december 30, 2009 life cycle assessment of u ... - corrugated
TRANSCRIPT
December30,2009
LifeCycleAssessmentof
U.S.Industry‐AverageCorrugatedProduct
FinalReport
Preparedfor:
CorrugatedPackagingAlliance
ajointinitiativeofthe
AmericanForest&PaperAssociation
FibreBoxAssociation
AssociationofIndependentCorrugatedConverters
Preparedby:
PEAmericas
andFiveWindsInternational
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TABLEOFCONTENTS
TABLEOFCONTENTS ................................................................................................................................2
LISTOFFIGURES .......................................................................................................................................4
LISTOFTABLES .........................................................................................................................................6
ACRONYMS ..............................................................................................................................................7
EXECUTIVESUMMARY..............................................................................................................................9
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................20
1 GOALOFTHESTUDY..............................................................................................................22
2 SCOPE....................................................................................................................................23
2.1 SYSTEMDESCRIPTIONOVERVIEW............................................................................................................. 23
2.2 FUNCTIONALUNIT ................................................................................................................................. 24
2.3 PRODUCTSYSTEM(S)BOUNDARIES .......................................................................................................... 24
2.3.1 TechnologicalCoverage ................................................................................................................ 27
2.3.2 GeographicalCoverage................................................................................................................. 27
2.3.3 TimeCoverage ............................................................................................................................... 28
2.4 LIFECYCLEIMPACTASSESSMENTMETHODOLOGY&IMPACTCATEGORIESCONSIDERED.................................. 28
2.5 DATACOLLECTIONANDDATASOURCES.................................................................................................... 30
2.5.1 DataSources .................................................................................................................................. 30
2.5.2 DataCollection .............................................................................................................................. 31
2.5.3 Allocation ....................................................................................................................................... 32
2.5.4 Cut‐offCriteria ............................................................................................................................... 32
2.5.5 DataQualityRequirements .......................................................................................................... 33
2.6 CRITICALREVIEW ................................................................................................................................... 34
3 MODELSTRUCTUREANDDATACOLLECTION.........................................................................36
3.1 WOODFIBERPRODUCTION(FORESTRY) ................................................................................................... 36
3.2 OVERVIEWOFCONTAINERBOARDPRODUCTION......................................................................................... 36
3.2.1 Pulpingofprimaryfibers............................................................................................................... 36
3.2.2 Pulpingofrecoveredfibers ........................................................................................................... 37
3.3 CONVERTINGPLANTS ............................................................................................................................. 39
3.4 RECOVERYANDEND‐OF‐LIFE................................................................................................................... 41
3.4.1 Closed‐looprecyclingapproach.................................................................................................... 42
4 RESULTS ................................................................................................................................45
4.1 LIFECYCLEINVENTORY............................................................................................................................ 45
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4.1.1 Inventoryof1kgaveragecorrugatedproduct ........................................................................... 45
4.1.2 Biogeniccarbonconsiderationsfor1kgcontainerboard........................................................... 48
4.1.3 Energyresourcesusedfor1kgcorrugatedproduct ................................................................... 50
4.2 IMPACTRESULTSANDPRIMARYENERGYDEMAND ...................................................................................... 51
4.2.1 Resultsovertotallifecycle ........................................................................................................... 51
4.2.2 Resultsof1kgofContainerboard................................................................................................ 59
5 SENSITIVITYANALYSIS ...........................................................................................................61
5.1 INFLUENCEOFEOLONLIFE‐CYCLEPERFORMANCE...................................................................................... 61
5.2 INFLUENCEOFTRANSPORTATIONOFFINALPRODUCT .................................................................................. 64
6 CONCLUSIONS .......................................................................................................................70
APPENDIXA:BIOGENICBASEDCARBONBALANCEOFCONTAINERBOARDMILLS...................................72
APPENDIXB:LCARESULTS–CML ...........................................................................................................73
APPENDIXC:GATE‐TO‐GATEINVENTORY ...............................................................................................79
APPENDIXD:CRADLE‐TO‐GATEINVENTORYANDLCIARESULTSOF1KGCORRUGATEDPRODUCT ........80
APPENDIXE:CRADLE‐TO‐CRADLEINVENTORY .......................................................................................93
APPENDIXF:THECRITICALREVIEWPANELREPORT..............................................................................104
APPENDIXG:IMPACTINDICATORS.......................................................................................................110
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LISTOFFIGURES
Figure1.SystemScopeandLife‐CyclePhasesforU.S.averagecorrugatedproduct .................... 25
Figure2.ContainerboardProductionProcess .................................................................................. 37
Figure3.QualitativemassflowmodelofEoLsituationofoldcorrugatedproducts ..................... 41
Figure4.Exemplarymassflowofclosed‐loopapproach................................................................. 43
Figure5.MassflowofEnd‐of‐Lifemodel.......................................................................................... 44
Figure6.GHGemissions(inCO2‐equiv.)andCO2uptakeof1kgofaveragecontainerboard..... 49
Figure7.Shareoflife‐cyclestagesperimpactcategoryplusPrimaryEnergyDemand(PE)for1kgofcorrugatedproduct ................................................................................................... 52
Figure8.PrimaryEnergyDemand(inMJ)‐non‐renewable(fossil)–1kgproductoverlifecycle......................................................................................................................................... 54
Figure9.GlobalWarmingPotential(inkgCO2‐equiv.)–1kgproductoverlifecycle ................... 55
Figure10.EutrophicationPotential(TRACI,inN‐equiv.)‐1kgproductoverlifecycle................. 56
Figure11.AcidificationPotential(TRACI,inmolH+‐equiv.)‐1kgproductoverlifecycle ........... 57
Figure12.POCP/SmogPotential(TRACI,inkgNOx‐equiv.)‐1kgproductoverlifecycle........... 58
Figure13.PrimaryEnergyDemand(non‐renewable(fossil)energyresources,inMJ)–1kgofpaperinputtoconvertingplant.................................................................................... 60
Figure14.InfluenceofdifferentEoLscenarios–GWP(inkgCO2‐equiv.),absolutevalues.......... 62
Figure15.InfluenceofdifferentEoLscenarios–GWP(inkgCO2‐equiv.),relativegraph ............ 63
Figure16.InfluenceoftransportdistancesonoverallLCIforPE(non‐renewable,inMJ)............ 65
Figure17.InfluenceoftransportdistancesonoverallLCIforGWP(inCO2‐equiv.) ...................... 66
Figure18.InfluenceoftransportdistancesonoverallLCIforPOCP/Smog(TRACI,inNOx‐equiv.)......................................................................................................................................... 67
Figure19.InfluenceoftransportdistancesonoverallLCIforAP(TRACI,inmolH+‐equiv.) ........ 68
Figure20.InfluenceoftransportdistancesonoverallLCIforEP(TRACI,inN‐equiv.) .................. 69
Figure21.Shareofdifferentlife‐cyclestagesperimpactcategoryplusPrimaryEnergyDemand–non‐renewableforof1kgofcorrugatedproduct ...................................................... 74
Figure22.PrimaryEnergyDemand(inMJ)‐non‐renewable(fossil)energyresources–1kgcorrugatedproductoverlifecycle................................................................................ 75
Figure23.CML‐EutrophicationPotential(inkgPhosphate‐equiv.)‐1kgproductoverlifecycle......................................................................................................................................... 76
Figure24.CML‐AcidificationPotential(inkgSO2‐equiv.)‐1kgproductoverlifecycle.............. 77
Figure25.CML‐POCP(inkgEthene‐equiv.)‐1kgproductoverlifecycle.................................... 78
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Figure26.PrimaryEnergyDemand(inMJ)‐non‐renewable(fossil)energyresources–1kgcradletogatecorrugatedproduct ............................................................................... 80
Figure27.GlobalwarmingPotential(GWP)–1kgcradletogatecorrugatedproduct ................ 81
Figure28.TRACIEutrophicationpotential–1kgcradletogatecorrugatedproduct................... 81
Figure29.TRACIAcidificationpotential–1kgcradletogatecorrugatedproduct ....................... 82
Figure30.TRACI–Smogpotential–1kgcradletogatecorrugatedproduct................................ 82
Figure31.Greenhouseeffect........................................................................................................... 111
Figure32.AcidificationPotential ..................................................................................................... 111
Figure33.EutrophicationPotential ................................................................................................. 112
Figure34.PhotochemicalOzoneCreationPotential...................................................................... 113
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LISTOFTABLES
Table1.Summaryofsystemboundaries .......................................................................................... 26
Table2.Transportdistancesandmodes........................................................................................... 27
Table3.SelectedImpactCategories.................................................................................................. 29
Table4.Materialinputfor1kgcorrugatedmanufacturing(1.11kgofcontainerboard) ............. 39
Table5.Materialinputformanufacturingof1kgofcorrugatedproductatconvertingplant .... 40
Table6.Inventoryofaveragemillfor1.11kgofcontainerboardproduct(gate‐to‐gate) ............ 46
Table7.Inventoryofaverageconvertingplantfor1kgofcorrugatedproduct(gate‐to‐gate) ... 47
Table8.Energyresourcesusedformanufacturingof1kgcorrugatedproduct............................ 50
Table9.EnvironmentalimpactplusPrimaryEnergyDemand(PE)perspecificlife‐cyclestageof1kgofcorrugatedproduct............................................................................................... 52
Table10.GWPandnonrenewableenergyresourcesusedfor1kgofcontainerboard ............... 59
Table11.Balanceofbiogenicbasedcarbonthroughcontainerboardmill .................................... 72
Table12.EnvironmentalimpactplusPrimaryEnergyDemand(PE)perspecificlife‐cyclestageof1kgofcorrugatedproduct ........................................................................................... 73
Table13.Cradle‐to‐gateinventory–1kgcorrugatedproduct ....................................................... 83
Table14.Cradletocradleinventory–1kgofcorrugatedproduct ................................................ 93
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ACRONYMS
• AF&PA AmericanForest&PaperAssociation
• AICC AssociationofIndependentCorrugatedConverters
• AP AcidificationPotential
• BOD5 5‐dayBiochemicalOxygenDemand
• CML CentreofEnvironmentalScienceatLeiden
• CORRIM ConsortiumforResearchonRenewableIndustrialMaterials
• CPA CorrugatedPackagingAlliance
• EoL End‐of‐Life
• EP EutrophicationPotential
• EPA UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency
• FBA FibreBoxAssociation
• GaBi GanzheitlicheBilanzierung(Germanforholisticbalancing)
• GHG GreenhouseGas
• GWP GlobalWarmingPotential
• ISO InternationalOrganizationforStandardization
• LCA LifeCycleAssessment
• LCI LifeCycleInventory
• LCIA LifeCycleImpactAssessment
• MJ Megajoule(energyunit)
• mm Millionmetric
• MP MixedPaper
• NCASI NationalCouncilforAirandStreamImprovement,Inc.
• NMVOC Non‐methanevolatileorganiccompound
• OCC OldCorrugatedContainer(s)
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• ODP OzoneDepletePotential
• ONP OldNewspaper
• PE PrimaryEnergyDemand
• PEA PEAmericas
• PNW PacificNorthwest
• POCP PhotochemicalOzoneCreationPotential
• SE U.S.Southeast
• TRACI ToolsfortheReductionandAssessmentofChemicalandOtherEnvironmentalImpacts
• TSS TotalSuspendedSolids
• USGS UnitedStatesGeologicalSurvey
• VOC Volatileorganiccompound
• WRI WorldResourcesInstitute
• WBCSD WorldBusinessCouncilforSustainableDevelopment
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EXECUTIVESUMMARY
Thegoalof this studywas toconductaLifeCycleAssessment (LCA) foraU.S. industry‐averagecorru‐
gatedproduct.TheLCAwascompletedto(1)betterunderstandtheenvironmentalperformanceofanaveragecorrugatedproductrelatedtoalllife‐cyclestages;(2)promotecontinuousimprovementoftheenvironmental sustainability performance of corrugated products as packaging material; and (3) re‐
spondtocustomerandpublicrequestsforenvironmentalinformation.
LifeCycleAssessmentisastandardizedscientificmethodforsystematicanalysisofflows(e.g.massandenergy)associatedwiththelifecycleofaspecificproduct,technology,serviceormanufacturingprocesssystem.Inthecaseofaproductsystem,thelifecycleincludesrawmaterialsacquisition,manufacturing,
useandEnd‐of‐Life(EoL)management.AccordingtotheInternationalOrganizationforStandardization(ISO)14040/44standards,anLCAstudyconsistsoffourphases:(1)goalandscope(frameworkandob‐jectiveofthestudy);(2)LifeCycleInventory(input/outputanalysisofmassandenergyflowsfromop‐
erationsalongtheproduct’svaluechain);(3)LifeCycleImpactAssessment(evaluationofenvironmentalrelevance,e.g.globalwarmingpotential);and(4)interpretation(e.g.optimizationpotential).
Thestudyintendstoprovideusefulperspectivefordifferentstakeholdergroups,suchasthecorrugatedindustry, consumers, retailers,packagingspecifiersandbuyers,waste recyclers, governmentagencies,
non‐governmentalorganizations,LCApractitioners,andmedia.Thisstudyisnotacomparativestudyinandof itself;however, itmay enable future comparativestudies.Other studieswillneed toemployafunctionalunitconsistentwiththegoalandscopeofthisstudy,andcanachievespecificresultsbyscal‐
ingtheinputandoutputdataappropriately.
Thescopeofthestudywastodevelopa“cradle‐to‐cradle”LifeCycleAssessmentofthe2006U.S.indus‐try‐averagecorrugatedproduct.
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SystemScopeandLife‐CyclePhasesforU.S.AverageCorrugatedContainer
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Thefunctionalunit(basisforcomparison)usedinthisstudyis:OnekilogramofU.S.averagecorrugatedproduct.
ModelingApproach
TheLCAmodelisbrokenintofourprimarylife‐cyclestages:
• Containerboard:Productionofthecontainerboard(linerandmedium).Thisincludesvirginfiber
production, transportationfromforesttomillandmill toconvertingplant,recycledinput,andenergiesandchemicalsneededduringmilloperation.Thefollowingaveragetransportationdis‐tancesforinboundtransportationforvirginfiberareassumed:225milesbytrain,150milesby
shipand50milesbytruck1.
• Convertingplant:Allimpactsassociatedwitheffortsneededforconverting.Thisincludesener‐gies, chemicals, glue, starch, inks, etc., andhandling ofwaste streams. The following averagetransportationdistancesforinboundtransportationforcontainerboardareassumed:850miles
bytrainand500milesbytruck.
• Transportofproduct:Thispart isrepresentativefor the transportationofthefinalcorrugatedproduct(1,000milespertruck).
• EoLproduct:EoLcoverstheeffortsandimpactsfor landfilloperationsandincineration.47.5%oftherecoveredlandfillgas(methane)isflaredonsite.Nocombustionemissionshavebeenas‐
signedtorecoveredlandfillgas,whichisusedasaproduct.
