, we must work to see that transitionprograms are more student-centered.

The Value of Self-InstructionThe work performance of students with mentalretardation improves greatly when they aretrained to make task-specific statements out loudto themselves prior to performing a task. Theylearn to "talk to themselves," which serves todirect their behavior as if they were beingdirected by a teacher or job coach. Such verbalbehavior can regulate or direct subsequentbehavior. That is, it increases the likelihood thatsubsequent responses will be performed. Peopletrained to use self-instructions can become theirown change agents.

Because many students with mental retarda-tion have difficulty solving problems or remem-bering what to do next, they benefit from self-generated verbal prompts that repeatedly cuedesired behaviors. Consistent self-instruction

2

The human environment is in many ways alanguage environment, and our behavior iscontrolled largely by language self-instructions.

Agran & Martella (1991)

increases the number of times students hear andattend to an important cue. With increasedopportunities to repeat (and hear) their owninstructions, students better recall task instruc-tions. Self-instructions may serve aspreinstruction, in which the person verballyrehearses what he or she needs to do.

Such training in self-instruction introduces apromising, cost-effective procedure to enhancethe independent work performance and problem-solving skills of students with mental retardation.

The exclusive use of teacher-deliveredinstructional strategies in transitionprograms with teachers solvingadjustment problems for students ratherthan giving them opportunities to learn forthemselves which decisions or responsesare best has only exacerbated thetransition dilemma for many students.

Mithaug, Martin, & Agran (1987)

Purpose of This BookThis book describes strategies to enhance theindependent work and problem-solving skills ofstudents with mental retardation by teaching themto use self-instructions or self-directed verbalcommands prior to responding. Self-instructionaltraining is a promising instructional strategy inwhich students learn to regulate their work

9

behavior verbally; that is, they provide their ownverbal cues that "tell" them what to do.

Critical to the future employability of studentswith mental retardation is their ability to workappropriately with minimal supervision tomanage and direct their own behavior.

Many students withmental retardation benefit fromself-generated verbal prompts

that repeatedly cuedesired behaviors.

This book will help teachers, job coaches,and transition specialists develop and teach self-instructional strategies to students with mentalretardation. This instructional manual providesteachers, aides, and job coaches with a field-tested instructional program that will transferstudent responding from teacher to self-directedcues. The manual describes teaching strategiesthat allow students to learn new tasks or performpreviously mastered tasks at criterion levels in theabsence of teacher-delivered cues and conse-quences.

The manual describes a self-instructionaltraining package that can be used to teachstudents with mental retardation to learn adiverse repertoire of work behaviors. Additionally,the manual includes modifications for use bystudents with more severe learning needs. Also,the manual discusses the advantages of group andpeer-delivered self-instructional training, as wellas general recommendations on self instructionaltraining for teachers, transition specialists, andjob coaches.

The strategies presented have been re-searched and validated for use by students with

mild to severe mental retardation. They are basedon the following five assumptions:

1. The student, not the teacher or jobcoach, needs to solve work-relatedproblems. The ability to solve work-relatedproblems independently is critical for thepostschool employment success of studentswith mental retardation. In environmentswhere cues, prompts, or consequences areinconsistent (e.g., competitive employment),students must learn how to provide their own.

Self-instruction may serve as a problem-solving strategy because people use verbalbehavior to actively process information.Verbal behavior may help a learnerexamine a problem situation, formulate aplan of action, follow that plan, evaluatethe plan, and revise the plan as needed.

Hughes (1991)

2. A shift from teacher-directed to student-directed cues is necessary to improveindependent work performance. Theabsence of a teacher or job coach mayimpair a student's independent work perfor-mance, especially when the student is used toa trainer presenting cues. Students can learnto generate their own cues for correct work.

3. After students learn to self-instruct,they must repeat the pattern regularly;this will require frequent assessments.Ongoing assessments of the students' use ofself-instruction are necessary. Such monitor-ing gives teachers insights on the relationshipbetween the self-instruction and changes injob performance.

103

4. Students should be encouraged tocontinue the self-instructional strategyfor the long term. Self-instructions arecues that employees can continue to use toenhance long-term performance. Their totalremoval may result in decreases in perfor-mance.

5. No matter how severe the students'disabilities, teachers must view thesestudents as "self-directing" people.Students must not be perceived as passiveagents of teacher actions but as contributingmembers to the educational process. Theymust have many opportunities to solveproblems and make decisions on their own.

Based on these assumptions, this bookprovides teachers and other professionals

4

involved in transition programs with detailedinformation on:

1. how to use a self-instructional trainingpackage to help students acquire a widerange of work behaviors;

2. how to modify the basic teaching package foruse with students with severe learning needs;

3. how to facilitate the teaching of self-instruc-tion by peer tutors;

4. how to combine self-instructional trainingwith other self-management training proce-dures; and

5. the benefits of teaching self-instruction in agroup setting.

We also give several recommendations forusing self-instruction to acquire work skills andto generalize those skills to other situations.

CHAPTER

A precise task analysis isextremely important toidentify the steps and

sequence that will guidestudent learning.

TWO

the BasicSelf-InstructionalTraining Package

The following section describes the basic self-instructional package you can use to teach avariety of work skills. The basic self-instructionalpackage indudes ( 1) a task analysis of the skill tobe taught; (2) training sequences of self-instruc-tions, verbal instructions, modeling, behavioralrehearsal, corrective feedback, and praise; and(3) procedures to monitor performance. Thetask analysis identifies the statements the studentwill verbalize; the training sequences describehow to teach the student self-instructions; and themonitoring procedures allow you to evaluate the

effectiveness of the training. Each compo-

k

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nent is described below.

Prerequisite Skills forSelf-Instructional

TrainingBecause self-instructional training involvesverbal expression, students shoulddemonstrate some language skills tobenefit from such training. However, itisn't clear what skill level in language isneeded. No doubt, the student should beable to attend to visual and auditorystimuli (e.g., attend to a picture and soundfor a specified period of time), imitatevocalizations (i.e., phonemes, words),initiate communication (e.g., gesture, nodhead yes or no, use fingers), and move

5

other body parts (e.g., head, arm, shoulder).

A recommended way to determine if self-instructional training is appropriate for a studentis to observe the student's communicationresponses. Does the student talk aloud? Howmany and what types of words are said? Does thestudent repeat instructions heard? What wordsdoes the student use consistently?

Because it remains uncertain what languageskills are needed, limited expressive languageshould be a consideration as you design a strategyfor instruction, but it should not be the criterionto determine whether the student should (orshould not) be trained. (See chapter 3 forspecifics on modifying a training package forpeople with limited language skills.)

Task AnalysisA precise task analysis is extremely important toidentify the steps and sequence that will guidestudent learning. Many tasks must be completedin a specific order to successfully complete onejob. For example, assembly jobs with severaldiscrete steps require that each part be set inplace in a specific order, without deviation.However, the obvious two- or three-step jobsequence is usually not detailed enough to be aneffective task analysis. Another example might bea janitorial job such as vacuuming the floor. Thejob might be sequenced simply in terms of wherethe vacuuming must occur (e.g., first the foyer,then the dining room), but this two-step sequencedoes not adequately identify the actual steps onemust take to complete the job. An analysis ofvacuuming the dining room might be more likethat demonstrated in Table 1.

This detailed task analysis is important whenteaching self-instructional strategies; you can usethe analysis to identify the statements the studentswill verbalize as they walk through the job.

6

Table 1

Vacuuming Dining Room(Sample Task Analysis)

1. Get vacuum cleaner (closet next tosandwich bar).

2. Bring vacuum to dining roomentrance.

3. Unwind cord.

4. Plug into outlet (in brick wall).

5. Turn on vacuum.

6. Spot vacuum as needed (crumbs onfloor, paper, etc.).

7. Vacuum areas unoccupied by diners.

8. Unplug vacuum when cord no longerreaches.

9. Replug into new outlet.

10. Continue spot vacuuming until diningarea has been cleaned.

11. Turn off vacuum.

12. Rewind cord.

13. Replace vacuum in closet, or take intooffice area.

Problems that develop during training canusually be taken care of by further refining theanalysis. For example, "Get the vacuum cleaner"may be broken down into smaller steps: "Go tothe closet next to the sandwich bar." Then, "Takevacuum cleaner by the handles." Then, "Wheelvacuum cleaner out of the closet." These refine-ments help make the job skills and their corre-sponding self-instructions easier to learn.

1 3

Training SequencesStudents can improve their own performance asthey learn to instruct themselves. Self-instructionhas been effective in teaching students to cleanhospital rooms in a specified order, increase theirproduction rates, make sandwiches in a foodservice facility, bus cafeteria tables, followinstructions, and perform other tasks.

Additionally, self-instructional teaching canserve a problem-solving function. The firstverbalization can help define a problem. (Whatdo I need to do?) The second can identify asolution to the problem ( I n e e d to . . . ). Thethird can provide additional information aboutthe problem or self-directed feedback. (Goodgoing!) This strategy is effective with work skillsand social behaviors.

Good self-instructional training packagestypically include sound instructional proceduressuch as initial teacher direction and modeling,feedback, reinforcement, and maintenance andgeneralization of learned skills to new situations.Teacher direction and modeling is important: Astire trainer models each step of the sequencedtask, the trainer should make the correspondingverbal statements.

Needless to say, the content of the verbalizedself-instruction depends on the task beingperformed. The most effective self-instructionsfall into four categories: (1) problem-solving, (2)did-next-now, (3) what-where, and (4) interac-tive (did-next-ask). A description of each follows.

Problem SolvingThis self-instruction can be used to improve avariety of work skills. It is suitable for teachingstudents to identify and resolve problems thatoccur in a work environment (e.g., running outof work materials, misplacing a tool, needing toask supervisor something). It helps students (1)

state they have a problem; (2) come up with asolution for the problem (i.e., plan an appropri-ate response); and (3) direct themselves toperform the planned response. For example,when teaching students what to do when they runout of work materials, the trainer can teach thefollowing instructions:

Problem-SolvingSelf-Instruction Example

TrainingSequence Verbalization

Problem:Runs out ofwork materials "I ran out of ."

Solution "I need to get up and getmore ." (Or "Ineed to ask formore .")

PlannedResponse

"I'll get up and ask formore

Agran, Salzberg, & Stowitschek (1987)taught 5 employees with severe disabilitiesto make appropriate initiations with theirsupervisor when they needed work materi-als or assistance. Employees were in-structed to verbalize a problem-solvingstrategy that allowed them to identify aproblem, then determine an action toresolve the problem. The acquired skillsmaintained over time and generalizedacross settings.

147

Did-Next-NowSelf-Instruction Example


Did "I have the key for the machine."

Next "I need to open the outside door."

Now "I'm going to open the outside door."(The student would open the door.)

Did "I opened the outside door."

Next "I need to open the inside door."

Now "I'm going to open the inside door."(The student would open the insidedoor.)

Did "I opened the inside door."

Next "Next, I need to fill the 7-Up cans."

Now "Now I'm going to fill the 7-Up cans."(The student fills the 7-Up cans.)

Did "I've filled the 7-Up cans."

Next "I need to fill the Pepsi cans."

Now "Now I'm going to fill the Pepsi cans."(The student fills the Pepsi cans.)

Did-Next-NowThe did-next-now self-instruction is particularlysuitable for responses performed in a sequence.The three verbalizations of this self-instructionhelp students (1) identify what response was justcompleted; (2) identify what response needs to

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be done next; and (3) direct themselves toperform the response. The first instruction is astatement of completion of a task step. Thesecond statement cues and directs the studenttoward the next step in the job. The third state-ment instructs the student to do the next taskstep. For example, when students learn to restockvending machines, they use the self-instructionson the left.

The did-next-now self-instruction is particu-larly suitable for responses performed in asequence. (See appendix A for a did-next-nowtraining script.)

You can modify this three-statement did-next-now instruction sequence for students who havedifficulty with the verbalizations; you might useonly two self-statements one relating to theresponse the student has just performed andanother relating to the response the student needsto perform next (did-next). (A sample trainingscript is provided in appendix B.)

What-WhereThe what-where self-instruction is suitable forjobs the student can already perform, but are notunder stimulus control. For example, you aretraining a student to perform different janitorialtasks (e.g., mopping, wet dusting). She cansuccessfully perform each of the work skills inthe training setting, but her performance isinconsistent in the natural setting. She canimprove her performance by learning to tellherself what she is supposed to perform andwhere she is supposed to perform the task. Forexample, if she is learning to mop floors in arestaurant kitchen, the student learns tworesponse sets: (1) what to do mop the floorand (2) where to do it "mop the floor in thekitchen." She reminds herself what needs to bedone and where the response is to be performed.

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What-WhereSelf-Instruction Example


What "I need to wipe food..."

Where "off front of stove."

Interactive (Did-Next-Ask)Unlike the other three self-instruction sequences,this type is interactive in function. These instruc-tions are appropriate for tasks involving socialinteractions (e.g., serving a customer). Repeatingthe self-instructions out loud reminds the studentwhat to do while performing the task andinteracting with the customer, without producingany negative perceptions by the customer (i.e.,hearing student talk to him- or herself).

The first verbalization ("did") reminds thestudent of the task step completed. The second("next") directs the student toward the next step.The third ("ask") is a question addressed to theperson with whom the student is interacting. Thefollowing is an example of this type of self-instruction. The customer is ordering a sandwich,which the student will make.

In each of the four types described,self-instruction provided the

student with information about thecharacteristics of the Job.

Did-Next-AskSelf-Instruction Example


Did "I'd like to order a sandwich."

Next "Bread next."

Ask "What kind of bread would youlike?"

Customer: "I'd like rye bread, please."

Did "I have the rye bread."

Next "Spreads are next."

Ask "What type of spreads would youlike?"

In this example, the students learn to beinteractive in the work setting. By thinkingthrough the did-next-ask statements, they canrespond appropriately to changing orders. Eachof the three statements served a purpose. The"did" statement identified what had just beendone. The "next" instruction identified what thestudent needed to ask the customer. The "ask"statement requested information from thecustomer about the next step in the sequence.

Clearly, customers or co-workers may lookaskance during interactions with people who self-instruct, since people generally don't say out loudwhat they intend to do. Considering this, socialsituations requiring immediate verbal responsesare probably not amenable to self-instructionprocedures. But if the social interaction is in a

16 9

question format, self-instructions can serve adouble function. (See appendix C for a samplescript showing how this strategy works.)

The function of self-instructions is to providethe individual with sufficient information so thathe or she knows when the task is to be performedand which responses will need to be performed.In each of the four types described, self-instruc-tion provided the student with information aboutthe characteristics of the job.

Selecting a Training SequenceThe different training sequences provide strate-gies to teach a variety of work skills. The prob-lem-solving sequence is used for a task involvinga problematic situation. The did-next-nowstrategy is suitable for any task that involves asequence of responses. The what-where strategyis useful for work behaviors that need to be

performed in a specific place within a largersetting. The interactive strategy is appropriate fora number of tasks involving social interactions.

After selecting a teaching sequence, you willneed to write the teaching script. In the followingpages, we present four script formats. Once filledout, the script provides you with an overview ofthe information you need to run the program.

A problem-solving script should includeinformation about the desired response and thestatements to be taught. Also indicate whatreinforcer and correction procedure will be used.(See Figure 1.)

The did-next-now script should includeinformation about the desired response. In linewith the nature of the strategy, list the precedingand target responses, as well as the associatedverbalizations. Also note the reinforcer andcorrection procedure. (See Figure 2.)

Figure 1

Problem-Solving Strategy ScriptStudent Setting:

Instructional Target Task:

Target Response(What student should do)

Verbalization(What student says)

Reinforcer CorrectionProcedure

Description of problem:

Solution:

Planned response:


Solution:

Planned response:


Solution:

Planned response:

10 17

Figure 2

Did-Next-Now Strategy ScriptStudent Setting:


PrecedingResponse




Did:

Next:

Now:

Did:

Next:

Now:

Did:

Next:

Now:

The what-where strategy script should statethe desired response and the verbalizations to betaught. Identify any antecedent or competingstimuli (e.g., loud noise, nearby work activity)that may delay or disrupt responding. Also notethe reinforcer and correction procedure. (SeeFigure 3.)

The interactive strategy script should includethe target response and associated verbalizations.Also note the reinforcer and correction procedure.(See Figure 4.)

TrainingDuring training, students learn to self-instructbefore performing the target response. Thisusually requires that you teach them a two-stepprocess how to complete the task and how touse verbal self-instructions.

Our study revealed that daily training sessions,approximately 30 minutes long, across 4 to 5 dayswere sufficient to teach self-instructions. Werecommend the following instructional sequence.

1. Give the students a rationale for training: Ifthey tell themselves what they need to per-form, they will remember what they need todo and become better workers.

2. Demonstrate the self-instructional strategyand perform the desired response. Follow thescript.

3. Ask the student to do the same.

4. Provide corrective feedback as appropriate.

5. Reinforce the student for correct verbal andtask responses.

6. If only one response is correct, providecorrective feedback

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Figure 3

What-Where Strategy ScriptStudent: Setting:



AntecedentStimuli



What

Where:

What:

Where:

What

Where:

Figure 4

Interactive Strategy ScriptStudent: Setting:

Instructional Target: Task:

PrecedingResponse




Did:

Next:

Ask

Did:

Next:

Ask

Did:

Next:

Ask

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Initially, corrective feedback should consist ofreminding the student what the appropriate self-instruction or task response is. When this isinsufficient, the teacher should model the correctperformance and ask the student to imitate themodeled response. Continue modeling until thestudent responds correctly.