DataSources
• The study used primary data for containerboard mills and converting plants, and existingdatasets to model the environmental emissions of fiber production, transportation, recoveryprocesses,End‐of‐Lifeandancillaryprocesses.Whereverpossible,thisstudyisbasedonprimary
datacollectedfromCorrugatedPackagingAlliance(CPA)membercompaniesand theirrespec‐tiveproductionsites. Incaseswhereprimarydatawasnotavailable, secondarydataobtained
fromliterature,previousLCIstudies,andlife‐cycledatabaseswasusedfortheanalysis.
• FiberproductionprocessesweremodeledaspertheConsortiumforResearchonRenewableIn‐dustrialMaterials’CORRIMIIstudyofU.S.PacificNorthwestandSoutheastforestryoperations.PulpandpaperinputdatawassourcedfromFisherInternational;milloutputdataisbasedona
semi‐annual industry survey conducted by the American Forest & Paper Association (AF&PA)andtheNationalCouncil forAirandStreamImprovement(NCASI).Dataforthisportionofthestudyincludes53containerboardmillsrepresenting29millionmetrictonsperyear,nearly90%
1Informationonaveragetransportdistanceswasprovidedbyanddiscussedwiththeparticipat‐ingmembercompanies.Valuesmentionedareagreednumbers.
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ofthe2006productionvolume.ConvertingplantsweresurveyedbytheFibreBoxAssociation(FBA).Thestudyincludesdatafrom162convertingplantsrepresenting9.6millionmetric(mm)
tonsperyear,approximately45%ofproductionvolume.Theseplantsincludeasampleofcom‐pletecorrugatingplants, sheet feedersandsheetplantsproducingawidearrayofcorrugatedproducts.Howevertheconsideredconvertingplantsrepresentthecurrentstateoftheartand
thereforecanbe considered representativeof the industry.TheLCAmodelwascreatedusingtheGaBi4softwaresystemforLifeCycleAssessment,developedbyPEINTERNATIONAL.Theda‐tabasescontained intheGaBisoftwareprovidetheLCIdatafortherawandprocessmaterials
usedinthebackgroundsystem.
• End‐of‐LifeismodeledusingAF&PAandU.S.EPAstatistics.It isassumedthat78%ofthe2006corrugatedproductwasrecoveredforadditionalusewhiletheremaining22%wasdisposed inthe2006averageU.S.municipalsolidwastesystem.Thissystemincludes18.5%ofdisposedcor‐
rugated(=approximately4%ofoverall)goingtoincinerationforenergyrecovery.Ofthecorru‐gated containers landfilled, 55% (as measured by carbon content) are sequestered for morethan100years2.Carboncontentthatisnotsequesteredforlongerthan100yearsisassumedto
degradeunderaerobicandanaerobicconditions;thecarbonisconvertedintoCO2andCH4.OftheCH4 from landfill gas, it isassumedthat59% is capturedandcombusted forenergy recov‐ery3.
2The“100year”referenceiscommonlyacceptedpracticebyLCApractitioners.Itisalsousedby
theWRI.3ForamoredetaileddescriptionoftheEoLparameterspleaseseethe2006EPAreport“Solid
WasteManagementandGreenhouseGases–ALife‐CycleAssessmentofEmissionsandSinks”[EPA2006]
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CriticalReview
ThisstudyhasbeenconductedwiththeparticipationofaCriticalReviewPaneltoensurethatitiscom‐pletedtotherequirementsof ISO14040seriesstandardsandindustrybestpractices.AthenaSustain‐
ableMaterials Institutewascommissionedto leadthecriticalreview inaccordancewithISO14040/44(2006),incollaborationwithco‐reviewers.Thereviewpanelcomprisedthefollowingexperts:Mr.JamieMeil,Athena Institute;Ms.MarthaStevenson,privateconsultant;Dr.MichaelDeru,U.S.National Re‐
newableEnergyLaboratory;Dr.JimWilson,OregonStateUniversity;andDr.LinditaBushi,AthenaInsti‐tute.
ImpactAssessmentResults
LifeCycleImpactAssessment(LCIA)resultswerecalculatedfor1kgoffinalcorrugatedproductfortheGlobalWarming Potential (GWP),Acidification Potential (AP), Eutrophication Potential (EP) and Smog
CreationPotential.PrimaryEnergyDemand(PE) isalsoreportedfornon‐renewableonly.ResultswerecalculatedusingbothCMLandTRACImethods
Asshowninthetablebelow,manufactureofcontainerboardisthedominantlife‐cyclestageforPE,AP,EPandSmog.Approximately35%ofPrimaryEnergyDemandisrelatedtocombustionoffossil fuels in
containerboardmills.EP,APandSmogarealsomainlyinfluencedbytheuseoffossilfuels(manufactur‐ingandtransportationoffinalproduct)andelectricity.
WhilehandlingofthecorrugatedproductatEnd‐of‐Life(EoL)playsaminorroleforPE,AP,EP,andSmogformation,itisasignificantlife‐cyclestageforGWP.Thiseffect ismainlyrelatedtotheconversionofa
shareoftheC‐contentofcorrugatedtomethaneandcarbondioxidewhenitislandfilled.GWPincludesallgreenhousegas‐relevantemissionsstemmingfromthesupplyandcombustionoffossilfuels,aswellas supply of renewable fuels and any other relevant emissions. It represents the net CO2‐equivalent
valueforthematerialsneededforproductionof1kgofcorrugatedproduct.TheCO2uptake4relatedto
virginfiberisaccountedforinthisvalueaswellastheamountof0.418kgofrecycledfiberusedbyU.S.
containerboardmills.
Containerboardproductionischaracterizedbyawaterthroughputof43.2kgper1.11kgofcontainer‐board,butthenetwaterconsumption5onlyaccountsfor~4.9kgper1.11kgofcontainerboard(or1kgofcorrugatedproduct).
4Thecarbonuptakerelatedtotheuseofbiomassasafuelisalsoconsideredinthisstudyby
handlingthecombustionofbiomassascarbonneutral.5Thenetwaterconsumptionisthedifferenceofthewaterenteringthemillsandreleasedei‐
thertowastewatertreatmentplantsordirecttotheenvironment.Itisthesumofwaterretainedincontainerboard,evaporation,andwatercontentofwastestreams.
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TheoverallnetGWPof1kgU.S.averagecorrugatedproductwithintheassumedboundaryconditions
overthetotallife‐cycleresultsisapproximately1kgofCO2equivalent.
Approximately0.42kgofCO2equivalentsarerelatedtothedisposalof1kgofOCC.Withoutanyrecy‐cling,100%oftheOCCwouldbehandledbyeitherlandfillorincineration,andtheCO2impactswouldbearound2kg.This isbasedon the fact thatapproximately40%of themethaneemissions from landfill
operationsaredirectlyreleasedtotheenvironment.
ThenegativevalueoftheGlobalWarmingPotentialinthefiberproductionresultsfromtheuseofbio‐massasrawmaterial.SincebiomassabsorbsCO2initsgrowthphaseviaphotosynthesis,theproductionofbiomassrepresentsanetCO2sink.
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Life‐CycleImpactResultsfor1kgofAverageCorrugatedProduct
PrimaryEnergyDemand(MJ)‐non‐renewable(fossil)energyresources–1kgproductoverlifecycle
GlobalWarmingPotential(kgCO2‐equiv.)–1kgproductoverlifecycle
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EutrophicationPotential(TRACI,N‐equiv.)‐1kgproductoverlifecycle
AcidificationPotential(TRACI,molH+‐equiv.)‐1kgproductoverlifecycle
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POCP/SmogPotential(TRACI,kgNOx‐equiv.)‐1kgproductoverlifecycle
InfluenceofEoLsituationonLife‐Cycleperformance
Asshowninthefigureabove,theEnd‐of‐Lifestagehasasignificantinfluenceonoverallclimatechange;sodifferentEoLscenarioshavebeensimulatedtoshowtheinfluenceonoverallperformance.Thefol‐
lowingscenarioshavebeenassessed:
• Base:78%recoveryrate/59%oflandfillgasrecovered
• Allrecovered:Allcorrugatedproductrecovered,nothingtolandfill/incineration
• 78%recovered/allincinerated:78%recoveryrate/allnon‐recoveredincinerated
• 78%recovered/allgasrecovered:78%recoveryrate/alllandfillgasrecovered
• 78%recovered/nogasrecovered:78%recoveryrate/nolandfillgasrecovered
ThehandlingofOCChasasignificant influenceonoverallperformance.Forexample, ifnocorrugatedwere incineratedor landfilledattheEnd‐of‐Lifestage,theoverallGWPwoulddecreasebyabout40%.Alsolandfillgasrecoveryhasasignificantinfluence.Pleasenotethat47.5%oftherecoveredlandfillgas
iscombustedon‐site,andnocombustionemissionshavebeenassignedtorecoveredlandfillgas,whichisusedasaproductatthispoint(notflared).Theinfluenceontheenergymixofrecoveredfiber input
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Examplemassflowofclosed‐loopapproach
into containerboardmillshasnotbeenassessed.Thesensitivityanalysis isbasedon thesameenergymixoffossilandrenewableenergyinputintocontainerboardmills.
Consideringtheseassumptions,theanalysisclearlyindicatesthattheEoLstageisofrelativelyhighim‐
portanceandtheoverallprofilemaybesignificantlyreducedbymanagingtheEnd‐of‐Lifestagesofcor‐rugatedproducts.
InfluenceofdifferentEoLscenarios–absolutevaluesfor1kgcorrugatedproduct
Closed‐LoopRecyclingandProductEnd‐of‐Life
The End‐of‐Life phase is an important part of alife‐cycle study as the handling of products atlife’sendcanhaveasignificantinfluenceonthe
overall profile of the product of interest. In acorrugated product system, End‐of‐Life is addi‐tionally important due to product recovery and
recycling for additional uses. This study applieda closed‐loop approach to modeling recycledfiber flows, thus avoiding allocation as allowed
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by ISO 14040/ 44, because theU.S. recovery stream is composedof aworld‐wide flowof fiber frompracticallyuntraceablesources.Theclosed‐loopapproachconsidersthattherecoveredmaterialisused
inthesameproductlifecycle.Thisimpliesthatallrecycledfiberinputiscollectedinthesamelifecycle‐‐thatnooldcorrugatedproduct isleavingthesystemandthatnoadditionalcorrugatedproductisen‐teringthesystem.
AspertheAF&PAstatistics,78%oftheU.S.shipments(oldcorrugatedcontainers(OCC))wasrecovered
in2006.Of the fiber recovered,0.418 kg (dryweight)per1kgcorrugatedboardwas recycled incon‐tainerboardmills.Theremainingrecoveredfiberswererecycledinothermills,goingintoproductsotherthancorrugated,withtheremainderofthefiberbeingexported.Thispreventscorrugatedmaterialfrom
goingto landfilloperationsor incineration.Therefore,noenvironmentaleffect isrelatedto therecov‐eredOCCandassuchit ismodeledas“recycledinothersystem”withnocreditsorburdensassigned.Landfill, incineration and landfill gas capture processes are modeled as per U.S. EPA municipal solid
wastestudies.
BiogenicCarbonHandling
The “carbon neutrality” of renewable or “bio‐based” materials must be considered when discussingGlobalWarmingPotentialorGHGemissionswithinthecorrugatedproductsystem.Thecarboncontentof biomass is basedon carbon‐dioxideuptake from the atmosphere and therefore the CO2 emissions
related to combustion of bio‐based carbonmust be considered as carbon‐neutral. This fact is widelyrecognized in thescientificandpolicycommunities. As such, theGHGemissionsassociatedwith fibermix and biomass supply (as additional energy sources) are related to the use of fossil‐based energy
sources(transportation,sawmills,etc.)orfertilizersusedwhengrowingwood.Sincethisshareisbasedonfossilenergyresources, itcannotbeconsideredcarbon‐neutral.ThesamelogicappliestotheGHG‐
relevant emissions associatedwith combustion of fossil fuels or production of fossil‐based electricityand steam.However, the renewable nature of fiber biomass substantially reduces theoverall carbonfootprintofatypicalcontainerboardmill.Sixty‐fourpercentoftheenergyusedincontainerboardmills
in2006wasgeneratedbybiomasscombustion,thussignificantlyreducingthemillCO2emissionsfromwhattheywouldhavebeenif100%fossilfuelshadbeenusedtogeneratethatpower.
Conclusions
Thefollowingconclusionsmayreasonablybemadebasedontheresultsofthisstudy:
• Papermills drive the life‐cycle profiles – For all impact categories,material and energy flowsfrom paper mills dominate the results. Environmental impacts are dominated by energy de‐
mands at the mill. Bio‐based energy (e.g. hog‐fuel, liquor, etc.) substantially reduces globalwarmingpotentialcontributionfrommills,butdoesnoteliminatemills’GWPcontributionduetotheuseoffossilfuels.Energysourcing isamanagementoptionthatmaybeopentomillop‐
eratorsthatcanhaveasubstantialeffectontheenvironmental impacts. Increaseduseofbio‐basedenergysourceswillfurtherreducetheoveralluseoffossilenergyandGWPimpactsfrommills,althoughtherearenumerousfactorsthatmustbeconsideredinenergysourcingdecisions
(e.g.availabilityandprice).
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• Transportationoffinalproductdoesnotdefineprofile–Long‐distancetransportationscenarios(basedonnational averages)weremodeled yet still representedaminor influenceonoverall
life‐cycleimpactsforallimpactcategories.
• End‐of‐Lifeisonly importantwithrespecttoGWP–End‐of‐Lifeasmodeled(basedon2006in‐dustryaverage)demonstratesthat it isonly important inrelation toglobalwarmingpotential.Otherlife‐cycleimpactindicatorsshowlittleornoresponsefromtheEnd‐of‐Lifestage.TheEnd‐
of‐LifeeffectonGWPismainlyrelatedtomethanegeneratedbutnotcapturedfromlandfillop‐erations. The sensitivity analysis ondifferent End‐of‐Lifemanagement scenarios clearly showsthatincreasingrecovery,increasingeffortstocapturemethane,orincreasingthepercentageof
disposed corrugatedmaterials that are incinerated for energy recovery have the potential toimproveoverallenvironmentalperformance.
CONFIDENTAL
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INTRODUCTION
Theaimofthestudyistogeneratehigh‐quality,up‐to‐datedataontheenvironmentalimpactsofcorru‐
gatedpackaging.WithsuchanLCAstudy,theCorrugatedPackagingAllianceanditsconstituentassocia‐tions can assist other organizations in understanding and communicating the environmental footprintandenvironmentalbenefitsassociatedwithusingcorrugatedratherthanothermaterials.Atthesame
time, thismodel helps describe the environmental impacts of different life‐cycle stages in relation tooverallenvironmentalperformance,andthepotentialenvironmentalbenefitsofprocessimprovements.Beyondtheoperationsofasinglemanufacturingsite,thestudyevaluatestheenvironmentalperform‐
anceofan industry‐averagecorrugatedcontainerthroughout itsentire lifecycle.Thestudyintendstoprovideuseful perspective for different stakeholder groups, such as primary or secondary producers,consumers,waste recyclers,governmentagencies,non‐governmentalorganizations, LCApractitioners,
andmedia.