For example, a student starts a 10-stepwindow-cleaning task and forgets to self-instructbefore washing the window. The teacher stopshim and says, "No. You need to tell yourself: 'Itook the bucket to the window. I need to spongethe window. Now I'm going to sponge the win-dow.' Now you try it." If this correction proce-dure is successful, the trainer gives verbal praise(or another reinforcer). If the student fails torespond correctly, the teacher says, "Watch andlisten to what I say and do: 'I took the bucket tothe window. I need to sponge the window. I'mgoing to sponge the window now.' " Then theteacher models the response and sponges thewindow. Next, the teacher says, "Now say and dowhat I did." For more examples, see the trainingscripts in the appendices.

Monitoring PerformanceYou should collect data to evaluate the effective-ness of the training. This requires information onhow frequently the student self-instructs, thenperforms the task. If you don't know if the studentmakes the appropriate verbal statements, you willbe unable to conclude that the student is usingthe strategy.

The sample form in Figure 5 (this particularexample for table busing) allows you to recordthe student's self-instructions and task responses.Record observations by placing "+" or "-" inspaces indicated for instructions and taskresponses. The student used the did-next-nowstrategy, for each task step, repeating threeverbalizations. In this example, the student made11 out of 21 self-instructions and completed 4 ofthe 7 steps in the job. As indicated in the "self-instructions" row, the student had difficulty withself-instructions in three steps of the sequence:cleaning table, dusting seats, and emptying trash.As indicated in the "task performance" row, thestudent did not perform these responses.

Figure 5

Data Form for Monitoring Performance(Example: Table Busing)

GetBucket

PourWater

WetCloth

CleanTable

DustSeats

EmptyTrash

ReplaceSupplies Total

Self - Instructions

Did + + + +

11Next + + +

Now + + + +

Task Performance + + + + 4

2013

Figure 6

Data Form for Monitoring Sequence of Performance(Example: Table Busing)

GetBucket

PourWater

WetCloth

CleanTable

DustSeats

EmptyTrash

ReplaceSupplies

Self-Instructions

Did 1 5 9 13

Next 2 6 10

Now 3 7 11 15 16

Task Performance 4 a 12 14 17

From this graphed information, we can seethat the student did not consistently use the did-next-now strategy. And when he did not self-instruct, he did not perform the correspondingtasks. This immediately tells you where to trainhim. Although this student could complete thefirst steps of the sequence, he could not completethe busing tasks correctly. Despite repeating thefirst self-instructional statement under the "cleantable" category, further statements did not cue thecorrect performance for that step.

14

For a more precise evaluation, use a formsimilar to that in Figure 6. Here you can keeptrack of the order (1-2-3) in which the studentsays a self-instructional statement and performs atask.

Note that the trainer numbered every self-instructional statement and task response toassess the sequence in which it occurred. As youcan see, the student failed to dean the table anddust the seats. This information is useful whentask sequence is important.

M THREE

odified Seff-V Instructional

Training Package

Students who have

difficulty learningself - instructions may

benefit from combiningself-instructions with

another self-managementstrategy.

Some students will have difficulty learning thebasic self-instructional package. They need amodified sequence that includes one or more ofthe following: (1) booster training, (2) verballabeling, and (3) a combination of self-instruc-tional training and one or more self-managementstrategies. Additionally, alternative and augmenta-tive communication systems may be used withstudents who are nonverbal or who have limitedexpressive language.

Booster TrainingPast research on self-instruction used one 2-hourtraining session or four 30-minute sessions.These may not be sufficient for students withsevere learning needs. We have been successfulwith 2 participants trained in 30- to 40-minutesessions, one per day over 5 days; a third partici-pant needed 5 additional days to meet criterionand a fourth required 7 additional days.

Booster training may take two forms. First,you may simply extend the number of days for thetotal training package until the student achievescriterion. Second, if the student performs theresponse (both the self-instructions and thedesired work behavior) but does so inconsis-tently, you can modify the package. For example,you may need to remind the student at thebeginning of the work sessions to repeat the self-instructions. Such prompts may be all the studentneeds to remind him- or herself to self-instruct.

22 15

Verbal LabelingIt was once believed that verbal deficits character-istic of many students with mental retardationwould prohibit their use of self-instructions. Thishas not been supported by research. People withmental retardation (mild to severe) have beentaught to self-instruct. Nevertheless, language-deficient students may have difficulty self-instruct-ing. A method that has been found to be useful isto teach the student to repeat only part of the self-instruction (i.e., a verbal label). These verballabels should include the same nouns or verbs asthe self-instructions. For example, instead oflearning the self-instruction "mop the floor underthe kitchen table," the student can say "mop" and"table" as reminders. Likewise, to rememberwork materials to use, the noun table or thepreposition under may suffice. A label(s) shoulddirect the student's attention to the relevantdimensions of the task.

Agran, Fodor-Davis, & Moore (1986)taught a worker to use the did-next-nowstrategy to learn how to unload meal traycarts. At first, the worker did not respondto the training procedure. When theychanged from teaching the self-instructionscript to having her simply label each itemto be removed from the meal tray, shelearned the task quickly. For example, shesaid, "Forks" (did), "Take glass" (next),then "Glass" (now).

16

Combined Training PackagesStudents who have difficulty learning self-instruc-tions (either complete statements or shorterlabels) may benefit from combining self-instruc-tions with another self-management strategy,including (1) goal setting, (2) self-reinforcement,(3) picture cues, and (4) self-monitoring.

Goal SettingUsing goal setting, students decide the level atwhich they will perform a desired response. Afterreaching that criterion, the student sets anothergoal to repeat the process. Goal setting is particu-larly effective for vocational tasks that requirestudents to increase their work rate.

For example, in one study we taught twoparticipants to establish production goals forthemselves. First, the workers learned to setkitchen timers for a specified work period. Thenwe instructed them to work as fast as possible, sothey could complete the task before the bell rang.We reminded them to keep telling themselves towork faster. We provided praise and correctivefeedback as needed. Although these participantswere unresponsive when they used only self-instructions, they increased their production ratesusing goal setting and self-instructions. Appar-ently goal setting made the participants aware ofthe expectations and gave them something toshoot for. And the self-instructions directed theirattention to this self-determined goal.

Self-ReinforcementHere students give themselves reinforcers forcorrectly performing a task. First, studentsidentify when they have performed the requiredtask. Then they deliver to themselves a reinforcer

usually tokens, although some students havelearned to give themselves verbal praise. You canintroduce this strategy by placing coins or tokensin containers and instructing students to take a

23

coin after they self-instruct and complete a task.

You should train both self-instructions andself-reinforcement at the same time. As anexample, let's say you are training a student toincrease her work rate on an assembly task. First,give a rationale for the self-instruction trainingand explain the reinforcement procedures. Next,instruct the student to watch and listen to whatyou say and do. You might say to a student beingtrained to restock hospital supplies, "I need tostock adhesive boxes neater. Now you say justwhat I said." Then the student imitates yourresponses. Give corrective feedback as needed.Next model the reinforcement procedure, saying,"Good! I stacked neater. I get a coin." Last,instruct the student to imitate your demonstration.

Picture CuesPicture cues are photographs or line drawings thestudent can follow to complete a task. (They maybe in a booklet for easy access.) To begin work,the student opens the book to the first picture,self-instructs for that step in the task, thencompletes the step. Next, the student turns to thesecond picture, repeats the self-instructions, andpegforms that step. He or she continues to theend of the picture sequence. Like self-instruc-tions, picture cues regulate distracting cues byfocusing the student's attention on task comple-tion. Unlike self-instructions, picture cues arepermanent (and continuously present). Theaccompanying self-instructions strengthen taskresponses by directing the student to the nextpicture. As students learn the task, they dependless on picture cues; you can gradually withdrawpicture cues from training, continuing with self-instructions.

One student having difficulty with the self-instructions was trained to select a picturefrom a group of photographs that corre-sponded to the instruction, then to repeatthe self-instructions. The picture guidedher performance and helped her remem-ber the self-instructions.

Agran, Fodor-Davis, Moore, & Deer (1989)

Like self-instructions, picture cuesregulate distracting cues by

focusing the student's attentionon task completion.