Thestudyisbasedoninformationfrom53millsrepresentingnearly90%ofthe2006linerboardproduc‐tionand162convertingfacilitiesrepresentingnearly45%ofoverallproductionvolumefor20066.
Forthisstudy,acoreprojectteamwasestablishedtodirect,review,andcoordinatetheactivitiesasso‐
ciatedwiththemethodologicalagreement,datacollection,modeling,presentationanddisseminationoftheLCIdataandcorrespondingLCAresults.Thecoregroupforthisprojectconsistsofatechnicaladvi‐sorygroupwithintheFBASustainabilityCommitteealongwithconsultantsfromPEAmericas.
LifeCycleAssessmentisastandardized,scientificmethodforsystematicanalysisofflows(e.g.massand
energy)associatedwiththelifecycleofaspecificproduct,technology,serviceormanufacturingprocesssystem.Theapproachinprincipleaimsataholisticandcomprehensiveanalysisoftheaboveitemsin‐cludingrawmaterialsacquisition,manufacturing,useandEnd‐of‐Life(EoL)management.Accordingto
the InternationalOrganization forStandardization (ISO)14040/44standards7,anLCAstudyconsistsoffour phases: (1) goal and scope (framework and objective of the study); (2) Life Cycle Inventory (in‐put/outputanalysisofmassandenergyflowsfromoperationsalongtheproduct’svaluechain);(3)Life
CycleImpactAssessment(evaluationofenvironmentalrelevance,e.g.globalwarmingpotential);and(4)interpretation(e.g.optimizationpotential).
Thegoalandscopestageoutlinestherationaleofthestudy,anticipateduseofstudyresults,boundaryconditions,datarequirementsandassumptionstoanalyzetheproductsystemunderconsideration,and
othersimilartechnicalspecificationsforthestudy.Thegoalofthestudyisbaseduponspecificquestionsthatthestudyseekstoanswer,thetargetaudienceandstakeholdersinvolved,andtheintendedusefor
6Pleasenotethattheconsideredconvertingplantsrepresentthecurrentstateoftheartandthereforecanbeconsideredrepresentativeoftheindustry7ISO14040:2006Environmentalmanagement‐‐LifeCycleAssessment‐‐Principlesandframework;ISO14044:2006 Environmental management ‐‐ Life Cycle Assessment ‐‐ Requirements and guidelines.Availableatwww.iso.ch.
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thestudy’sresults.Thescopeofthestudydefinesthesystemsboundaryintermsoftechnological,geo‐
graphical,andtemporalcoverageofthestudy,attributesoftheproductsystem,andthelevelofdetailandcomplexityaddressed.
TheLifeCycleInventory(LCI)ismerelyalistofinputandoutputflowswithnoenvironmentalrelevance.LCA characterizes the flows and describes their potential effects on the environment. The Inventory
stagequalitativelyandquantitativelydocumentsthematerialsandenergyused(the“inputs”)aswellastheproducts, by‐products, and environmental releases in termsof emissions to the environment andwastestobetreated(the“outputs”)fortheproductsystembeingstudied.TheLCIdatacanbeusedon
itsowntounderstandtotalemissions,wastesandresourceuseassociatedwiththematerialorproductbeingstudied;to improveproductionorproductperformance;or itcanbefurtheranalyzedandinter‐pretedtoprovideinsightsintothepotentialenvironmental impactsfromthesystem(LifeCycleImpact
Assessmentandinterpretation,LCIA).
Inordertoconformtoincreasingpressurefromproductmanufacturersandconsumerretailmarketstoselectmoresustainablepackagingoptions,theCorrugatedPackagingAlliance(CPA)engagedPEAmeri‐cas (PEA) to undertake a Life Cycle Assessment study to accurately represent the life‐cycle environ‐
mentalimpactsofthecorrugatedproductionchain.
Thestudyhasbenefitedfromthecooperationandsupportofmanymanufacturers inthissector,whocontributedtheirdatatotheNCASIandFBAstudiesthatwereusedasprimarydatasourcesinthisre‐port.NCASIstaffwasalso instrumental instructuringandinterpretingdatafromthesesurveystosup‐
porttheconsultantteam.
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1 GOALOFTHESTUDY
ThegoalofthisstudyistoconductaLifeCycleAssessment(LCA)foraU.S.industry‐averagecorrugated
productto:
• Better understand the environmental performance of an average corrugated productrelatedtoalllife‐cyclestages,
• Benchmark and demonstrate the environmental sustainability performance of corru‐gatedproductsaspackagingmaterial,and
• Respondtocustomerandpublicdemandsforenvironmentalinformation.
Theintentofthestudyistogenerateresultsthatarecredibleandcanbepubliclycommunicatedinfor‐
mats consistentwith public databases (e.g.U.S. LCI database,maintainedby the National RenewableEnergy Laboratory, NREL) andbest practices of ISO14040/ 44. Results of this study should bewidely
acknowledged as the leading source of LC information relevant to corrugated products. As per ISOguidelines,thestudyhasbeenreviewedbyathirdpartybeforereleasetoexternalstakeholders.
TheprimaryaudienceforthisstudyisinternaltotheCorrugatedPackagingAlliance(CPA)anditsmem‐bers.Sincethis is thefirstLCAconductedatthe industry level, itsprimarypurpose isto identifyareas
wherefocusedimprovementswillyieldmaximumresults.TheinitialpublicreleaseofdataisintendedtopopulatetheU.S.LCIdatabase,theEPAandtheGreenBlueCOMPASStool.DecisionstoreleasetootherpartiesmaybeconsideredbytheCPAatalaterdate.
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2 SCOPE
Thefollowingsectiondescribesthegeneralscopeoftheprojecttoachievethestatedgoal.Thisincludes
identificationoftheaveragecorrugatedproducttobeassessed,theboundaryofthestudy,impactcate‐gories considered, anddata collectionprocedures (cut‐off criteria, backgrounddata, allocationproce‐duresetc.).
2.1 SYSTEMDESCRIPTIONOVERVIEW
The scope of the study is developing a “cradle‐to‐cradle” Life Cycle Assessment of the U.S. industry‐
average corrugated product. The average basis weight of the U.S. industry mix8 is 138.6 lb/thousandsquarefeet(msf)9andconsistsof:
• Singlewall 89.2%
• Doublewall 9.0%
• Triplewall 0.8%
• Singleface 1.0%
Theaverage“use”ofanindustry‐averagecorrugatedproductisassecondarypackagingofproductsforshipping.10
Thelife‐cyclephasesoftheproductsystemsstudiedinclude:
• Cradle‐to‐gateproductionof rawandancillarymaterials,energysupplyand electricity
neededforthemanufactureofcorrugatedboard,
• Convertingofcorrugatedboardtoafinalproduct(folding,cutting,gluingandprinting),
• Transportationoffinalproducttofinalcustomer(transport‐in‐usephase),
• End‐of‐Lifecoveringrecyclinganddisposal(landfillandincineration).
Thedatasamplingsizemustincludeannualrepresentativedatafortheyear2006orbestavailablewhenthosedataarenotavailable.
8FBA[2007]‐FibreBoxAssociationIndustryAnnualReport20079138.6lbpermsf=0.677kgperm210Pleasenotethatthestudyisrepresentativeofanykindofcorrugatedproduct.
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2.2 FUNCTIONALUNIT
Thefunctionalunitusedinthisstudyis:OnekilogramofU.S.averagecorrugatedproduct.
Thiseffort isnot intended tobeacomparativestudyinandof itself,butrathertoenablefuturecom‐parativestudies.Otherstudieswithacomparative intentwillneedtoemployafunctionalunit consis‐
tentwiththegoalandscopeofthisstudy,andcanachievespecificresultsbyscalingtheinputandout‐putdataappropriately.
Amyriadofcorrugatedconstructionsexistthatmeetdifferent,specificapplicationneeds.Thereforethestudy represents the industry average of corrugated products. Specific corrugated products can be
modeledwith theresultsasneeded,butanexhaustivecomparisonofexistingapplications isunneces‐sary.Toapply the resultsof this study toa specific corrugatedproduct, the inventoryandLCAresultsshouldbescaledaccordingtothemassofthespecificproductofinterest.
2.3 PRODUCTSYSTEM(S)BOUNDARIES
The reference flow for this study is “one kilogram ofU.S. industry‐average corrugatedproduct”.U.S.industry‐averagecorrugatedproductsaremadeupoftheproductionweightedmeanofallcorrugated
productsproducedfromcontainerboard(liner,unbleachedaswellasbleached,andmedium)intheU.S.duringthe2006calendaryear.
ThescopeofthestudyisdisplayedinFigure1brokenintothefollowingmajor life‐cyclestagesof theproductsystem:
• Containerboardmills
• Convertingplants
• Logistics(usephase)–transporttocustomer
• End‐of‐Life
Eachofthelife‐cyclestagesaredescribedinmoredetailinSection3.
Transportationpermode(e.g.truck,ship,train)withinthedifferentproductlife‐cyclestagesiscovered
aslistedinTable2.Existingdatawasnotavailabletoprovideacomprehensiveanalysisofactualtrans‐portationdistances.Asaproxy,manufacturingmembersoftheprojectteamwereinformallypolledforaveragedistances. Sensitivity analysis was thenperformed to ensure the estimates shown in Table 2
werenotmajorcontributorstotheoverallindustryfootprint.SeeSection5fordetailsonthesensitivityanalysis.
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Thefollowingtabledescribesinfurtherdetailwhatisincludedinthestudy.
Table1.Summaryofsystemboundaries
Included Excluded
• Rawmaterialsandancillaryinputs;e.g.woodandpaperpulp;pulpingandbleach‐ingchemicals,woodfiberproduction(for‐estry)
• Energy;e.g.extraction,processingandtransportationfuels;purchasedelectricity
• Internalgenerationofelectricityandsteamaswellasco‐generation
• Processingofmaterials
• Operationofprimaryproductionequip‐ment
• Waste
• Transportationofrawandancillarymate‐rials
• Overhead(heating,lighting)ofmanufac‐turingfacilities
• Internaltransportationofmaterials
• Post‐useprocesses(transportation,sort‐ing,baling,etc.)
• Capitalequipmentandmainte‐nance
• Maintenanceandoperationofsupportequipment
• Transportationofemployees
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Thefollowingtabledisplaysthetransportdistancesforeachmodeoftransportationallthroughthelife
cycle.
Table2.Transportdistancesandmodes11
2.3.1 TECHNOLOGICALCOVERAGE
Inthisstudy,site‐specificdatarepresentingthecurrenttechnologymixforforestfiberproduction,con‐
tainerboardproduction,and corrugatedproduct convertingwas collected. Containerboardproductiondata(includingpulping,paper‐making,powerproduction/consumption,andwastemanagement)intheUnitedStateswasprovidedbytheAF&PA12viaNCASI13.
Thestudyisbasedoninformationfrom53millsrepresentingnearly90%of2006linerboardproduction.
Converting isbasedon162converting facilities,which representnearly45%of theoverallproductionvolumeofcorrugatedproduct.
2.3.2 GEOGRAPHICALCOVERAGE
PrimarydatacollectedfromparticipatingcompaniesandassociationsfortheiroperationalactivitiesarerepresentativefortheU.S.Additionally,U.S.backgrounddataisusedwheneveravailableandtechnically
relevant.
Thegeographicalcoverageforthisstudyisasfollows:
• PrimaryForestFiberProduction–UnitedStates
• ContainerboardProduction–UnitedStates
• CorrugatedProductConverting–UnitedStates
Ancillaryandprocessmaterialdata,suchastheproductionofchemicals,fuels,energyandpower,wasadoptedasaverageindustrymixesfromtheGaBi4softwaresystemdatabase(currentreleaseGaBi4.3,http://www.gabi‐software.com)representativeforUSboundaryconditions.
11 Information on average transport distances was provided by and discussed with the participatingmembercompanies.Valuesshownintableareagreednumbers.12AF&PA=AmericanForest&PaperAssociation13NCASI=NationalCouncilforAirandStreamImprovement;www.ncasi.org
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2.3.3 TIMECOVERAGE
Primarydatacollectedfromparticipatingcompaniesandassociationsfortheiroperationalactivitiesarerepresentative for theyear2006 (referenceyear). In some cases forconvertingplants,2007datawas
reportedandincluded.
Themostup‐to‐dateLCIdatasetsavailableareusedforforestryandconvertingprocesses;CORRIMdataonforestryimpactscomesfrom200214.
2.4 LIFECYCLEIMPACTASSESSMENTMETHODOLOGY&IMPACTCATEGORIESCONSIDERED
Itwasdeterminedduring thescopedevelopmentprocess thata comprehensivesetof environmentalimpactcategorieswouldbeinvestigated.Forthepurposesofsuccinctcommunicationofstudyresults,thefollowingimpactcategoriesweredeterminedtobestrepresenttheCorrugatedPackagingAlliance’s
prioritiesinissuesrelatedtosustainability.
PrimaryEnergyDemandandGlobalWarmingPotentialareincludedinthestudybecauseoftheirgrow‐ingimportancetotheglobalenvironmentalandpolitical/economicrealm.Acidification,Eutrophication,PhotochemicalOzoneCreationPotential/SmogAirareincludedbecausetheyreflecttheenvironmental
impactofregulatedandadditionalemissionsof interestby industryand thepublic,e.g.SO2,NOX,CO,andhydrocarbons.
In2004agroupofenvironmentalleadersreleasedareport,theApeldoornDeclaration15,describingthe
shortcomingsoftoxicityandhazardcharacterizationwithinLCA.Asperthisdeclaration,itisthepositionofthisstudythat“eventhoughLCIAcanusemodelsandmethodologiesdevelopedforRiskAssessment,LCAisdesignedtocomparedifferentproductsandsystemsandnottopredictthemaximalrisksassoci‐
atedwithsinglesubstances.”Humanandeco‐toxicologyresultsarebestsuitedtocase‐andsite‐specificstudiesthataccuratelymodeldispersionpathways,rates,andreceptorconditions.
14Formoreinformation,pleaseseeofficialCORRIMreports[CORRIM2002]15Appeldoorn[2006]‐http://www.leidenuniv.nl/cml/ssp/projects/declaration_of_apeldoorn.pdf
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Table3.SelectedImpactCategories
CategoryIndicator
Impactcategory Description Unit Reference
EnergyUse16 PrimaryEnergyDemand(PE)
Ameasureofthetotalamountofprimaryenergyextractedfromtheearth.PEisexpressedinenergydemandfromnon‐renewablere‐sources(e.g.petroleum,naturalgas,uranium,etc.)andenergydemandfromrenewableresources(e.g.hydropower,windenergy,solar,etc.).Efficienciesinenergyconversion(e.g.power,heat,steam,etc.)aretakenintoaccount.
MJ
AnoperationalguidetotheISO‐standards(Guinéeetal.)CentreforMilieukunde(CML),Leiden2001.