Self-MonitoringWith self-monitoring, students record their owntask completions, usually in a small notebook(with pencil) that they carry with them. Aftercompleting each task, students place a checkmark on the appropriate page in the notebook.Interestingly, accuracy does not seem to affect theusefulness of this strategy, since the act of moni-toring focuses attention on the task and issufficient to improve performance.

Earlier we recommended that you verify thatyour students are indeed self-instructing. Self-monitoring may be a cost-efficient procedure toaccomplish this. Students can learn to recordwhether they (1) self-instructed and (2) com-pleted a task. Self-monitoring may encouragestudents to self-instruct. Self-monitoring becomesa cue for self-instructing which, in turn, is a cuefor increased work.

24 17

AlternativeCommunication Training

Students who are nonverbal or with limitedexpressive knowledge may also receive self-instructional training. The fact that they cannotuse verbal speech should not preclude themfrom learning how to self-instruct. The functionof self-instructions is to remind students whatthey need to do. As long as the self-instruction isemitted, it ultimately doesn't matter whether it isvocalized, signed, or gestured.

SigningStudents can be taught to sign self-instructions.Such training would be similar to using speechas the communication mode; that is, the desiredself-instructions would be shaped systematically.Yet several issues need to be addressed whenteaching signed self-instructions.

First, because of the specific requirementsof different sign languages and signing systems(combined signing and speaking), teachers needto teach self-instructions appropriate to thesigning language used in terms of tense, syntax,and grammar. The self-instructions need toconform to these rules.

Second, the student's degree of physicaldexterity (i.e., the use of fingers, hands, arms,head movements) will ultimately determinewhich signs will be taught.

Third, the signs taught should not interferewith the student's performance of the job task.The number of signs in a self-instructionalsequence may need to be shortened to reducethe lag time between signing and performing thejob skill.

Last, it is best to teach signs that require lessmovement (e.g., raising hand rather than movingfour fingers).

18

Augmentative CommunicationSystemsStudents who use augmentative communicationsystems (e.g., communication boards, picturebooks, synthesized speech units) can also betaught to self-instruct. Rather than repeating self-instructions out loud, the student is taught topoint or attend to a picture illustrating the self-instruction, then to perform the desired response.Such training is similar to conventional self-instructional training.

Among the instructional issues to be consid-ered: length and frequency of instructionalsessions, types of self-instruction, number ofwords in self-instructions, and amount of instruc-tional assistance needed. Such instruction shouldbe integrated into ongoing work experiences,using words that are reinforcing to the studentsand that can be clearly depicted by the alternativeform (i.e., picture or symbol). The type ofcommunication system selected should be basedon the student's motor skills and sensory needsand the suitability for the work site. (A smaller,portable device is recommended.)

As with vocal self-instructions, an improve-ment in the student's work performance after heor she has learned to self-instruct using analternative communication system provides strongevidence to support the effectiveness of suchtraining.

25

CHAPTER F 0 U R

Each student benefitsfrom instructions given to

everyone in the group.

caching Self-InstructionalTechniquesin Groups

In many programs one-to-one instruction,necessary for students with mild to severedisabilities, has become an expected and ac-cepted practice. Unfortunately, this level ofattention is becoming increasingly difficult todeliver. As class size and teacher responsibilityincrease, teachers have less time to meet theneeds of all students at a one-to-one ratio. Suchindividualized teaching can also be inefficient. Forexample, in a classroom with 8 students, theteacher can provide one-to-one instruction onlyby leaving 7 students unattended; with an aidepresent in the classroom, 6 students will beunengaged. In all, one-to-one training suggeststhat students who are not receiving the individualattention are engaged in less intensive instruc-tional activities or in nonlearning activities.

A solution to this logistical dilemma is todevelop group instructional strategies struc-tured instruction involving 2 or more students atthe same time. Fortunately, self-instruction can betaught in a group format. This gives all students inthe class a chance to learn at the same time.

Advantages of GroupTraining of Self-Instruction

In teaching self-instruction, the advantages ofgroup training formats can be assessed directly bytheir efficiency and indirectly through theirincidental effects.

26 19

EfficiencyIn one project we found that group trainingreduced instructional time. Students taught in agroup required less time to reach criterion on atask than did a student taught by a one-to-oneapproach. The students learned a window-cleaning job. Four received instruction in agroup, while 1 received instruction individually.All of the students had moderate to severelearning needs, and the student taught individu-ally was randomly assigned.

These results indicated that the combinedinstructional time for the 4 students was a fullminute less than the time needed for the indi-vidual. The mean instructional time for eachstudent receiving group instruction to achievecriterion was just under 5.9 minutes. Since thetime needed for the student receiving one-to-onetraining was 24.5 minutes to criterion, the groupinstruction resulted in a mean savings of teachertime of 18.6 minutes. When each session isbroken down among the 4 students receiving thegroup training, only 1.4, 1.6, 1.5, and 1.4minutes per session were required per student.

Incidental LearningIncidental learning refers to students acquiringskills by observing naturally occurring events. Ingroup learning, they can learn as other studentsare receiving instruction. They observe and watchother students in the group perform; they listen tothe feedback others receive from their teacher or

20

the training staff. These observations allow themto see desired behavior performed and subse-quently praised or corrected. Each studentbenefits from instructions given to everyone in thegroup.

Group training employs the prompt hierar-chy (i.e., increasing or decreasing levels ofassistance) to ensure correct responding. Youdeliver all instruction to the group as a whole.After providing verbal instructions or modeling ofthe desired response, you ask the group to imitateyour demonstration. Target 1 student at a time,asking him or her to say and do what you did. Askthe others to watch and pay attention as theothers go through the sequence. Students havingparticular difficulty responding may have morethan one turn. Reinforce or correct each studentindividually. Appendix D shows a training scriptfor teaching 4 students to unload a truck. Oneteacher delivers all of the instructions.

When all the students perform the responsescorrectly, they see one another modeling thedesired behaviors. All students can benefit fromthe instructional session.

SummaryGroup-delivered self-instructional trainingrepresents an effective instructional format toteach improved work performance. The strategyhas been useful for providing transitional pro-gramming, for teaching tasks efficiently, and formaking better use of instructional time.

27

Per-DeliveredSelf-InstructionalTraining

CHAPTER FIVE

After mastering the task,the tutors learn how to

instruct others.

While self-instructional training is more efficientin a group format, some students may still requirethe intensive feedback that one-to-one instructiondelivers. Peer tutors can provide such training.

Peer tutors are students who have receivedtraining in how to assist peers who have disabili-ties. They have effectively facilitated skill develop-ment across academic, community, and voca-tional domains. Usually tutors are studentswithout disabilities who attend regular class-

rooms. Yet several studies have..,ILMIIMWM. 6

28

demonstrated that students withmental retardation can learn to bepeer tutors

In one of our studies, wetrained 2 students classified withmild mental retardation to serve aspeer tutors for 3 students withsevere mental retardation. Thetutors taught these students tomake sack lunches-to-order at asandwich bat The task analysisalso included greeting the cus-tomer and asking for the order.

Training Peer TutorsTraining of peer tutors usually includes twophases: (1) the peer tutors must be able toperform the task they will teach, and (2) the peertutors then need to learn how to teach the task.

21

They must model the responses and provideverbal praise and corrective feedback appropri-ately.

First, the tutors learn to perform the task tothe same criterion established for their students.This ensures their competence for the challengeof teaching the task. Make sure to use the sameinstructional procedures you expect the peertutor to use when instructing the student (i.e.,modeling, delivering praise statements andcorrective feedback).

After mastering the task, the tutors learn howto instruct others. This training can include roleplaying in which the tutor plays the role of thetrainer; the teacher plays the role of the trainee.Here the peer tutor can practice demonstratingthe appropriate "teacher" responses. For ex-ample, the tutor says, "This is how you performthe task. Watch what I say and do," and thenperforms the task. The teacher gives the tutorverbal praise or corrective feedback as needed.

Next, the tutor learns to give verbal praise.We found that tutors had more difficulty providingverbal praise than they had with any other aspectof training. In fact, they only delivered verbalpraise 50% appropriately during sack lunchtraining.

Conduct verbal praise training in conjunctionwith role-play tasks: The teacher plays the role ofthe student, and the tutor provides verbal praisefor appropriate responses (both task and self-instructional). As needed, prompt the peer tutorto provide the verbal praise. Continue the proce-dure until the peer tutor delivers praise consis-tently. The peer tutor must be able to reinforceboth task and self-instruction responses.

After learning to deliver praise, they can learnhow to give corrective feedback. Correctivefeedback is necessary when the student fails toself-instruct or perform the task correctly. For

22

example, the correction procedure might be,"No. That was not correct. Watch me do it, thenyou do it the same way." For nonresponse errors,the tutor should say, "No, you did not say whatyou needed to do. Watch what I say and do."Then the tutor models the correct response.Correct the tutor by stopping the role play andproviding corrective feedback.