ClimateChange GlobalWarmingPotential(GWP)17
Ameasureofgreenhousegasemis‐sions,suchasCO2andmethane.Theseemissionsarecausinganincreaseintheabsorptionofradia‐tionemittedbytheearth,magnifyingthenaturalgreenhouseeffect.
kgCO2equivalent IntergovernmentalPanelonCli‐mateChange(IPCC).2006IPCCGuidelinesforNationalGreenhouseGasInventories
Eutrophication EutrophicationPotential(CML)EutrophicationPotential(TRACI)
Ameasureofemissionsthatcauseeutrophyingeffectstotheenviron‐ment.Theeutrophicationpotentialisastoichiometricprocedure,whichidentifiestheequivalencebetweenNandPforbothterrestrialandaquaticsystems
kgPhosphateequivalentkgNitrogenequivalent
AnoperationalguidetotheISO‐standards(Guinéeetal.)CentreforMilieukunde(CML),Leiden2001.Bareetal.,TRACI:theToolfortheReductionandAssessmentofChemicalandOtherEnvironmentalImpactsJIE,MITPress,2002.
Acidification AcidificationPoten‐tial(CML)AcidificationPoten‐tial(TRACI)
Ameasureofemissionsthatcauseacidifyingeffectstotheenvironment.TheacidificationpotentialisassignedbyrelatingtheexistingS‐,N‐,andhalogenatomstothemolecularweight.
kgSO2equivalentkgH+equivalent
AnoperationalguidetotheISO‐standards(Guinéeetal.)CentreforMilieukunde(CML),Leiden2001.Bareetal.,TRACI:theToolfortheReductionandAssessmentofChemicalandOtherEnvironmentalImpactsJIE,MITPress,2002.
Ozonecreationintroposphere
PhotochemicalOxidantPotential(PCOP)
SmogAir
Ameasureofemissionsofprecursorsthatcontributetolowlevelsmog,producedbythereactionofnitrogenoxidesandVOC’sundertheinfluenceofUVlight.
kgEtheneequivalent
kgNOxequivalent
AnoperationalguidetotheISO‐standards(Guinéeetal.)CentreforMilieukunde(CML),Leiden2001.
Bareetal.,TRACI:theToolfortheReductionandAssessmentofChemicalandOtherEnvironmentalImpactsJIE,MITPress,2002.
16PrimaryEnergyDemandisnotanimpactbutisincludedinthissectionasitisalsoasumvalueindicat‐ing the total amount of energy extracted fromearth or basedon renewable resources. TheCML andTRACI impactmethodologieshavebeenselectedforthisstudy.Astheydonot includeconsumptionofrenewableenergysourcesbutanindexoftheconsumptionoffossil fuels,thefocus inthisstudyisonPrimaryEnergyDemandfromnon‐renewablesources(fossil).17The terminology“potential” isusedbyCMLtoclearly indicate thatLCIAshowspotential impacts inthefuture.Forexampleforclimatechange theGlobalWarmingPotentialrepresents thepotential im‐pactofGHGemissionsrelatedtothereferenceunitCO2.
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Themeaningandsignificanceofthese impactcategoriesarediscussedindetail inAppendixG: Impact
Indicators of this report. The impact potentials were calculated using the CML 2001 characterizationfactors (2007update)publishedbyCentre forMilieukunde (Institute ofEnvironmentalSciences),Uni‐versityofLeidenaswellasTRACI(ToolsfortheReductionandAssessmentofChemicalandOtherEnvi‐
ronmentalImpacts)characterizationfactorspublishedbytheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.
2.5 DATACOLLECTIONANDDATASOURCES
The studyusedprimary data for containerboardmills and converting plants, and existing datasets to
modeltheenvironmentalemissionsofancillaryprocesses.
Whereverpossible,thisstudyisbasedonprimarydatacollectedfromtheparticipatingcompaniesandtheirrespectiveproductionsites.Incaseswhereprimarydatawasnotavailable,secondarydatareadilyavailable from literature, previous LCI studies, and life‐cycle databaseswas used for the analysis. The
sourcesforsecondarydataaredocumentedinthisstudyreport.
The LCA model was created using the GaBi 4 software system (current release GaBi 4.3,http://www.gabi‐software.com)forLifeCycleAssessment,developedbyPEINTERNATIONAL.Thedata‐basescontainedintheGaBisoftwareprovidetheLCIdataoftherawandprocessmaterialsusedinthe
backgroundsystem.
2.5.1 DATASOURCES
Thefollowingdatasourceshavebeenused:
• CORRIMIIreport18:Virginfibermanufacturing
• Fisherdata19:Fibercompositionandchemicalinputforcontainerboardmanufacturing
• NCASI:Quality‐assuredAF&PAsurveydataonenergyusageandselectedreleasestotheenvi‐ronmentofcontainerboardmills
• AF&PA:surveyonfiberinput
• FBA:Convertingplantinputsandoutputs
• GaBiLCIdatabase20:
o U.S.transportationmodel(basedonthemostrecentU.S.CensusBureauVehicleInven‐toryandUseSurvey(2002)andU.S.EPAemissionsstandardsforheavytrucksin2007)
o U.S.paperEoLmodel(basedon2006U.S.EPALifeCycleAssessmentoflandfillemis‐sions21)
18seewww.corrim.org19seewww.fisheri.com20Formoreinformation,pleasesee:http://documentation.gabi‐software.com
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o Fuels,energy,andancillarymaterials:RegionalmixesanddatasetsfromtheGaBiLCI
database
2.5.2 DATACOLLECTION
Data collection needs throughout the project were coordinated between the PE Americas team and
NCASI.PrimarydatawasderivedfromadatabaseofEnvironment,Health&Safety(EH&S)statisticscol‐lectedbyanAF&PAsurveyof itsmembers(supplementedwithdatafromafewnon‐membercompa‐nies)andFisherdata.Themostrecentdataavailablerepresentsannualfiguresfor2006.Datafor this
databasewascollectedbyAF&PAusingadigitalquestionnaireonfacility‐wideenvironmentalemissionsandfuel/energyflows;thisdatawasprocessedandcontrolledforqualitybyNCASIandFBA.
Alldatausedinthisstudyisrepresentativeofannualtotalfor2006,themostrecentperiodsurveyedbyNCASI.Environmentalfactorssurveyedinclude:
• Fuelandenergyuse
• Useofrawmaterialsandancillarymaterials
• Emissionstoair,waterandsoil
• Waste
The survey included results from53 containerboardmills representing 32million short tons per year
(TPY),nearly90%of2006production volume. Becausedata isonlyavailableat the facility‐wide level,mills that also manufacture non‐containerboard products were excluded from the data used in thisstudy,as theenvironmentalprofilesof containerboardandnon‐containerboardpaperproduction can
bedramaticallydifferent.
A second surveywas conductedby FBA to collect primary data for converting plants. For corrugatedconverting, the study included data from 162 plants representing 9.6 millionmetric tons per year of
productionvolume.Theseplants includedarepresentativesampleofcorrugatingplants,sheetfeedersandsheetplantsmanufacturingawidevarietyofcorrugatedproducts.TheFBAsurveyincluded:
• Containerboardinput
• Fuelandenergyuse
• Useofrawmaterialsandancillarymaterials
• Emissionstoair,waterandsoil,and
21U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,“SOLIDWASTEMANAGEMENTANDGREENHOUSEGASESA Life‐Cycle Assessment of Emissions and Sinks,” 3rd ed., September 2006. Downloaded fromhttp://www.epa.gov/climatechange/wycd/waste/SWMGHGreport.html
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• Waste
Consistencyandqualitychecks formassand energy balance resultswereconductedand resultscom‐
pared to published informationdata– particularly process and flowdata in previous LCI studies. Thisqualityassurance(QA)processwasperformedatdifferentstagesoftheproject.TheobjectiveoftheQAprocesswastoensurethatthedatacollection,developmentoftheLCImodel,andfinalresultsarecon‐
sistentwiththescopeofthestudyandthatthestudydeliverstherequiredinformation.
2.5.3 ALLOCATION
Life Cycle Inventory Analysis relies on the ability to link unit processeswithin a product systemusing
simplematerialorenergyflows. Inpractice,fewindustrialprocessesyieldasingleoutputorarebasedonalinearityofrawmaterialinputsandoutputs.Infact,mostindustrialprocessesyieldmorethanoneproduct,andtheyrecycleintermediateordiscardedproductsasrawmaterials.Therefore,thematerials
andenergyflowsandassociatedenvironmentalreleasesareallocatedtothedifferentproductsaccord‐ing toclearly statedprocedures. The relevantallocationprocedures in theanalyzed lifecyclesarede‐scribedbelow.
In these situations, ISO LCA standards and technical reports provide rules for allocation of environ‐
mentalburdenstoco‐productsandtorecycledandvirginportionsoftheproducts.Becauseofthecostand complexities in obtaining proper inventory data for all affected components in a study, ISO stan‐dards indicateas first rule theavoidanceofallocation, i.e.,expansionof thesystemto includeall ele‐
mentsinquestionisalsoarecommendationandguidance.
Containerboardproduction (mills):Noallocationhasbeennecessaryasonlymillshavebeenincludedthatmanufacturecontainerboard(liner/medium).Systemexpansionhasbeenusedtoavoidallocation
toaddressextra/additionalelectricityproductionandsteam.
Convertingplants:Noallocationhasbeenappliedasnoby‐producthasbeenreportedbyparticipatingconvertingplants.
Background data (energy andmaterials):Refinedenergy data (e.g. diesel, gasoline, fuel oil andpro‐pane)areallocatedbymass inrelationtotherefineryemissions.Energydemandsareallocatedbyen‐
ergycontentinrelationtocrudeoilconsumption.
If multiple products are manufactured using the same overall process, thematerials and chemicalsneededduringmanufacturingaremodeledusingeconomicallocation.
2.5.4 CUT‐OFFCRITERIA
Thefollowingcut‐offcriteriawereappliedduringdatacollectionandanalysis:
• Mass–Ifaflowislessthan1%ofthecumulativemassofreliableestimatesofinputsintotheLCImodel,itmaybeexcluded,providingitsenvironmentalrelevanceisnotaconcern.
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• Energy–Ifaflowislessthan1%ofthecumulativeenergyofreliableestimatesofinputsintotheLCImodel,itmaybeexcluded,providingitsenvironmentalrelevanceisnotaconcern.
• Environmentalrelevance–Ifaflowmeetstheabovecriteriaforexclusion,yetisthoughttopo‐tentiallyhaveasignificantenvironmentalimpact,itwastestedforimportanceusingestimatedflowsandincludedifsignificant.Allmaterialflowsthatleavethesystem(emissions),andwhoseenvironmentalimpactisover1%ofthewholeimpactofanimpactcategoryconsideredintheassessmentmustbecovered.
• Thesumoftheneglectedmaterialflowsmustnotexceed5%ofmass,energyorenvironmentalrelevance.
2.5.5 DATAQUALITYREQUIREMENTS
Toaidreviewers,stakeholders,anddecision‐makers intheirevaluationofthisstudy’sresults,wepro‐
videanoverallassessmentofourconfidenceinthequalityofthedataused,assigningvaluesof“high”,“good”,“fair”,and“poor”quality.Dataquality is judgedby itsprecision(measured,calculatedoresti‐mated),completeness(e.g.arethereunreportedemissions?),consistency(degreeofuniformityofthe
methodologyappliedona studyservingasadatasource)and representativeness (geographical, timeperiod,technology).
Precisionandcompleteness
• Precision:Primaryinformationcollectedinthesurveysismeasuredandcalculatedbythere‐portingbusinesses.Sincethecontainerboardmillsaremodeledbasedontwoindependentsur‐veys(fibersurveyandEH&Ssurveyonenergyandemissions),acarbonbalancehasbeenusedtovalidateaccuracyofthedata.
• Completeness:Allrelevant,specificprocessesincludinginputs(rawmaterials,energyandauxil‐iarymaterials)andoutputs(emissionandproductionvolume)areconsideredandmodeledtorepresenteachspecificsituation.AnyrelevantbackgroundprocessesaretakenfromtheGaBidatabases(seeGaBi4documentation).
Consistencyandreproducibility
• Consistency:Toensureconsistency,onlyprimarydataofthesamelevelofdetailandback‐grounddatafromtheGaBidatabasesareused.Cross‐checksconcerningtheplausibilityofmassandenergyflowsarecontinuouslyconducted.Theprovidedprimarydataofcontainerboardproductionandconvertingplantswerechecked.Onlycontainerboardmillsandconvertingplantsshowingnoinconsistencyhavebeenconsideredinthisstudy.
• Reproducibility:Internalreproducibilityispossiblesincethedataandmodelsarestoredandavailableinadatabase(NCASI).Fortheexternalaudienceitispossiblethatnofullreproducibil‐ityinanydegreeofdetailwillbeavailableforconfidentialityreasons.However,theaveragepro‐filecanberecalculatedwithindustrydata.
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Representativeness
• Time‐relatedcoverage:
o Fiberproduction:2002
o Containerboardmills:2006
o Convertingplants:2006/07
o Backgrounddata:2002to2007.
• Geographicalcoverage:ThegeographicalcoverageistheU.S.
• Technologicalcoverage:Containerboardmills(overallcoveragenearly90%)andconvertingplantsreportingthedatarepresentthecurrentsituationintheU.S.FiberinputismodeledbasedontheU.S.situationaccordingtotheCORRIMreports.Thetransportationmodel(fuelconsumptionandtail‐pipeemissions)andtheEnd‐of‐Lifemodel(emissionsrelatedtopaperinlandfill)arebasedonofficialdocumentspublishedbytheU.S.EPA.Overalltechnicalcoverageishigh.
TheprimarydataonpapermillproductioncollectedbyAF&PAandqualitycheckedbyNCASIisconsid‐
eredtobeof“good”quality.Whileconsistentmeasurementandestimationtechniqueswerenotusedbyeachofthemillssurveyed,NCASIprovidedaqualitychecktoensuretheprecisionandconsistencyofthedatausedbythestudy.ThebroadnatureoftheEH&Ssurveymeansthat itdoesnotprovidegreat
detail on specific emissions, but is complete enough to capture major environmental impacts. Thegreatest strength of this dataset comes from its broad reach (53 containerboard mills representingnearly90%oftheU.S.containerboardproductionvolumein2006).
ThequalityoftheFBAsurveyofcorrugatedproductconvertingplants is judgedtobeof“fair”quality.
Formanyof the companies completing the survey, itwas the first time that they ever reported suchfigures for such a purpose. Larger firms generally hadmore complete datasets. Many smaller plantshaveemissions thatarebelowregulatoryreportingthresholds,hencedataavailability is limited.How‐
ever,thenumberofrespondentsallowedforeffectiveproduction‐weightedmeanstobedevelopedthatarecharacteristicoftheindustryaverage.Futuredatacollectioneffortswillbeimprovedbasedonles‐sonslearnedduringthisstudy.
QualityoftheCORRIM IIand theGaBimodelsfortransportation,End‐of‐Lifeandbackgrounddatasets
usedforthisstudyisconsideredtobe“high.”TheCORRIMdatasetsarepubliclyavailableandhavebeenwidelyusedinassessingtheenvironmentalimpactsofforestryandpaperoperations,makingthemthedefactostandardforLCIprojectsinthissector.
2.6 CRITICALREVIEW
ThisstudyhasbeenconductedwiththesupportofaCriticalReviewPaneltoensureit iscompletedtotherequirementsofISO14040seriesstandardsandindustrybestpractices.Whilethestudyisnotcom‐
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parative by nature, it is anticipated that the study resultswill be used for future comparison studies.
Hence,itistheinterestofthestudycommissionerstoensurethatthestudyadherestothesestandards.
AthenaSustainableMaterialsInstitutewascommissionedinMay2008to leadthecriticalreviewinac‐cordancewithISO14040/44(2006),incollaborationwithco‐reviewers.Thereviewpanelcomprisedthefollowingexperts:
Mr.JamieMeil,AthenaInstitute‐reviewpanelChairman
Ms.MarthaStevenson,PrivateConsultant
Dr.MichaelDeru,U.S.NationalRenewableEnergyLaboratory
Dr.JimWilson,DepartmentofWoodScienceandEngineering,OregonStateUniversity
Dr.LinditaBushi,AthenaInstitute.
Thereviewprocessconsistedofthefollowingsteps:
1. ReviewandcommentonthestudyGoal&Scopedocuments
2. Reviewandcommentoninitialstudyresults
3. Reviewandcommentonthedraftfinalstudyresultsandsupportingreport.
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3 MODELSTRUCTUREANDDATACOLLECTION
Thefollowingsectiondescribesthecorrugatedproductionsubsystemsandhighlightsimportantdata.
3.1 WOODFIBERPRODUCTION(FORESTRY)
WoodfiberproductiondataforthisstudywasextractedfromtheCORRIM22reports.CORRIMdataaregiven in termsofone thousandboard feet (1MBF)ofplaned,dried lumber.Threeproductsaremod‐
eled:sawdust,woodchipsandlogsfrombothsoftwoodandhardwoodtrees23.
Themodeledsubsystemsincludeseedlingproduction,reforestation,harvesting,andsawmillprocessing.ForallsubsystemstherespectivetransportationisincludedaccordingtotheCORRIMreports.Seedling
production and reforestation include fertilizers and transportation. The harvesting step includes ma‐chineryandfueluseplustransportationofthelogsandbark.Thesawmillhasfuelandenergyinputsanddifferentwoodproductoutputs.Formoreinformationonthewoodfiberproductiondataandsystem
boundaries,seetheCORRIMreports.
3.2 OVERVIEWOFCONTAINERBOARDPRODUCTION
3.2.1 PULPINGOFPRIMARYFIBERS
Wooddelivered to thecontainerboardmillas logsgoes throughade‐barkingand chippingprocess toproducewood chips, which are also purchasedby containerboardmills from sawmills and chipmills.
Thesewood chips, processed to a uniform size, form the rawmaterial for productionof virginwoodpulp.Thispulpisused,oftenwithadditionalpulpfromrecoveredfiber,formakingkraftlinerboardandsemichemicalcorrugatingmedium.Linerboardandcorrugatingmediumcanalsobeproducedfromre‐
coveredfiberalone,asdiscussedbelow.
Cookedinahigh‐pressure,high‐temperature(130‐180°C)digester inamixtureof inorganicchemicals(e.g.sodiumhydroxide,sodiumsulfide,sodiumsulfite,sodiumcarbonate,etc.)tailoredforthedesiredpulpproperties,thewoodchipsarebrokendownintowoodpulpandspentpulpingliquor,withapulp
yielddependingonthechemicalsused,desiredcontainerboardproperties,andcookingparameters.
Thespentpulpingliquoriswashedfromthepulp,thenconcentratedandburnedtorecoverthecookingchemicalsandprovideheat required forcontainerboardproduction.Thepulp is refinedbya seriesof
separation,screeningandwashingstepsbeforebeingmovedtothecontainerboard‐makingprocess(i.e.
22FormoreontheConsortiumforResearchonRenewableIndustrialMaterials(CORRIM)includinglinkstotheirLifeCycleAssessmentreports,seewww.corrim.org.23InventoryinformationofsoftwoodtreeswasusedasasurrogateforhardwoodtreessincetheCOR‐RIMreportonhardwoodshadnotbeenpublishedatthetimeofthestudy.
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thepapermachine).Atthepapermachine,pHisadjustedandadditivessuchassizingagentsareintro‐
ducedtothepulpslurrytogivethefinalsheetitsdesiredproperties.
3.2.2 PULPINGOFRECOVEREDFIBERS
The recovered paper delivered to the containerboardmill is controlled for quality and contaminants
beforebeingre‐pulped.Pulpinginvolvesbreakinganddispersingtherecoveredpaperbalesandloose‐fedmaterial inwarmprocesswaterusingmechanical energy. Largepiecesofplastic,wiresandothermaterialscanberemovedwithinthere‐pulpingoperationusingaraggerandotherde‐trashingequip‐
ment. The resulting "stock," a suspension of fiber in water, is then screened through progressivelysmallerholesandslotsandsometimescleanedcentrifugallytoremovesand,gritandlightweightcon‐taminants.Somerecycledcontainerboardmillswillfractionateandpossiblywashthestocktogenerate
streamsenrichedin long/slenderfibers,short/coarse fibersandfines,whichcanthenbeproportionedtodifferentplies inthecontainerboardmachine.Dependingonthecleanlinessoftherecoveredpaperandtheconfigurationoftheparticularstockpreparationsystem,between85%and95%of therecov‐
eredpapercanbeusedtoproducerecycledcontainerboard.
Somerecycledcontainerboardmillsutilizeadisperger,adevicethatheatsdewateredstockto80‐110°Candappliesmechanicalenergytohomogenizethepulpanditsremainingcontaminants.Othermillswilljust dewater the stock before the containerboard machine. All recycled containerboard mills reuse
processwaterfromthecontainerboardmachineand thestockpreparationdewateringequipment,re‐sultinginsignificantlylowerfreshwaterusepertonofcontainerboardproducedthantheirvirgincoun‐terparts.
Containerboardproduction
Figure2.ContainerboardProductionProcess
Thepulpslurry, consistingofadesiredblendofvirginandrecycledfibers, isfedintotheheadboxanddistributedevenlyacrossthewidthofthecontainerboard‐makingmachine.Fedoutfromtheheadboxinahomogenoussheetonto“thewire,”theslurrydrainsthroughasitmovesalongthismeshbelt,either
fedbygravityoraidedbyaslightvacuum.
Thepulp is furtherdriedas it ispressed through felt rollersand thenaseriesof steam‐heateddryingrollers;inthisstagethecontainerboardmayalsoreceiveadditionsofstarchorothersurfacecoatingsin
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the sizing press or presses, where the containerboardpasses through rollers continually fedwith the
desiredchemicals.
Remainingmoistureandanyadditionalmoisturepickedupinthesizingpressisdriedintheafter‐dryersbeforethecontainerboardisslittosizeandrolledfordeliverytofurtherprocessingplants,specificallytheconvertingplants,whichmakecorrugatedboxes.
Informationforthelife‐cyclemodelingofcorrugatedcomponentmanufacturingwasprovidedbyNCASI,
and consists of both the AF&PA Environmental Health and Safety Survey data (described in Section2.5.1),andtheFisherLogicCostBenchmarkingdataset24,accessedviathelicenseheldbyNCASI.
Atotalof53millswereidentifiedproducingnearly90%ofthecontainerboardin2006,supplyingdataon energy andmaterials needed aswell as EH&Sdata.Data reported and integrated in the life‐cycle
modelforthesemillsincludethefollowingparameters:
• Chemicalsandfurnish(fiberinput)
• Production
• BOD5(direct,indirect)
• TSS(direct,indirect)
• WaterFlow(processwater,coolingwater,andotherwater)
• NOxandSO2(fromcombustionandfromprocess,respectively)
• Landfilledresiduals
• Beneficialuseofresiduals
• Fuels(renewableandbiomass,fossilandpurchased)
Process inputsfromFisherweremodeledforthedifferentcontainerboardmills.ThefollowingprocessinputshavebeenreportedbyFisher:
• Virginfibercomposition
• Chemicals,e.g.causticsoda,sodiumsulfate
Thefollowingtableshowsthereportedinputofchemicalsfor1kgof industry‐averagecontainerboardbyFisherandrecovered/virginfiberinputasreportedbyAF&PA.
24FisherInternational;www.fisheri.com
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Table4.Materialinputfor1kgcorrugatedmanufacturing(1.11kgofcontainerboard)25
TheU.S.averageproductionofcontainerboardconsistsof66%linerand34%medium26.AsalsoshowninTable4,theoverallinputofrecycledfibers(postconsumerpluspostindustrial)is0.464kgper1.11kg
containerboardbasedonaninternalsurveyconductedbyAF&PA.The0.464kg isbasedon0.418kgofrecoveredfibers(postconsumer)per1kgoffinalcorrugatedproductandinternalrecyclingofproduc‐tionwasteofconvertingfacilities.
3.3 CONVERTINGPLANTS
Therollsofcontainerboardareshippedtoconvertingplants,wheretheyareprocessed(converted)intocorrugatedproducts.
Thecorrugatedmediumissoftenedbyheatandsteamtreatmentbeforereceivingitsdistinctivefluted
shapebyapairofmatingcorrugatedrollers.Starchisappliedtothetipsoftheflutesandtheyaregluedtotheinnersurfaceofonepieceof linerboard.Thisinitialboard,withonelayerof linerboardandonelayer of corrugated medium (called singleface board), then passes on to the Double Backer, where
starchisagainappliedandtheflutesaregluedtothesecondsheetoflinerboard,makingtypicalcorru‐gatedboard (referred to as singlewall or doubleface). Further processing can add additional layers ofcorrugatedmediumandlinerboard,buildingupdouble‐ortriple‐walledboard.
The corrugatedboard isdried in thehotplatesection, thenslit into the requiredwidthsandcut into
sheets,readytobeturnedintoboxes.Thefinalstagesofprocessing(folding,gluing,printing)arecarriedoutandthefinishedboxesarestacked,palletized,and/orshipped.
Materialandenergy inputsandoutputsfromconvertingoperationswereidentifiedaspartofasurveyofconvertingoperations.Inputstothesefacilitiesareasfollows:
• Containerboard
• Fossilfuels
• Purchasedelectricity
25Seechapter3.2.1formoreinformationonmaterialefficiency.Chemicalsaremake‐ups.26SeeFBA[2007]
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• Adhesives
• Borax
• Caustics
• Inks
• Resins
• Starch
• Wax
Outputsfromthesefacilitiesareasfollows:
• Corrugatedproduct(normalizedto1kgU.S.industryaverage)
• Waterdischarges(BOD5,TSS)
• Airreleases
• Residualstreatment(e.g.landfill)
Thefollowingtableshowsthematerialinputfor1kgofaveragecorrugatedproductbasedontheNCASIsurvey.
Table5.Materialinputformanufacturingof1kgofcorrugatedproductatconvertingplant
!"#$%
!"#$%&#'()"%(* +,++ -.
/$%(01 +,234567 -.
8%9 :,;<456: -.
=#- +,+;456: -.
>*1'?&@' +,63456: -.
!%A?$&0? ;,:+456B -.
!"%$&#. B,<B456B -.
C"(%9 :,++456B -.
D'?&# :,E6456< -.
&$%#$%
!"((A.%$'*FG("*A0$ + -.
Alltransportationdistances,vehicletypes,andtransportationcapacityutilizationaretakenfromdataintheappropriatestudies(CORRIM,NREL,FBA,andNCASI).Thetransportationdistanceswithinthediffer‐
entlife‐cyclestagesarelistedinTable2.
Where not otherwise specified by other data, this study has modeled vehicle types, fuel usage, andemissionsusingaGaBimodelbasedonthemostrecentU.S.CensusBureauVehicleInventoryandUse
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Survey(VIUS)(2002)andU.S.EPAemissionsstandardsforheavytrucksin2007.The2002VIUSsurveyis
themostrecentavailabledataontransportationuseintheU.S.,andthe2007EPAemissionsstandardsareconsideredbythisstudy’sauthorstobethemostrepresentativedataavailableonvehiclefueluseandrelatedemissions.
3.4 RECOVERYANDEND‐OF‐LIFE
TheEnd‐of‐Lifephase isanimportantpartofa life‐cyclestudysinceproducthandlingat life’sendcanhavea significant influenceon theoverallprofileof theproductof interest. In the caseofcorrugated
products,thewholelifecycleofthefibersmustbeconsidereduntiltheyreachtheirfinalendaswaste.
Within life‐cycle studies, recycling can be modeled either according to the closed‐loop or open‐loopapproach. The open‐loop approach reflects products crossing system boundaries between systems,leavingthe initialsystemaswasteforrecoveryandentering theothersystemsasrawmaterial. Inthe
closed‐loopapproach,thecollectedmaterialfromrecyclingisdirectlyusedasinputbackintotheinitialproductionprocess.Iftheopen‐loopapproachisapplied,theassociatedsystemsmustbeanalyzedalso.Thecomplexityofthecorrugatedproductsystemwouldrequirenotonlythemodelingofallproduction
processesandEnd‐of‐Life,butalsotheproductionofcorrugatedproductsenteringtheU.S.fromforeignmarkets.Hence,forthepurposesofthismodelwehaveappliedaclosed‐looprecyclingapproach.Figure3 provides a qualitative overview of corrugated material once it enters the End‐of‐Life stage. While
thereisinformationavailableintheabsolutemasscollected(recycledinU.S.)aswellaswherethecol‐lectedoldcorrugatedproductsare recycled (input tocontainerboardmills, input topaperboardmills,inputtoothermills),thereisnoinformationonhowmuchisenteringtheU.S.(foreignproductioninthe
formofnewand/orfilledcontainersholdingproductsorasOCC),goingto landfill/ incineration(sharedisposed)orleavingtheU.S.(exports).Asthelinkedsystemsareverydifficulttoassess,theopen‐loopapproachisnotfeasibletoapplytotheexistingsituation.
Figure3.QualitativemassflowmodelofEoLsituationofoldcorrugatedproducts
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The ISO technical report1404927alsodescribesanopen‐loopapproachonahypotheticalpaperboard
system.Thisapproachdiscussestheallocationoftheenvironmentalloadbetweenthefirstcycle(virginproduct)andtheproductscontainingrecycledfibers;itreflectstheenvironmentalloadingfromthefirstproductcycletotheendoftheproduct’slife.Howeverthisapproachwouldrequiretheinformationon
thelinkedsystemsandtheenvironmentalprofilefor100%virginproducttobeavailable.Sincethein‐dustryaverageforcontainerboardproductionreflectsvirginandrecycledfiber input,there isnoenvi‐ronmentalprofileavailablefor100%virgincontainerboard.
3.4.1 CLOSED‐LOOPRECYCLINGAPPROACH
Asdescribedabove,thesituationofcorrugatedproductenteringitsEnd‐of‐Lifestageishighlycomplexanddifficulttoassess.Applyingtheclosed‐loopapproachavoidsallocationasadvisedbyISO14040/44.
Theclosed‐loopapproachconsidersthattherecoveredmaterial isusedinthesameproduct life‐cycle.ThisimpliesthatallrecycledfiberinputiscollectedinthesamelifecycleandthatnoOCCisleavingthesystemnorisadditionalcorrugatedproductenteringthesystem.