During the final role-playing sessions, theteacher makes correct and incorrect responsesso the tutor can provide verbal praise or correc-tive feedback as appropriate. Continue thisprocedure to criterion.

Peers Training StudentsPeer tutors deliver instructions in the same wayyou would as teacher, following the task analysisor instructional sequence of the program.Initially, you will need to supervise the instruc-tional interaction between the peer tutor andstudent. This is to ensure the peer tutor isinstructing and giving feedback appropriately.Provide feedback to the tutor and/or the studentas needed. When the tutor achieves criterion,withdraw gradually. Occasionally observe theinstructional interactions between the tutor andstudent to make sure the tutor is performing atcriterion. Provide feedback as necessary.

If the tutor has difficulty with any aspect ofthe instruction (e.g., modeling correct response,delivering praise statements), provide the tutorwith additional instruction independent of thesessions with the student. Again, use role playingso the tutor can practice the desired responses.

29

FinalRecommendations

S I X

By teaching students tocue themselves by self-

instructing, production rateswill increase as teacherdependency decreases.

Teaching self-instruction to students with mentalretardation has been effective as they acquiredand maintained a variety of work behaviors. Self-instruction provides them with a strategy they canuse to work independently, a characteristicespecially valuable in work environments whereteacher-delivered cues or consequences areabsent or scant. To enhance their future employ-ability, students must learn to solve problemsindependently. Self-instructional training is apowerful strategy for training students withmental retardation to control their own workbehavior and to allow them to be less dependenton others. Such training promotes independenceand self-direction.

Self-instruction may facilitate generaliza-tion where external controls are notfeasible (e.g., competitive employment).Self-instruction permits people with mentalretardation to provide for themselves cuesor reinforcers that may not be consistentlydelivered by others.

Agran & Martin (1987)

Self-instructional training can also be used toincrease production rates. Students can be taughtto direct themselves to work faster or to producemore units or products. Such self-instructionswould, in effect, serve as "pacing prompts" andwould keep the students' attention on the task.

3023

After observing examples and nonexamplesof working slowly and working quickly, 4'employees with mental retardation weretaught to say, "I need to work faster," eachtime they were given a sorting task. Thework rates of all 4 participants increased.

Moore, Agran, Fodor-Davis (1989)

To prevent off-task behaviors and unnecessarypausing, teachers routinely cue students to "keepworking." By teaching students to cue themselvesby self-instructing, production rates will increaseas teacher dependency decreases.

We have described several modifications ofthe training package that will accommodate manystudents who have initial difficulties learning self-instructions. For example, you can combineinstructional packages with self-managementstrategies, deliver self-instruction training in agroup instructional format, or teach peers todeliver training to students. Additionally, studentswith limited expressive language can use alterna-tive and augmentative communication systems toexpress self-instructions. Even with modifications,however, some students may continue to have

24

problems with self-instructions. In these situa-tions, you may need to teach the skills directlywithout self-instructions to establish the desiredresponses. Then you can add self-instructions tomaintain the response. This simply involvestelling the students to remind themselves verballywhat to do prior to doing it. Such self-generatedverbal reminders may enhance response mainte-nance over time.

To be successful on the job, students must beable to perform in the absence of their trainers. Atrainer withdrawal that is too rapid may result ina loss of behavioral gains. On the other hand,withdrawal that occurs too slowly may makestudents dependent on teachers or supervisors.Learning self-instruction facilitates this transfer ofcontrol, giving students a means of replacingteacher cues with their own. Now they have ameans of working independently.

In summary, training students to use self-instruction helps students with mental retardationto acquire, maintain, and generalize workbehaviors. It provides them with strategies to self-manage and direct their own behavior, indepen-dent of manipulation by others. As they learnstrategies, they can use them to enhance theirindependent functioning across a wide range ofwork experiences.

31

Agran, M., Fodor-Davis, J., & Moore, S. (1986).The effects of self-instructional training onjob-task sequencing: Suggesting a problem-solving strategy. Education and Training ofthe Mentally Retarded, 21, 273-281.

Agran, M., Fodor-Davis, J., & Moore, S. (1992).The effects of peer-delivered self-instructionaltraining on a lunch-making work task forstudents with severe handicaps. Educationand Training in Mental Retardation, 27,230-240.

Agran, M., & Martella, R. (1991). Teaching self-instructional skills to persons with mentalretardation: A descriptive and experimentalanalysis. In M. Hersen, R. M. Eisler, & P. M.Miller (Eds.), Progress in behavior modifi-cation (Vol. 27, pp. 36-55). Newbury Park,CA: Sage.

Agran, M., & Martin, J. E. (1987). Applying atechnology of self-control in communityenvironments for individuals who arementally retarded. In M. Hersen, R. Eisley, &P. Miller (Eds.), Progress in behaviormodification (Vol. 21, pp. 108-151) .

Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Agran, M., Moore, S., Fodor-Davis, J., & Deer, M.(1989). The application of a self-manage-ment program on instruction-following skills.

Journal of the Association for Persons withSevere Handicaps, 14, 147-154.

Agran, M., Salzberg, C. L., & Stowitschek, J. J.(1987). An analysis of the effects of a social

ibliography

skills training program using self-instructionson the acquisition and generalization ofsocial behaviors in a work setting.Journal ofthe Association for Persons with SevereHandicaps, 12, 131-139.

Browder, D. M., & Shapiro, E. S. (1985). Applica-tions of self-management to individuals withsevere handicaps. Journal of the Associationfor Persons with Severe Handicaps, 10,200-208.

Harris, K. R., & Graham, S. (1985). Improvinglearning disabled students' compositionskills. Learning Disability Quarterly, 8, 27-36.

Hughes, C. (1991). Independent performanceamong individuals with mental retardation:Promoting generalization through self-instruction. In M. Hersen, R M. Eisler, & P.M. Miller (Eds.), Progress in behaviormodification (Vol. 27, pp. 7-35). NewburyPark, CA: Sage.

Hughes, C. (1992). Teaching self-instructionutilizing multiple exemplars to producegeneralized problem-solving by individualswith severe mental retardation. AmericanJournal on Mental Retardation, 97, 302-314.

Hughes, C., & Agran, M. (in press). Teachingpersons with severe disabilities to use self-instruction in community settings. Journal ofthe Association for Persons with SevereHandicaps.

3225

Hughes, C., & Petersen, D. (1989). Utilizing aself-instructional training package to increaseon-task behavior and work performance.Education and Training in Mental Retarda-tion, 24, 114-120.

Hughes, C., & Rusch, F. R. (1989). Teachingsupported employees with severe mentalretardation to solve problems. Journal ofApplied Behavior Analysis, 22, 365-372.

Meichenbaum, D., & Goodman, J. (1971).Training impulsive children to talk to them-selves: A means of developing self-control.Journal ofAbnormal Psychology, 77, 116-126.

Moore, S. C., Agran, M., & Fodor-Davis, J. (1989).Using self-management strategies to increasethe production rates of workers with severehandicaps. Education and Training inMental Retardation, 24, 324-332.

26

Rusch, E R., McKee, M., Chadsey-Rusch, J., &Renzaglia, A. (1988). Teaching a student withsevere handicaps to self-instruct: A briefreport. Education and Training in MentalRetardation, 23, 51-58.

Rusch, F. R., Morgan, T. K, Martin, J. E., Riva, M.,& Agran, M. (1985). Competitive employ-ment: Teaching mentally retarded employeesself-instructional strategies. Applied Re-search in Mental Retardation, 6, 389-407.

Salend, S. J., Ellis, L. L., & Reynolds, C. J. (1989).Using self-instruction to teach vocationalskills to individuals who are severely re-tarded. Education and Training in MentalRetardation, 24, 248-254.

Wacker, D. P., & Greenbaum, E T. (1984).Efficacy of a verbal training sequence on thesorting performance of moderately andseverely mentally retarded adolescents.American Journal ofMental Deficiency, 88,653-660.

33

Did-Next-NowTraining Script

Cleaning Patient RoomRationaleTrainer: We have been watching you clean

patient rooms. We like the way youwork. You always try to do the bestyou can. Sometimes you forget toclean all the important places in apatient room in the right order. Weare here to help you be a betterhousekeeper. We are going to helpyou remember to clean all theimportant places in a patient room inthe right order. It's important to doall the parts of your job here at thehospital, so that when you graduateyou can get a good job as a house-keeper.

Verbal InstructionTrainer: When you clean patient rooms, say

three things before you start. Tellyourself:(1) what you just finished doing;(2) what you need to do next;(3) what you are going to do nowIf you say these three things beforeyou start, you will remember to cleanall the important places in a patientroom in the right order.