Seventy‐eightpercent (78%, or0.78 kgoutof1 kg) of theU.S. shipmentsare recovered.While 0.418
kg28oftherecoveredfiber isrecycledwithincontainerboardmills,theremainingamountisrecycledinnon‐containerboardmills. As thispreventscorrugatedmaterial fromgoing to landfilloperationsor in‐cineration,andthereforenoenvironmentaleffectisrelatedtothismaterial,itismodeledas“recycledin
othersystem”.Nocreditsorburdensareassignedtothisfractionatthispoint.
27ISO[14049:2000]Environmentalmanagement‐‐LifeCycleAssessment‐‐ExamplesofapplicationofISO14041togoalandscopedefinitionandinventoryanalysis28The0.418kgrepresents41.8%ofUSshipmentor53.6%oftherecoveredamount.
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Li feCycleofbox1000mi les truckGaBi4Prozeßplan:Mass[kg]
Corrugatedboard
1kg
Corrugatedboard
1kg
Recoveredfiber(OCC,ONP,MP)
0.418kg
Xp03EoLEPAmodel
p02Transportofproduct‐usephase
p01Averagecorrugatedproduct‐basedonaveragenumbers
Overa l l recoveryrate78%
Figure4.Exemplarymassflowofclosed‐loopapproach
Thecorrugatedproductenteringdisposalismodeledaccordingtothe2006U.S.EPAstatisticsonEnd‐of‐Lifetreatmentofmunicipalsolidwaste2930.
29 See [EPA2006]:United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2006. SolidWasteManage‐mentandGreenhouseGases:ALife‐CycleAssessmentofEmissionsandSinks,3rdEdition.Washington,D.C. U.S. EPA Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response. See Table 6‐2.http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/wycd/waste/SWMGHGreport.html.30SimulationofthedisposalphaseusingPElandfillmodelhandlingoldcorrugatedcontainersandthesamesettingoftechnicalparameters,e.g.carbonsequesteredorlandfillgasrecovered,resultedinsimi‐larGHGnumbers(within10%range).PleasenotethatthePElandfillmodelhasbeendevelopedinde‐pendentlyfromtheEPAmodel.
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03EoLEPAmodel pGaBi4Pr ozeßplan:Mass [ kg]
0.418kg 0.22kg
1kg
0.0407kg 0.1793kg
0.362kg
pEndofLi fehandl ingofcorrugatedproduct
Corrugatedproductforrecycl ing
pCorrugatedto
landfi l l /incineration
XCorrugatedproduct
enteringEoL
Combustionofcorrugatedproduct
pLandfi l l of
corrugatedaccordingtoEPA
Paperforrecycledinothersystem
Overal l recoveryrate78%
Figure5.MassflowofEnd‐of‐Lifemodel
Of the corrugated landfilled, 55% (asmeasuredby carbon content) is sequestered formore than 100years31.Carboncontentthatisnotsequesteredforlongerthan100years isassumedtodegradeunderaerobicandanaerobicconditions;theCisto40%convertedintoCO2and60%toCH4.While10%ofthe
generatedmethane is converted intoCO2bybacteria, the remaining90%of the landfill gasare eithercollected(59%oftherecoveredmethane)orreleasedtotheenvironment(41%oftherecoveredmethane).Ofthe
collectedlandfillgas47.5%isburnedonsitewhile52.5%areusedasaproductinotherapplications.Nocreditsoremissionsareassignedtothecapturedlandfillgasusedasaproduct.
TheCO2emissionsareemittedto theenvironmentandaccountedasGHGofthe lifecyclemodelalso
includesCO2uptakeduringforestry.
31Foramoredetaileddescriptionofthemodelpleaseseethe2006EPAreport“SolidWasteManage‐mentandGreenhouseGases–ALife‐CycleAssessmentofEmissionsandSinks”[EPA2006]
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4 RESULTS
Thefollowingchaptershowsthe inventoryresults,LCAresultsandrelevanceofthedifferent life‐cycle
stages.
Genericcombustionprocessesofspecificenergycarrierscovernon‐reportedcombustion‐relatedemis‐sions.
4.1 LIFECYCLEINVENTORY
Thischapterpresentstheinventorynumbersforproductionof1kgofU.S.industry‐averagecorrugatedproductandadiscussiononbiogeniccarbonof1kgofcontainerboard(cradle‐to‐gate).
4.1.1 INVENTORYOF1KGAVERAGECORRUGATEDPRODUCT
Thefollowingtableslisttheinventoriesforproductionof1kgU.S.industry‐averagecorrugatedproduct.
Table6describesthegate‐to‐gate inventoryofanaveragemill forproductionof1.11kgofcontainer‐boardproduct(enteringtheconvertingstepforproductionof1kgofcorrugatedproduct);Table7rep‐
resentstheinventoryofanaverageconvertingplantforproductionof1kgofcorrugatedboard.
Theydonot include inbound transportation tomills andconvertingplants,nor transportationof finalproduct and End‐of‐Life.While they include the emissions associated with the combustion processeswithinthemillandconvertingplant,theeffortsrelatedtotheproductionofmaterialsandenergycarri‐
ers (fossiland renewable)arenot included.Also the generationofexternallypurchasedend energy isnotincludedinTable6asinventoryemissions,howeveritis includedintheoverallenvironmentalpro‐file.
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Table6.Inventoryofaveragemillfor1.11kgofcontainerboardproduct(gate‐to‐gate)32
32“Beneficials”–Terminologyindicatingthebeneficialuseofwaste.Forexample,sludgeofwastewatertreatmentinsteadofnewmaterial.
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Containerboardproductionischaracterizedbyawaterthroughputof43.2kgper1.11kgofcontainer‐board,butthenetwaterconsumption33onlyaccountsfor~4.9kgper1.11kgofcontainerboard(or1kg
ofcorrugatedproduct).Theremainingwateristreatedbyeither internalorexternalwastewatertreat‐mentandfeedsbacktotheenvironment.
Table7.Inventoryofaverageconvertingplantfor1kgofcorrugatedproduct(gate‐to‐gate)
33Thenetwaterconsumptionisthedifferenceofthewaterenteringthemillsandreleasedei‐
thertowastewatertreatmentplantsordirecttotheenvironment.Itisthesumofwaterretainedincontainerboard,evaporation,andwatercontentofwastestreams.
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Please note that noproductionwaste is considered for the gate‐to‐gate inventory for the converting
plant,asthereisnowaste.Themajorityofcontainerboardnotendingupincorrugatedproductsisusedwithintheplantsfordifferentpurposes.Everythingthatisnotusedissentbackforrecycling.Theaver‐age inputofcontainerboardintoconvertingplantsperkgofcorrugatedproduct isapproximately1.11
kg.
4.1.2 BIOGENICCARBONCONSIDERATIONSFOR1KGCONTAINERBOARD
Greenhousegas(GHG)‐relevantemissionsandbiogeniccarbonwarrantspecialattentionforanystudy
ofabio‐basedmaterial.ThefollowingfiguresdisplaytheCO2equivalentoftherelevantGHGemissionsbytheirsource,e.g.productionofvirginfibers,combustion,andelectricityproductionof1kgofaveragecontainerboard going into the converting plants. It shows the specific numbers for carbon dioxide,
methane,andnitrousoxide.AllremainingGHG‐relevantemissionsarecombinedunder“other”.
Whendiscussingbiogeniccarbon,specifically,theCemissionsfrombiomasscombustionoroxidation,itisimportanttoexplaintheconceptofbiomassCO2asbeingneutralorzero.Inthelongrun,CO2emittedfrom the oxidation of biomass does not increase atmospheric CO2 concentrations based on the valid
assumptionthattheatmosphericCO2emittedisoffsetbytheuptakeofCO2thatresultsfromsequestra‐tion of atmospheric CO2 and growth of new biomass. Consequently, the CO2 emissions from biomasscombustionarereportedseparatelyandnettedwiththefossilfuelsGHGemissionsbeforeenteringthe
categorization step in the Life Cycle Impact Assessment phase of the LCA. It must be noted that thenumbersshowninFigure6representtheaveragecontainerboardinputinconvertingplantsfortheen‐tireindustry;thecarbonuptakeofcontainerboardproductionisdirectlyrelatedtothevirginfibercon‐
tent.Thisincludesthefactthatanaverageof0.464kgofrecycledfiber,1.16kgvirginfiberand0.154kgofadditionalbiomass forcombustion enters themillsper1 kgofcorrugatedproduct. Itmustalsobe
recognizedthattheCO2uptakerelatedtotherecycledfiberinput isnotdisplayedinthefigure;thus itonlyrepresentsthecradle‐to‐gatesituationforcontainerboardproduction.Itdoesnotreflecttheimpli‐cationsatEnd‐of‐Lifeassociatedwithmethaneemissions from landfill,etc.TheGHGnumber forhan‐
dling22%ofcorrugatedmaterial(whichistheamountrelatedto1.11kgofcontainerboard),basedontheappliedEPAmodel,addsupto0.42kgofCO2‐equivalent.Theinfluenceofhandlingcorrugatedma‐terialatEoLisdiscussedinchapter5.
Assuminganaveragecarboncontentof46%oftherecycledfiber input,therelatedCO2uptakewould
beabout0.78kgofCO234.
AsdemonstratedinFigure6,allstagesaredominatedbycarbondioxideemissions.
The GHG emissions associated with the fiber mix and biomass supply (as additional energy sources)stemfromtheuseoffossil‐basedenergysources(transportation,sawmills,etc.)orfertilizersuseddur‐ingharvestingwood.As thisshareisbasedonfossilenergyresources itcannotbeconsideredcarbon‐
340.464kgrecoveredfibers*46%carboncontent=0.213kgC=17.75mol;M(CO2)=44g/mol,thusCO2
uptake=17.75*44E‐3=0.78kg
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neutral.ThesamelogicappliestotheGHG‐relevantemissionsassociatedwithcombustionoffossilfuels
orproductionoffossil‐basedelectricityandsteam.
Figure6.GHGemissions(inCO2‐equiv.)andCO2uptakeof1kgofaveragecontainerboard35
Due to the carbon neutrality of carbon dioxide emissions based on biogenic carbon, neither the CO2emissions related tobiomasscombustionnor the respectivecarbonuptake related to thecombustedbiomassaredisplayedinFigure6.ThedisplayedCO2uptakeonlyrepresentstheamountofCO2related
tothecarboncontentofcontainerboardandminorquantityofcarboninwastestreams.36
35Pleasenotethattheamountofnitrousoxide,methane,andotheristoosmalltobevisibleinfigure.36AmoredetailedC‐balancecanbefoundinAppendixA:BiogenicbasedCarbonbalanceofcontainer‐boardmills
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4.1.3 ENERGYRESOURCESUSEDFOR1KGCORRUGATEDPRODUCT
Thefollowingtableliststheuseofenergyfromnon‐renewable(fossil)aswellasrenewablesourcesrelatedtothedifferentcategoriesduringcontainerboardmanufacturingaswellasconversion.Theuseofrenewableenergyresourcesduringconversionismainlyrelatedtotheuseofstarch.
Table8.Energyresourcesusedformanufacturingof1kgcorrugatedproduct
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4.2 IMPACTRESULTSANDPRIMARYENERGYDEMAND
4.2.1 RESULTSOVERTOTALLIFECYCLE
Thischaptershowsresultsof1kgoffinalproductforthefollowingspecificstages:
• Fiberproduction:Thisincludesvirginfiberproduction,transportationfromforesttomillaswellastherecycledinputtomill.Thefollowingaveragetransportationdistancesforinboundtransportationofvirginfiberareassumed:225milesbytrain,150milesbyship
and50milesbytruck.
• Containerboardproduction:Productionofthecontainerboard(linerandmedium).Thisincludes energies and chemicals needed during mill operation. The following averagetransportation distances for inbound transportation of chemicals are assumed: 225
milesbytrain,150milesbyshipand50milesbytruck;seeTable2.
• Converting plant: All impacts associated with efforts needed for converting. This in‐cludesenergies,chemicals,glue,starch, inks,etc.aswellashandlingofwastestreams.Thefollowingaveragetransportationdistancesfor inboundtransportationforcontain‐
erboardareassumed:850milesbytrainand500milesbytruck;seeTable2.
• TransportationinUsePhase:Thispartisrepresentativeforthetransportationofthefi‐nalproduct:1,000milespertruck.
• EoLproduct:EoLcoverstheeffortsandimpactsforlandfilloperationsandincineration
aswellasthecreditforavoidedproductionofthermalenergyandelectricityrelatedtoenergyrecoveryofcollectedlandfillgasandcorrugatedmaterial.
Thefollowingtableshowsabsolutenumbersforthedifferentenvironmentalimpactcategoriesanalyzedin this report, specific to different stages of the life cycle of 1 kg of corrugated product, within the
boundaryconditionsdescribedearlierinthereport.Thedifferentlife‐cyclestagesincludefiberproduc‐tion, containerboard production, converting plant (summarized in the column “Total”), transport andEnd‐of‐Life.
GeneralRemark
Asdescribedinchapter4.1.2carbondioxideemissionsbasedonbiomasscombustion(biogeniccarbon
dioxideemissions)areconsideredtobecarbonneutral.Thereforetheyarenotdisplayedinthefollow‐ing tablesandgraphs.As thecarbonneutrality isdirectlyrelatedto thecarbonuptakeofbiomassthecarbonuptakerelatedtothebiomassusedasenergysupplyisalsonotdisplayedinthefollowingtables
andgraphs.Thecarbonuptakeforfiberproductionrepresentsonlythesharethatendsupinpaper.
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Table9.EnvironmentalimpactplusPrimaryEnergyDemand(PE)perspecificlife‐cyclestageof1kgofcorrugatedproduct37
Figure7.Shareoflife‐cyclestagesperimpactcategoryplusPrimaryEnergyDemand(PE)for1kgof
corrugatedproduct
37Pleasenotethatduetoroundingthesumvaluenotnecessarilymatchthesumofthesinglevalues
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Asshowninthetableandfigureabove,allconsideredcategoriesaredominatedbycontainerboardpro‐
duction.
ThereisanegativevalueintheGlobalWarmingPotentialinthefiberproduction.Thereducedenviron‐mental impactontheGWPisduetotheuseofbiomassasrawmaterialforthefiberproduction.SincebiomassabsorbsCO2initsgrowthphaseviaphotosynthesis,theproductionofbiomassrepresentsanet
CO2sink.
Thehandlingofthecorrugatedproductatitslife‐endplaysaminorroleforPE,AP,andEP(lessthan1%contributiontotheoverallimpacts).ItismoresignificantforGWP(40%).ThiseffectismainlyrelatedtoconversionofashareoftheC‐contentofpapertomethaneandcarbondioxidewhenitislandfilled.
ThetransportationassociatedwithcollectionofOCCiscoveredbytransportationofinboundmaterialto
containerboardmillsandconvertingplants.
Overallitisclearthatthecontributiontodifferent impactcategoriesvariesacrossthelife‐cyclestages.Thisshowstheimportanceofincludingvariousimpactcategoriesandconsideringtheentirelifecycleofacorrugatedproduct.Thefollowingfigurespresentabsolutevaluesforthespecific life‐cyclestagesas
describedabove.
Figure8shows thePrimary EnergyDemand (fossil)of thedifferent life‐cycle stages: fiberproduction,containerboardproduction,converting,transportandEnd‐of‐Life.ThePrimaryEnergyDemand(fossil)isdominatedbycontainerboardproduction(approximately60%isrelatedtothecombustionoffossilfuels
and40%relatedtoelectricityconsumption);thecontributionofchemicalsusedduringcontainerboardproduction is less than1%.Forconvertingplants, thesituation looksdifferent. About10%of PrimaryEnergyDemand is related to the chemicals used, 25% to the generationof the consumedelectricity,
25% to transportationofcontainerboard to theconvertingplant,and the remaining40% is related totheuseoffossilfuels.AsduringincinerationatEoL,electricityaswellassteamisproduced,acreditisgiven.Thiscreditisdueto“avoidedproduction”ofelectricityaswellassteam.Overallitcanbesaidthat
thePrimaryEnergyDemandismainlyinfluencedbytheuseoffossilfuelsandelectricityconsumptionincontainerboardmillsandconvertingplants.
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Figure8.PrimaryEnergyDemand(inMJ)‐non‐renewable(fossil)–1kgproductoverlifecycle
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Figure9.GlobalWarmingPotential(inkgCO2‐equiv.)–1kgproductoverlifecycle
GlobalWarmingPotentialasshowninFigure9includesallgreenhousegas‐relevantemissionsstemmingfromthesupplyandcombustionoffossilfuelsaswellassupplyofrenewablefuelsandanyotherrele‐
vant emissions. It represents thenet“CO2‐equivalent”value for1kgofcorrugatedproduct related tothetotallifecycle.Followingtheconceptofcarbonneutralityofbiogeniccarbondioxideemissions,theshownGWP for containerboardproductiondoes not include carbondioxide emissions related to the
combustionofbiogeniccarbon.ConsequentlytheshownCO2uptakeisonlyrelatedtothecarboncon‐tentofvirginfiberthatisnotcombustedashogfuel(manufacturingresidues)orblackliquor.Thenega‐tivevalueforfiberproductionisduetothefactthatbiomassabsorbsCO2initsgrowthphaseviaphoto‐
synthesis.ThecontributionoftheEoLphaseisrelatedtoCO2andmethane,whichisreleasedfromland‐filloperation.
Theoverall net GWPof 1 kgU.S. industry‐average corrugatedproduct,within the assumedboundaryconditionsoverthetotallife‐cycleresults,isapproximately1.00kgofCO2‐equivalent.
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Basedon theboundaryconditionsas shown inFigure5,approximately0.42 kgofCO2 equivalentsare
relatedtoEoL(78%arerecoveredandrecycled,while0.22kgofoldcorrugatedproductaredisposed).Withoutanyrecycling,100%ofthecorrugatedproductswouldbehandledbyeitherlandfillorincinera‐tion,andtheCO2impactswouldbearound1.9kg38.
AsindicatedinFigure9,thehandlingofusedcorrugatedproductatEnd‐of‐LifebasedontheEPAmodel
showsasignificantcontributiontotheoverallGWP.Thisisbasedonthefactthatapproximately40%ofthemethaneemissionsfromlandfilloperationsisdirectlyreleasedtotheenvironment.TheimportanceofEnd‐of‐Lifecorrugatedproductsontheoveralllife‐cycleperformancewillbediscussedinchapter5.1.
.
Figure10.EutrophicationPotential(TRACI,inN‐equiv.)‐1kgproductoverlifecycle
EutrophicationandAcidificationPotential,showninFigure10andFigure11,aredominatedbycombus‐tionoffuels(fossilandnon‐fossilbased)duringcontainerboardproductionandinconvertingfacilities.
380.22kgdisposed=0.42kgCO2equiv.1kgdisposed=0.42/0.22kgCO2equiv.(1.9kg)
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Pleasenotethatitisnotpossibletodiscussandanalyzethecontainerboardproductionandconverting
plants inmoredetailbasedonthelevelofaggregationwithwhichdatawascollectedandprovidedbyparticipatingmills.Itisnotpossibletoassignreportedemissionstotheirplaceoforiginmorespecificallythanonthesitelevel.
Figure11.AcidificationPotential(TRACI,inmolH+‐equiv.)‐1kgproductoverlifecycle
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Figure12.POCP/SmogPotential(TRACI,inkgNOx‐equiv.)‐1kgproductoverlifecycle
POCP/SmogPotential,showninFigure12,isdominatedbycombustionoffuels(fossilandnon‐fossilbased)duringcontainerboardproductionandinconvertingfacilities.Transportbetweencontainerboardmillsandconvertingfacilitiesandaswellaselectricityconsumedinconvertingplantsshowasignificantcontributiontotheoverallsmogpotentialofconvertingplants.
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4.2.2 RESULTSOF1KGOFCONTAINERBOARD
Thissectionshowsthecontribution toPrimaryEnergyDemand–(non‐renewable(fossil)resources)offurnish input intomills, different energysources combustedon‐site,and electricityandsteambought
fromexternalsources.Adetaileddiscussiononglobalwarmingcanbefoundinchapter4.1.2.
ItisnotpossibletogeneratesimilargraphsforAP,EPandPOCPbecausetheNOxandSO2emissions,aswellasotherreleasestotheenvironment,wereonlyreportedasoverallvalues.Thereforeitisnotpos‐sibletoassignspecificamountstothedifferentcombustionprocesses.Foranoverallaverageprofilethis
isnotnecessaryandthereforesufficientforthepurposeofthisstudy.
ThefollowingtableshowsabsolutequantitiesfortheuseoffossilenergyresourcesandCO2equivalentsasameasureofglobalwarmingfor1kgofaveragecontainerboard.
Table10.GWPandnon‐renewableenergyresourcesusedfor1kgofcontainerboard
Note: For 1 kg of final product 1.11 kg of containerboard is needed. Therefore the share of non‐
renewable (fossil) energy resourcesused for1 kgof corrugatedproductamounts to14.78MJ. PleaseseeTable8forspecificnumbers.Thesameappliestotheotherindicators.
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Figure13.PrimaryEnergyDemand(non‐renewable(fossil)energyresources,inMJ)–1kgofpaper
inputtoconvertingplant
Asindicated inFigure13thehighestshareofPrimaryEnergyDemandisrelatedtofossil‐fuelcombus‐tionon‐siteandpurchasedelectricity/steam.Approximately85%ofthePrimaryEnergyDemandfromnon‐renewablesourcesisrelatedtotheelectricityandfossilfuelconsumption.Thecontributionrelated
tofurnish(virginandrecycledfibers)andcombustionofbiomassareduetotheuseoffossilfuels,fertil‐izers,etc.duringforestry.Thecontributionrelatedtotheproductionofthechemicalsusedincontain‐
erboardmillsislessthan1%.
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5 SENSITIVITYANALYSIS
5.1 INFLUENCEOFEOLONLIFE‐CYCLEPERFORMANCE
AsshowninFigure14,theEnd‐of‐LifestagehasasignificantinfluenceonoverallGlobalWarmingPoten‐tial. Different EoL scenarios havebeen simulated to show the influenceonoverall performance. The
followingscenarioshavebeenassessed:
• Base:Asdescribedinmainreport–78%recovered,18%to landfill (59%landfillgascaptured),4%toincineration
• Allrecovered:Allcorrugatedproductrecovered,nothingtolandfill/incineration
• 78%recovered/allincinerated:78%recovered/allnon‐recoveredincinerated
• 78%recovered/allgasrecovered:78%recovered/alllandfillgasrecovered
• 78%recovered/nogasrecovered:78%recovered/nolandfillgasrecovered
Ascanbeseeninthefollowingfigures,thehandlingofoldcorrugatedproductshasasignificant influ‐
enceonoverallenvironmentalperformance.Forexample,shouldnocorrugatedproductbeincineratedorlandfilledatEnd‐of‐Life,theoverallGWPwoulddecreasebyabout40%comparedwiththebasecase.Alsothehandlingoflandfillgashasasignificantinfluence.Forexample,ifnolandfillgaswererecovered
theoverallGWPwouldincreasebynearly40%,whilearecoveryofalllandfillgaswouldresultinade‐creaseofabout20%.
Pleasenotethat47.5%oftherecoveredlandfillgasiscombustedon‐siteandthatnocombustionemis‐sionshavebeenassignedtorecoveredlandfillgas,whichisusedasaproductatthispoint.
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Figure14.InfluenceofdifferentEoLscenarios–GWP(inkgCO2‐equiv.),absolutevalues
Pleasekeepinmindthattheinfluenceontheenergymixofrecoveredfiber input intocontainerboardmillshasnotbeenassessed. Thesensitivityanalysis isbasedon thesameenergymixof fossiland re‐
newableenergyinputintocontainerboardmills.
Consideringtheseassumptions,theanalysisclearlyindicatedthattheEoLstage,whichrepresentsland‐fillandincinerationofthenon‐recoveredOCC,isofrelativelyhighimportanceandthattheoverallpro‐filemaybereducedbymanagingtheEnd‐of‐Lifestagesofcorrugatedproducts.Asclearlyshowninthe
figureabove,areductionofabout20%oftheGWPmaybeachievedbycapturingalllandfillgas.
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Figure15.InfluenceofdifferentEoLscenarios–GWP(inkgCO2‐equiv.),relativegraph
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5.2 INFLUENCEOFTRANSPORTATIONOFFINALPRODUCT
Thischaptershowstheinfluenceofdifferenttransportdistancesofthefinalcorrugatedproductontheenvironmentalperformanceof1kgoffinalproduct.Thereforethefollowingtwoscenariosaremodeled
anddiscussed:
1. 1kgproducttransported1,000milesviatruck
2. 1kgproducttransported1,500milesviatruck
Theanalysisfocusesonthefollowingquestions:
1. Overallshareoftransportation:
For nearly all analyzed impact categories the share of transportation is below10%of theoverallnetimpact.TheonlyexceptionisGWPfortransportationscenario2:shareofthenetimpactis15%.
2. Influenceoftransportationscenariosonresults:
AllanalyzedimpactcategoriesexceptGWPshownorealsensitivitytotheincreaseintrans‐
portdistanceofthefinalproduct.Theincreaseof50%distanceonlyresultsinanincreaseofabout1%withrespecttotheoverallnumbers.OnlyforGWPthevariationofthedistanceparametershowsanincreaseof5%.ThereforetheGWPshouldbeconsideredsensitiveto
thetransportdistance.
Conclusion:
ThetransportdistanceofthefinalproductviatruckisonlyrelevantforGWP.
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Figure16.InfluenceoftransportdistancesonoverallLCIforPE(non‐renewable,inMJ)
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Figure17.InfluenceoftransportdistancesonoverallLCIforGWP(inCO2‐equiv.)
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Figure18.InfluenceoftransportdistancesonoverallLCIforPOCP/Smog(TRACI,inNOx‐equiv.)
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Figure19.InfluenceoftransportdistancesonoverallLCIforAP(TRACI,inmolH+‐equiv.)
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Figure20.InfluenceoftransportdistancesonoverallLCIforEP(TRACI,inN‐equiv.)
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6 CONCLUSIONS
ThisstudyrepresentsacomprehensiveLCAofU.S. industry‐averagecorrugatedproduct.Assuch,con‐
clusionscanbedrawningeneralacrosstheentireindustry.
Ascurrentlyconstituted,thefollowingconclusionsmayreasonablybemadebasedontheresultsofthisstudy:
• Containerboardmillsdrivethelife‐cycleprofiles–Forallimpactcategories,materialandenergy flows frompapermillsdominate the results. Environmental impactsaredomi‐
natedbyenergydemandsatthemill.Bio‐basedenergy(e.g.hog‐fuel, liquor,etc.)sub‐stantiallyreducesglobalwarmingpotentialcontributionfrommills,butdoesnotelimi‐natemills’GWPcontributiondueto theiruseoffossil fuels.Energysourcing isaman‐
agementoptionopen tomilloperators thatcanhavea substantial effecton the envi‐ronmental impacts. Increaseduseofbio‐basedenergysourceswill furtherreducethe
overalluseoffossilenergyandGWP impactsfrommills,althoughtherearenumerousfactorsthatmustbeconsideredinenergysourcingdecisions(e.g.availabilityandprice).
• Transportationof final product does not define profile – Long‐distance transportationscenarios(basedonnationalaverages)weremodeledyetstillrepresentedaninsignifi‐
cantchangeinoveralllife‐cycle impactsforall impactcategoriesexceptGWP.It ispos‐siblethatlongerdistancesanddifferenttransportationmodesoccur,inwhichcaseaddi‐tionalsensitivityscenarioscanbecalculatedtodemonstrateimpact.
• End‐of‐Life isonly importantwith respect toGWP–End‐of‐Lifeasmodeled (basedon
2006 industry average) demonstrates that it is only important in relation to globalwarmingpotential.Otherlife‐cycleimpactindicatorsshowlittleornoresponsefromtheEnd‐of‐Life stage.TheEnd‐of‐Life effectonGWP ismainly related tomethane genera‐
tionfromlandfilloperations,whichisnotcaptured.ThesensitivityanalysisondifferentEnd‐of‐Lifemanagementscenariosclearlyshowedthatincreasingtherecoveryrate, in‐creasing efforts to capturemethane, or increasing the percentage of disposed corru‐
gatedmaterialsthatareincineratedforenergyrecoveryhavethepotentialto improveoverallenvironmentalperformance.
• Topicsforfurtherinvestigation:
o Relationshipbetweenuseof recovered fibersandwoodasmaterial input intocontainerboardmills
Increasing corrugated recovery (from the 2006 figure of 78% recovery of
U.S.shipmentswith41.8%recyclingwithincontainerboardmillsand36.2%recycling in other mills) will have a positive influence on reducing theamount of corrugated landfilled and GHG‐relevant emissions associated
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withlandfill.Atthesametimeanincreaseofrecoveredmaterialusewillre‐
sultinadecreaseofwoodfiberinputincontainerboardmills,whichwillde‐crease the CO2 uptake during forestry. As a secondary effect the energysupplymixisinfluencedbytheamountofrecoveredfiberandwoodinput.
Future investigationsmay analyze this effect by adding quantitative infor‐
mationabouttheinfluenceofrecycledcontentonthecarbonfootprintdis‐cussionrelatedtocorrugatedproducts.
o Changetoahighershareofbio‐fuels
Achangetowardsanincreaseduseofbio‐basedenergysupplywouldcertainlyhaveapositiveeffectonreducingthecarbonfootprintofcontainerboardmills
andconvertingplants,butmayresultinanincreaseinotherenvironmentalim‐pacts.
Future investigationsmayanalyzeandoptimize themixofenergysupply fromanenvironmentalperspective.