ModelTrainer: I am going to show you how I

remember to begin cleaning a patientroom by saying three things out loud.Watch and listen carefully to what Isay and do.(1) I carried my bucket to the room.(2) I need to fill my bucket.(3) I'm going to fill my bucket now

(Trainer takes materials out of the bucket andfills bucket with water.)

Model-Imitation(Verbal-Motor Rehearsal)Trainer: Let's practice cleaning a patient room

together. We will remember to cleanall the important places in the rightorder by telling ourselves:(1) what we just finished doing;(2) what we need to do next;(3) what we are going to do nowWe will start from the beginning.Watch and listen carefully to what Isay and do; then it will be your turn.

(A) (1) I carried my bucket to the room.(2) I need to fill my bucket.(3) I'm going to fill my bucket now

(Trainer takes materials out of the bucket andfills bucket.)

Now it's your turn. Do everything Isaid and did.

(Student imitates the above verbal statements andperforms the task.)

3427

To correct verbal responses(Follow these outlined correction procedures:)

Trainer: (1st correction; added cue) I carriedmy buc . I need to fill my

. I'm going to

Student: Bucket, my bucket, fill my bucketnow

Trainer: (2nd correction; model-test) Icarried my bucket to the room. Ineed to fill my bucket. I'm going tofill my bucket now Now it's yourturn.

Student: I carried my bucket to the room. Ineed to fill my bucket. I'm going tofill my bucket now

Trainer: (3rd correction; model:lead-test) Icarried my bucket to the room. Ineed to fill my bucket. I'm going tofill my bucket now Say it with me.

Trainer and Student: I carried the bucket to theroom. I need to fill the bucket. I'mgoing to fill the bucket now

Trainer: Now it's your turn; say the wholething by yourself.

Student: I carried my bucket to the room. Ineed to fill my bucket. I'm going tofill my bucket now

(When verbal responses are consistently correct,instruct the student to perform the task, then goon to the next instruction.)

To reinforce(Follow these outlined reinforcement proce-dures:)

1. After every correct verbal response, reinforcethe response with a praise statement (e.g.,"Nice job," "Great," "Good work," "Excel-lent," "All right," "You got it").

28

2. Vary your verbal praise.

3. A pat on the back may occasionally be given.

Trainer: Again, watch and listen to what I sayand do.

(B) (1) I filled my bucket.(2) I need to empty the trash.(3) I'm going to empty the trash now

(Trainer visually inspects all trash receptacles inthe room and bathroom, takes liners out of trashreceptacles if they contain trash, carries them tothe housekeeping cart, and puts new trash linersin those receptacles emptied.)



To correct verbal responses(Follow these outlined correction procedures, seescript above.)

1st correction (added cue)

2nd correction (model-test)

3rd correction (model-lead-test)

(When verbal responses are consistently correct,instruct the student to perform the task, then goon to the next instruction.)

To correct motor responses(Follow the outlined correction procedures.)

1st correction (added cue)

2nd correction (model-test)

3rd correction (model-lead-test)

(When task responses are consistently correct, goon to the next instruction.)

To reinforce(Follow the outlined reinforcement procedures.)

1. After every correct verbal response, reinforce

35

with a praise statement (e.g., "Nice job,""Good work," "Excellent," "All right," "Yougot it").

2. Vary your verbal praise.

3. A pat on the back may occasionally be given.

Trainer: Watch and listen to what I say and doagain.

(C) (1) I emptied the trash.(2) I need to clean the patient bedtable.(3) I'm going to clean the patientbed table now

(Trainer carries the bucket to the patient bedtable, dips rag and wrings, and wipes the top,underneath the top, stand, base, and wheels ofbed table.)




(D) (1) I wiped the patient bed table.(2) I need to wipe the hall door.(3) I'm going to wipe the hall doornow

(Trainer picks up the bucket and carries to halldoor, dips rag and wrings, then dusts door edges,hall side, room side, and semicircle around dooredges.)




(E) (1) I wiped the hall door.(2) I need to wipe the light switch.

(3) I'm going to wipe the light switchnow

(Trainer dips rag and wrings, then wipes lightswitch.)



(Trainer corrects or reinforces after specifiedprocedures.)


(F) (1) I wiped the light switch.(2) I need to wipe the thermostat.(3) I'm going to wipe the thermostatnow

(Trainer wipes the thermostat.)





(G) (1) I wiped the thermostat.(2) I need to wipe the heat vents.(3) I'm going to wipe the heat ventsnow

(Trainer wipes both heat vents.)



(Trainer corrects or reinforces following speci-fied procedures.)

36 29


(H) (1) I wiped the heat vents.(2) I need to dust the light above themirror.(3) I'm going to dust the light abovethe mirror.

(Trainer takes dry rag from cleaning materialscart, then dusts light above mirror.)





(I) (1) I dusted the light above themirror.(2) I need to wipe the mirror.(3) I'm going to wipe the mirrornow

(Trainer wipes the mirror with the dry rag.)





(J) (1) I dusted the mirror.(2) I need to dust the shelf above thesink(3) I'm going to dust the shelf abovethe sink now

(Trainer dusts the shelf above the sink with thedry rag.)

30





(K) (1) I dusted the shelf above the sink.(2) I need to wipe the sink.(3) I'm going to wipe the sink now

(Trainer dips rag and wrings and wipes soapdispenser, sink fixtures, basin, underneath basin,and pipes.)





(L) (1) I wiped the sink(2) I need to wipe the nightstand.(3) I'm going to wipe the nightstandnow

(Trainer carries bucket to nightstand, dips ragand wrings, wipes top, front, and sides, thenwipes telephone base dial, body, receiver, receivercord, and wall cord.)





3?

(M) (1) I wiped the nightstand.(2) I need to dust the chairs.(3) I'm going to dust the chairs now

(Trainer takes dry rag, then dusts all chairs inroom backs, seats, sides.)





(N) (1) I dusted the chairs.(2) I need to dust the couch.(3) I'm going to dust the couch now

(Trainer takes dry rag, then dusts top, front, andsides.)





(0) (1) I dusted the couch.(2) I'm finished cleaning the patientroom.(3) I'm going to clean the bathroomnext; then I'm going to vacuum thepatient room.

(Trainer picks up the bucket and goes into thebathroom.)




(Trainer repeats the entire sequence, thenrequests the student to perform the entiresequence. Correct or reinforce after specifiedprocedures.)

ReviewTrainer: We have finished dusting a patient

room. We remembered to clean all ofthe important places in the rightorder by saying three things out loudjust before we began a new task.After you finish cleaning a patientroom, it's important to remember toclean the bathroom next, then tovacuum.

We have finished our lesson for theday. Before our lesson tomorrow, Iwant you to practice cleaning patientrooms just like we did today. Justbefore you start a new task, remem-ber to tell yourself three things:

(1) what you just finished doing;(2) what you need to do next;(3) what you are going to do now

38 31

Cleaning TablesRationaleTrainer: I have been watching you clean tables

and windows in the cafeteria. Youalways try to do the best you can.Sometimes you forget to do the tablesexactly the way they should be done.I'm going to help you do a better jobon the tables. Remember, you needto do a good job here so that you'llbe ready to work when you get a jobafter graduation.

Verbal InstructionTrainer: When you are told to do a job, you

need to remember to say two thingsjust before you start a new task. Youneed to tell yourself:

(1) what you just finished doing;(2) what you are going to do next.

If you remember to say these twothings every time you start a newtask, you will always remember to dothe job right.

ModelTrainer: I am going to show you how I remem-

ber to do the job right by saying twothings out loud. Watch and listencarefully to what I say and do.(1) I got the bucket.(2) I have to clean the table.

(Trainer proceeds to clean the table.)

id-NextTraining ScriptModel-Imitation(Verbal-Motor Rehearsal)Trainer: Let's practice doing this together.

Remember to say:(1) what we just finished doing;(2) what we need to do next.

We will start from the beginning.Watch and listen to what I do andsay; then it will be your turn.

(1) I got the bucket.(2) I have to clean the table.

(Trainer cleans the table.)

(Student imitates above responses.)

To correct verbal responsesTrainer: (Prompt) I got the

Student bucket. I got the bucket.

Trainer: I have to

Student: clean the table. I have to cleanthe table.

(If student responds incorrectly, model entireverbalization and have student repeat. Whenverbal responses are consistently correct, instructstudent to perform the task)

To correct motor responsesTrainer: (1) (Added cue) Remember, you

have to get the bucket.(2) (Model) Watch me get thebucket.

(Trainer performs response.)

(3) (Physical guidance) Let me help you.

39 33

(Trainer guides student through the task)

(When responses are consistently correct, go tothe next task sequence.)

(Trainer, provide verbal praise for correctresponses for both the verbal response and thetask response.)

(The same procedures are used for each task inthe sequence.)

34

ReviewTrainer: You have just finished cleaning the

table. You remembered to say thetwo things that help you do the tablecorrectly. After you were told to cleanthe table, you said, "I have to cleanthe table. I need to get my bucket."Then you said . . . (go through entiretask sequence). We have finished ourlesson for today.

Remember, every time you are told todo something, you can do it correctlyif you say what you just did and whatyou are going to do next.

Making a SandwichRationaleTrainer: You are here learning to be a kitchen

worker. Making sack lunches is oneof the important jobs you will belearning. Sometimes when you makesack lunches, you may forget to dothings in the right order. It's impor-tant to do all of your jobs herecorrectly so that when you leave youcan get a good job as a kitchenworker.

Verbal InstructionTrainer: When you are making sack lunches

and a customer comes up to order,the fast thing you need to say is,"Hello, can I take your order?" Afterthe customer tells you what he or shewants, you can remember to makethe lunch in the right way by tellingyourself:(1)what you just did;(2)what you need to do next.

Then, you ask the customer:(3)What kind do they want?(4)Do they want anything else?

ModelTrainer: Let's practice making a sandwich.

Remember to say what I say. I amgoing to show you how I rememberto make a sack lunch in the right

nteractiveTraining Script

way. is going to be thecustomer. Watch and listen carefullyto what I say and do. Then it will beyour turn.

Model-Imitation(Customer comes up to the counter. Trainermakes eye contact while addressing customer.)

Trainer: (A) Can I help you?

Customer: I would like to order a sandwich togo.

Trainer: (B) Bread first. (Self-directed)

What kind of bread? (Interactive)

Customer: Rye bread.

Trainer: Rye. (Self-directed)

(Trainer opens bread container, selects two slicesof the rye bread, and lays them on the counterside by side.)

Trainer: I just showed you how to rememberthe first step when making a sacklunch. Now it's your turn. Do and sayeverything I did. will be thecustomer.

(Customer comes up to counter.)

Student: Hello. Can I help you?

(Customer gives order.)

Student: Bread first. (Self-directed)

What kind of bread? (Interactive)

Customer: Rye.

Student: Rye. (Self-directed)

41 35

(Student opens bread container, selects two slicesof the rye bread, and lays them on the counterside by side.)

To correct verbal and taskresponses(If the student makes an error, tell the student tostop. Model the response and have the studentperform the step again.)

(If the student does not respond, prompt thestudent. If an error occurs, model the response.If the task is performed correctly, provide verbalpraise as directed in appendix A. If the studentcontinues not to respond, repeat the previousmodel sequence.)

To reinforce verbal and taskresponses(Praise every correct set of verbal responses.)

Example: You said that just right!

(Praise every correct task response.)

Example: Great, you selected the right kind ofbread.

Trainer: Watch and listen again. Then it willbe your turn.

(C) Did bread. (Self-directed)

Spread next. (Self-directed)

What spread? (Interactive)

Customer: Mustard.

Trainer: Mustard. (Self-directed)

(Trainer fills the measuring spoon with mustardto the brim, empties the spoon out on one slice ofbread, and spreads it out to cover the entiresurface.)

Trainer: Another spread? (Interactive)

Customer: Mayonnaise.

Trainer: Mayonnaise. (Self-directed)

36

(Trainer fills the measuring spoon to the brimwith mayonnaise, empties the spoon out on theother slice of bread, and spreads it out to coverthe entire surface.)

Trainer: Another spread? (Interactive)

Customer: No, thank you.

Trainer: No. (Self-directed)

Now it's your turn. Do and sayeverything I did.

Student: Did bread. (Self-directed)

Spread next. (Self-directed)

What kind of spread? (Interactive)

Customer: Mustard.

Student: Mustard. (Self-directed)

(Student fills the measuring spoon tothe brim with mustard, empties thespoon on one slice of bread, andspreads it out to cover the entiresurface.)

Student: Another spread? (Interactive)


Student: Mayonnaise. (Self-directed)

(Student fills the measuring spoon tothe brim with mayonnaise, emptiesthe spoon on the other slice of bread,and spreads it out to cover the entiresurface.)

Another spread? (Interactive)Student:


Student:

Trainer:

42

No. (Self-directed)

Watch and listen again. Then it willbe your turn.

(D) Did spread. (Self-directed)

Extras next. (Self-directed)

What extras? (Interactive)

Customer: Lettuce.

Trainer: Lettuce. (Self-directed)

(Trainer takes a handful of lettuce from containerand places it on one slice of bread.)

Trainer: Another extra? (Interactive)

Customer: Pickles.

Trainer: Pickles. (Self-directed)

(Trainer selects two pickle pieces and placesthem on top of the lettuce.)

Trainer: Another extra? (Interactive)




Student Did spread. (Self-directed)


What kind of extras? (Interactive)

Customer: Lettuce.

Student Lettuce. (Self-directed)

(Student takes a handful of lettuce from containerand places it on one slice of bread.)

Student Another extra? (Interactive)

Customer: Pickles.

Student Pickles. (Self-directed)

(Student selects two pickle pieces and placesthem on top of the lettuce.)



Student No. (Self-directed)


(E) Did extras. (Self-directed)

Meat next. (Self-directed)

What kind of meat? (Interactive)

Customer: Turkey.

Trainer: flukey. (Self-directed)

(Trainer places one portion of turkey on slice ofbread without the extras.)

Trainer: Another meat? (Interactive)




Student: Did extras. (Self-directed)



Customer: Turkey.

Student Turkey. (Self-directed)

(Student places one portion of turkey on slice ofbread without the extras.)

Student Another meat? (Interactive)




(F) Did meat. (Self-directed)

Cheese next. (Self-directed)

What kind of cheese? (Interactive)

Customer: Swiss.

Trainer: Swiss. (Self-directed)

(Trainer places one piece of Swiss cheese on topof turkey.)

Trainer: Another cheese? (Interactive)




43 37

Student Did meat. (Self-directed)



Customer: Swiss.

Student Swiss. (Self-directed)

(Trainer places one piece of Swiss cheese on topof turkey.)

Student: Another cheese? (Interactive)




(G) Did cheese. (Self-directed)

Wrap sandwich next. (Self-directed)

(Trainer places sandwich in plastic bag.)

Trainer: Now it's your turn. Do and sayeverything I did.

Student: Did cheese. (Self-directed)


(Student places sandwich in plastic bag.)


(H) Did wrap. (Self-directed)

Drink next. (Self-directed)

What kind of drink? (Interactive)

Customer: Tab.

Trainer: Tab in sack (Self-directed)

(Trainer places Tab can in open sack.)


Student Did wrap. (Self-directed)



Customer: Tab.

38

Student: Tab in sack. (Self-directed)

(Student places Tab can in open sack)


(I) Did drink. (Self-directed)

Sandwich next. (Self-directed)

Sandwich in sack. (Self-directed)

(Trainer places sandwich in open sack)


Student: Did drink (Self-directed)


Sandwich in sack. (Self-directed)

(Student places sandwich in open sack.)

Trainer: Watched listen again. Then it willbe your turn.

0) Did sandwich. (Self-directed)

Chips next. (Self-directed)

What kind of chips? (Interactive)

Customer: Doritos.

Trainer: Doritos in sack. (Self-directed)

(Trainer places Doritos in open sack.)


Student: Did sandwich. (Self-directed)



Customer: Doritos.

Student Doritos in sack (Self-directed)

(Student places Doritos in open sack)

Trainer: Watch and listen. Then it will be your

44

turn.

(K) Did chips. (Self-directed)

Cookie next. (Self-directed)

What kind of cookie? (Interactive)

Customer: None, thank you.

Trainer: No cookie. (Self-directed)


Student Did chips. (Self-directed)




Student: No cookie. (Self-directed)


(L) Did cookie. (Self-directed)

Napkin next. (Self-directed)

Napkin in sack (Self-directed)

(Trainer folds napkin in half and places in opensack.)


Did cookie. (Self-directed)


Napkin in sack (Self-directed)

(Student folds napkin in half and places in opensack.)

Trainer:

Student

Watch and listen again. Then it willbe your turn.

(M) Will there be anything else?(Interactive)



Will there be anything else? (Interac-tive)


Student

Trainer: Watch and listen again. Then it will beyour turn.

(N) Fold sack next. (Self-directed)

Thank you. Come again. (Interactive)

(Trainer folds sack twice, makes eye contact, andhands the customer the sack)


Student Fold sack next. (Self-directed)

Thank you. Come again. (Interactive)

(Student folds sack twice, makes eye contact, andhands the customer the sack)

ReviewTrainer: You know how to make a sack lunch

in the right order by telling yourselfwhat you just did and what comesnext. You know how to get the orderright by asking customers to namewhat they want. Now I want you topractice making a sack lunch byyourself. Remember to remindyourself what you just did and whatcomes next, then ask the customerwhat she wants willbe the customer again. Get ready.

Student (A) Hello. Can I help you?

(Customer gives order.)

Student Bread first. (Self-directed)

(B) What kind of bread? (Interactive)

Customer: Rye.

Student Rye. (Self-directed)

(Student opens bread container, selects two slicesof the rye bread, and lays them on the counter sideby side.)

Student Did bread. (Self-directed)

(C) Spread next. (Self-directed)

45 39

What kind of spread? (Interactive)

Customer: Mustard.

Student Mustard. (Self-directed)

(Student fills the measuring spoon with mustardto the brim, empties the spoon on one slice ofbread, and spreads it out to cover the entiresurface.)

Student Another spread? (Interactive)


Student Mayonnaise. (Self-directed)

(Student fills the measuring spoon with mayon-naise to the brim, empties the spoon on the otherslice of bread, and spreads it out to cover theentire surface.)

Student Another spread? (Interactive)



(D) Did spread. (Self-directed)


What kind of extras? (Interactive)

Customer: Lettuce.

Student Lettuce. (Self-directed)

(Student takes a handful of lettuce from containerand places it on one slice of bread.)




(E) Did extra. (Self-directed)



Customer: Turkey.

Student Turkey. (Self-directed)

(Student places one portion of turkey on slice ofbread without extras.)

40

Student Another meat? (Interactive)



(F) Did meat. (Self-directed)



Customer: Swiss.

Student: Swiss. (Self-directed)

(Student places one piece of Swiss cheese on topof turkey.)

Student Another cheese? (Interactive)



(G) Did cheese. (Self-directed)


(Student places sandwich in plastic bag.)

(H) Did wrap. (Self-directed)



Customer: Tab.

Student Tab in sack (Self-directed)

(Student places Tab can in open sack.)

(I) Did drink. (Self-directed)


Sandwich in sack (Self-directed)

(Student places sandwich in open sack.)

(0 Did sandwich. (Self-directed)



Customer: Doritos.

Student Doritos in sack. (Self-directed)

(Student places Doritos in open sack.)

46

(K) Did chips. (Self-directed)




Student: No cookie. (Self-directed)

(L) Did cookie. (Self-directed)


Napkin in sack. (Self-directed)

(Student folds napkin in half and places in opensack.)

(M) Will there be anything else?(Interactive)


Student: Fold sack next. (Self-directed)

(N) Thank you. Come again. (Inter-active)

(Student folds sack twice, makes eye contact, andhands customer the sack)

To correct verbal andtask response(If the student makes an error, tell the student tostop. Model the response and have the studentimitate the step again.)

(If the student does not respond, prompt thestudent to proceed. If an error occurs, model theresponse. If the task is performed correctly,provide verbal praise as directed. If the studentcontinues not to respond, repeat the previousmodel sequence.)

To reinforce verbal andtask responses(Praise every correct set of verbal responses.)

Example: You said that just right!

(Praise every correct task response.)

Example: Great, you selected the right kind ofbread.

Trainer: You have done a great job makingsack lunches in the right order.Remember, when you are makingsack lunches and a customer comesup to order, the first thing you needto say is, "Hello. Can I take yourorder?" After the customer tells youwhat he or she wants, you canremember to make the lunch theright way by first reminding yourselfwhat you should do next, then askingthe customer what he wants again.

It's important to do all of your jobshere the best you can, so that whenyou leave, you can get a good job as akitchen worker.

4741

APPENDIX D glJroup self-

Training ScriptUnloading a Truck

RationaleTrainer: I have been watching you unloading

the truck (e.g., UPS vehicle). All ofyou try to do the best you can, butsometimes you load boxes incorrectly.I'm going to help you do a better job.First, I am going to show you how tobest unload a truck. Then I will askeach of you to do it. Remember, youneed to do a good job here so thatyou'll be ready to work when you geta job after graduation.

Verbal InstructionTrainer: When you are told to do a job, you

need to remember to say two thingsjust before you start a new task. Youneed to tell yourself:(1) what you just finished doing;(2) what you are going to do next.

If you remember to say these twothings every time you start a newtask, you will always remember to dothe job right.

ModelTrainer: I am going to show you how I remem-

ber to do the job right by saying twothings out loud. Watch and listencarefully to what I say and do.

(1) I rolled the dolly onto the truck.(2) I need to bend my knees andplace the top box on the dolly.

(Trainer picks up the box on top, and places boxon dolly.)

Model-Imitation(Verbal-Motor Rehearsal)Trainer: Let's practice doing this one at a

time. Watch me and [student's name]perform the task. Remember to saytwo things:(1) what you just finished doing;(2) what you need to do next.

Watch and listen to what I do and say,then it will be your turn to say justwhat I said.

(1) I rolled the dolly onto the truck.(2) I need to bend my knees andplace the top box on the dolly.

(Trainer and Student 1 each pick up a box ontop, and place on dolly after repeating theverbalization.)

(If Student 1 responds correctly, the trainer saysto the group: "[Student's name] said what he justfinished doing, then said what he needed to donext. After this, he picked up the box and placedit on the dolly. When it is your turn, remember todo this.")

43 43

(If Student 1 responds incorrectly, the trainerasks members of the group what Student 1 didn'tdo. Then the trainer says, "Remember, you needto say what you just finished doing, then what youneed to do next. After you say these two things, youpick up the box on top and place it on the dolly.")

To correct verbal responses(Follow these outlined correction procedures:)

Trainer: (Prompt) I rolled

Student the dolly onto the truck.

Trainer: I need to bend

Student my knees and place box on dolly.

(If student responds incorrectly, model entireverbalization and have student repeat. Whenverbal responses are consistently correct, instructstudents to perform the task)

(Give verbal praise for correct verbal responses.)

(The same procedures are used for each task inthe sequence.)

44

(After Student 1 performs the task, each of theremaining students performs the task)

ReviewTrainer: We have just finished unloading the

top boxes. We remembered to saythe two things that help us unload theboxes correctly. After you said youhad rolled the dolly onto the truck,you said, "I need to bend my kneesand place the top box on dolly." Thenyou said . . . (go through entire tasksequence). We have finished ourlesson for today.

Remember, every time you are told todo something, you can do it correctlyif you say what you just did and whatyou are going to do next.

Information contained in this publication was supported by Grant #6008530051 from theU.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs, Secondary Educationand Transitional Services for Handicapped Youth. Points of view or opinions stated do notnecessarily represent U.S. Department of Education position or policy.

49

About the AuthorsDR. MARTIN AGRAN is an associate professor in the Department of SpecialEducation, Utah State University. He coordinates the Severe Disabilities PersonnelPreparation Program. He was a Fulbright Scholar to Czechoslovakia, 1990-91. Hisresearch interests include transition and employment preparation, self-management,the education of students with severe disabilities, and psychopharmacology. At presenthe is directing a federally funded grant on teaching work safety skills to people withmental retardation.

DR. STEPHEN MOORE is assistant director of the Nevada Affiliated Program inDevelopmental Disabilities at the University of Nevada, Reno. His academic interestscenter around transition and employment issues for people with severe disabilities,including consumer choice issues, behavior management, organizational behavior, andteacher preparation. His recent activities include statewide preparation of paraprofes-sional and service provider agencies in supported and competitive employment forpeople with mental retardation.

Innovations Editorial PolicyWould you like to write for Innovations?

The Editorial Board of the Innovations series invites contributions that translateresearch into practice that will improve the lives of people with mental retardation.Potential contributors should submit a letter of interest and outline with description forthe proposed edition or a draft manuscript (e.g., grant dissemination manual).All proposals and manuscripts undergo a peer review process which considers boththe quality of writing and significance of the topic. Manuscripts must be based onempirical studies published in peer reviewed journals. (These studies may be the workof the contributors or others.) The manuscript should be written directly to practition-ers and incorporate chapters, case studies, and examples. Accepted manuscripts areedited for practitioner appeal. Send proposals to: Diane Browder, Editor, Innovations,Lehigh University, 219A Iacocca Hall, Bethlehem, PA 18015.

Innovations Editorial BoardDiane Browder, Editor

Lehigh University

Martin AgranUtah State University

Linda BambaraLehigh University

Luanna MeyerSyracuse University

51

Guest ReviewerKarena Cooper

LCEASD ServicesLehigh University

AAVIRAmerican Association on Mental Retardation

444 North Capitol Street, NW, Suite 846, Washington, D.C. 20001

Jr

Ei

(9/92)

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