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APPENDIXA:BIOGENICBASEDCARBONBALANCEOFCONTAINERBOARDMILLS
Thefollowingtabledisplaysthevirtualpathofthebiogenic‐basedcarbonthroughtheaveragecontain‐erboardmill.TheC‐contentofeachinputandoutputstreamiscalculatedbasedontheoverallmassper
1kgofaveragecontainerboardandanaverageshareofCperstream.The%valuesforbeneficials,landapplication,incinerationgoods,andwastetolandfillareaveragevaluesprovidedbyNCASI.Thesevaluesmust be seen as average values andmay vary frommill tomill. Additional biomass is assumed to be
mainlybone‐drywood.
Table11.Balanceofbiogenicbasedcarbonthroughcontainerboardmill
Basedon theassumptionsandreportedmassflows, theC‐balanceforthe industryaveragecontainer‐boardproductisgivenasshowninTable11.
Thecarbonbalancedoesnotcloseperfectly,butthis isaconservativeassumption takingintoaccount
lessbiogeniccarbongoingin(=carbondioxideuptake)thanout.Thedifferenceisduetotheuseofdis‐creteandindependentdatasets.
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APPENDIXB:LCARESULTS–CML
ThefollowingappendixshowstheLCAresultsbasedontheCMLmethodologyandthePrimaryEnergy
Demandfromnon‐renewableresources.
Table12.EnvironmentalimpactplusPrimaryEnergyDemand(PE)perspecificlife‐cyclestageof1kgofcorrugatedproduct
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Figure21.Shareofdifferentlife‐cyclestagesperimpactcategoryplusPrimaryEnergyDemand–non‐renewableforof1kgofcorrugatedproduct
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Figure22.PrimaryEnergyDemand(inMJ)‐non‐renewable(fossil)energyresources–1kgcorrugatedproductoverlifecycle
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Figure23.CML‐EutrophicationPotential(inkgPhosphate‐equiv.)‐1kgproductoverlifecycle
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Figure24.CML‐AcidificationPotential(inkgSO2‐equiv.)‐1kgproductoverlifecycle
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Figure25.CML‐POCP(inkgEthene‐equiv.)‐1kgproductoverlifecycle
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APPENDIXC:GATE‐TO‐GATEINVENTORY
Thefollowingtablerepresentstheoverallgate‐to‐gateviewofproductionof1kgcorrugatedproductandcoversallmaterialsandenergyconsumedwithinthemillandconvertingplant,aswellasthere‐latedemissions.Theemissionsofcontainerboardandcorrugatedproductionaresummarizedinthetablebelow.
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APPENDIXD:CRADLE‐TO‐GATEINVENTORYANDLCIARESULTSOF1KGCORRU‐GATEDPRODUCT
ThefollowinggraphsshowtheLCIAresultsfor1kgofcorrugatedproduct.ThegraphsarefollowedbyaLifeCycleInventory(LCI)tablerepresentingtheoverallcradle‐to‐gateviewofproductionof1kgcorru‐gatedproduct.
Figure26.PrimaryEnergyDemand(inMJ)‐non‐renewable(fossil)energyresources–1kgcradletogatecorrugatedproduct
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Figure27.GlobalwarmingPotential(GWP)–1kgcradletogatecorrugatedproduct
Figure28.TRACIEutrophicationpotential–1kgcradletogatecorrugatedproduct
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Figure29.TRACIAcidificationpotential–1kgcradletogatecorrugatedproduct
Figure30.TRACI–Smogpotential–1kgcradletogatecorrugatedproduct
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Table13.Cradle‐to‐gateinventory–1kgcorrugatedproduct
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APPENDIXE:CRADLE‐TO‐CRADLEINVENTORY
Table14.Cradletocradleinventory–1kgofcorrugatedproduct
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APPENDIXF:THECRITICALREVIEWPANELREPORT
A panel of LCA practitioners and interested parties completed a critical review of the aforemen-tioned study and jointly developed this report according to Clause 7.3.3 of ISO 140401 (2006) and Clause 6.3 of ISO 140442 (2006) standards.
1 The Review Process Five Winds International and PE-Americas were commissioned by the Corrugated Packaging Alliance (CPA, an alliance between American Forest & Paper Association, the Fibre Box Association and the association of Independent Corrugated Converters) to conduct a “cradle -to-grave” Life Cycle As-sessment of a U.S. industry average corrugated product. As part of the framework for this study, a critical review process was undertaken, intended to ensure consistency between this LCA study and the principles and requirements of the ISO 14040/44 Inter-national Standards on Life Cycle Assessment3. Athena Sustainable Materials Institute was commissioned in May 2008 to lead the critical review in accordance with ISO 14040/44 (2006), in collaboration with co-reviewers of interested parties. The review panel included the following experts: Mr. Jamie Meil, Athena Institute - review panel Chairman; Dr. Lindita Bushi, Athena Institute. Dr. Michael Deru, US National Renewable Energy Laboratory; Ms. Martha Stevenson, Private Consultant; and Dr. Jim Wilson, Department of Wood Science and Engineering, Oregon State University; The review process entailed the following steps: 1. meet, review and comment on the study Goal & Scope document, 2. review and comment on initial study results, and 3. review and comment on the draft final study results and supporting report. At each milestone the review process considered whether the following study elements were met: 1. the methods used to carryout the LCA are consistent with the ISO 14040 series of international
LCA standards; 2. the methods used to carry out the study are scientifically and technically valid; 3. the data used are appropriate and reasonable in relation to the goal of the study; 4. the interpretation(s) reflect the limitations identified and the goal of the study; and 5. the study report is transparent.
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This document addresses the final element of the review process – review of the final study report dated December 31st, 2009. The panel’s final report review comments and recommendations for future LCA efforts for the in-dustry are presented below.
2 Critical Review Comments on the Final Report “LCA of U.S. Industry Average Corrugated Product” This study provides a “cradle-to-grave” Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) and Life Cycle Impact Assess-ment (LCIA) for 1 kg of corrugated product inclusive of four life cycle stages: container board pro-duction, converting plant, transport in use phase and end-of-life; The “cradle- to grave” LCI profile represents the 2006 US industry-average corrugated product by applying a generic model for the end-of-life phase. This model assumes that for each kg of post consumer corrugated waste that 0.418 kg is recycled within containerboard mills, 0.362 kg is recycled in other paper systems (no burden or credit assigned), 0.0407 kg is incinerated and the remainder (0.1793 kg) is land filled. The review committee followed ISO 14040/44 review guidelines when completing the three- stage review process. During each stage of the study the review committee provided a number of com-ments and recommendations to the LCA practitioners and study commissioner in order to ensure it aligned and appropriately addressed the goal and scope of the study, that it was transparent and that various methodology aspects were handled consistently as per ISO14040/44 requirements. Overall the panel is pleased with this first system (site) level effort to benchmark the US corrugated packag-ing supply (value) chain.
While the study does endure some data quality issues due to the use of aggregated industry survey data to derive primary plant data and relies on a number of secondary data sources, the significant product output representativeness of both container board and conversion industries is laudable. In addition, the consultant conducted a biogenic-based carbon balance for the system to validate the accuracy of the resource input/output data. The study methodology, the resulting LCI data and its interpretation are deemed to be consistent with the guidelines for LCA studies as set down by ISO 14040/44 and properly addresses the goal and scope of the study. The critical review panel has found this LCA study well constructed and adhering to the requirements of the ISO 14040 series of standards and has few reservations. As with any LCA study there is always room for improvement and the critical review committee has made the following recommendations concerning any future iterations of this study: 1. As mentioned in the report, the intent of this LCA study is to generate results that are credible
and can be publicly communicated in formats consistent with public databases. The initial public release of data is intended to populate the US LCI database, the GreenBlue COMPASS tool and support EPA efforts.
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To better serve the LCA community, and to increase the applicability of the results of this LCA study, we recommend making the LCI data available in a number of formats: “gate-to-gate”, “cradle-to gate” and “cradle-to grave”; the “cradle-to gate” profile will allow the LCA practitio-ners to use these data in other corrugated product specific LCA studies, where different product specific “transport in use phase” and the “end-of-life” phase can be applied. Further, the LCI datasets provided at the US LCI database are usually “cradle-to-gate” profiles. Other users have already indicated a desire to focus on “gate-to-gate” effects – e.g., papermaking and its conver-sion separately. The provision of a cradle-to-grave profile also limits the possibility of errors when rolling up the LCI data.
CPA Response: All three suggested profiles have been addressed in the full report: “cradle-to-gate” is addressed in Appendix D (page 80), fiber through converting; “gate-to-gate” profiles are addressed in Appendix C, page 79; and the “cradle-to-grave” profile is addressed in Appen-dix E, page 93.
2. The current study relies on LCI input data derived from rolled-up industry statistical data from
various and somewhat disconnected sources affording an analysis at the sub-sector level only (containerboard mill and converting plant). Future updates should be based on more generic, but detailed LCI data availability questionnaires preferably at a “unit process” level for both con-tainer board mills and conversion plants in order to improve data input quality and move the LCA beyond a rolled-up site level analysis. This is a key requirement to provide the industry with more thorough and useful information to help identify “environmental hotspots” within each site and thereby, highlight specific areas for improvement within and across the value chain.
CPA Response: We recognize the need for improved data surveying and are working with NCASI to develop an improved methodology. However, individual mills and companies need a different level of data than LCA practitioners or the public. The level of detail in this study is sufficient to the public needs. Specific plants or companies within the industry should use the LCA to identify “hot spots” and improve their environmental profile. We recognize that most facilities do not have the capability to measure the inputs and outputs at each “unit process”. Mills and convert-ers can decide internally how they wish to use the LCA and if they wish additional detail.
3. Due to a number of factors the current study uses a simplified, however, conservative “closed
loop” recycling methodology. The study assumes that 36.2% of the post consumer waste corru-gated product is recycled in other paper systems with no credits or burdens assigned. The current recycling methodology approach, while instructive and conservative, has been deemed wanting and needs to be improved in future iterations of the study. The 36.2% of post-consumer corru-gated is a considerable quantity and this recycled material is displacing “virgin” paper material in other paper mills. Environmental benefits of displacing virgin paper material and the environ-mental burdens of collecting, cleaning, sorting etc., should also be considered in the future studies by applying a “closed-loop” recycling procedure for this open-loop corrugated product system by expanding the system boundaries of the study.
CPA Response: While recognizing the desirability of using a closed-loop recycling system, ex-panding the system boundaries of the study as suggested would require a global LCA study, since recycled fiber is traded on a global market and 20% of U.S.-generated OCC is exported. There is no existing structure in place that would allow for global data gathering to account for fiber sup-ply and end-use in all markets worldwide.In addition, the question itself incorrectly asserts that the burdens of collecting, cleaning and sorting were not included in the study. In fact, these burdens were included; collection is part of transportation, and cleaning and sorting are included in the mill data.
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4. Because certain corrugated products can be made from either 100% virgin fiber or 100% recov-ered fiber such as linerboard, corrugating medium (see final report, page 35), it is recommended that any future study should provide LCI profiles for both 100% virgin and 100% recovered fiber corrugated products similar to other industry sectors. This would facilitate modeling of a specific corrugated product with different recycled contents. Again a more robust data availability questionnaire would help address this data gap.
CPA Response: The purpose of this study was to assess environmental impacts of an industry-average corrugated product. It was deemed inappropriate to analyze various fiber streams inde-pendently because the integrated corrugated industry needs both recycled and virgin fiber for the fiber supply system to work. . This approach was judged the most accurate and appropriate de-piction of the industry as a whole, which was the subject of the study. The present study includes a sensitivity analysis (Section 5.1) showing that recycling is clearly pre-ferred over incineration or landfilling. Mixed mechanical and chemical pulp fibers, inorganic fillers, plastic, glue, and ink ultimately limit the use of recovered paper stocks. To regenerate a reasonably-clean paper furnish from the last fraction of recovered paper, a great amount of energy and chemicals would have to be spent. Furthermore, a voluminous by-product of solid waste would be generated.
In addition, the CPA asked NCASI to run a sensitivity analysis that would illuminate what difference, if any, recycled furnish might have on global warming potential. The NCASI analysis shows that there is no statistically significant relationship between recycled content and GWP resulting from direct and purchased-energy emissions on an industry-wide basis, as shown below. This is because most virgin containerboard mills self-generate steam and electricity from carbon-neutral biomass, while recycled containerboard mills typically purchase fuel and electricity. Other plant-specific character-istics (such as equipment used, energy efficiency and energy sources) far outweigh the impact that variable recycled content has on GWP. As indicated, the NCASI analysis does not include the GWP indirect emissions that are included in the LCA.
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5. Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) data were either not reported or reported in an inconsistent man-ner by the participating containerboard mills and conversion plants, and these flows were essen-tially excluded from this study. This is a limitation, which can contribute to unfair future com-parative assertions studies. Therefore, it is strongly recommended that future updates treat these missing data or data gaps as per ISO 14044:2006 recommendations, Clause 4.2.3.6.3.
CPA Response: A decision was reached by the LCA team not to use TRI data because they are derived in a variety of ways, and results in a compiled, reportable form may not meaningfully re-flect actual emissions. Some reportable materials, for example, may not be reported because use of such substances – or their emission – is far below TRI reporting limits. This decision will be revisited in the next LCA process.
6. A total of five impact categories (primary energy, climate change, eutrophication, acidification,
and photochemical smog) are used to characterize and address the environmental issues related to the average corrugated product system. Human health and eco-toxicity impact categories are not included in this study based on the uncertainty associated with these impact categories based on the “Apeldoorn Declaration from 2004”4.
We would like to point out that (a) the Apeldoorn Declaration was specifically focused on the current practices and complications of LCIA methodologies for “non-ferrous metals”; (b) the declaration does not over-rule the ISO 14040: 2006 and ISO 14044:2006 requirements and rec-ommendations in any form - as per ISO 14044: 2006, Clause 4.4.2.2.1, “the selection of impact categories shall reflect a comprehensive set of environmental issues related to the product system being studied, taking the goal and scope into consideration”; and (3) since 2004, work by the LCA community to harmonize and improve these end-point characterization methods has progressed. The Task Force on Toxic Impacts, launched in 2003, under the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initia-tive5 has developed recommendations on characterization models and factors. Characterization factors for thousands of substances for human health and ecotoxic impacts are calculated in the framework of the international consensus model for comparative assessment of chemicals (USE-tox)6,7. In the near future, USEtox characterization factors will be supported by the EPA’s TRACI methodology and these should be considered for inclusion in future iterations of the study.
CPA Response: Human health and ecotoxicity impact categories are not included in this study for several reasons. Data on toxic releases by the mills and converters represented in this study were inadequate in number and quality to enable proper inclusion in the inventory. These facts were the basis of the decision reached by the LCA team to exclude these impact categories. While the Apeldoorn Declaration of 2004 deals specifically with impact assessment of metals in LCA studies, the uncertainty associated with human health and ecotoxicity impact categories noted in this Declaration applies equally well to toxic release data in a study such as this one. Poor and insufficient data coupled with inherent uncertainties in available impact assessment methods support the decision of the project team. The project team recommended that the industry ad-dress toxic releases independently of the LCA through use of toxic risk assessment.
These scoping and data collection recommendations are just that – recommendations. They are not meant to chal lenge the methods or conclusions of this current ISO compli-ant benchmark study. The peer review panel is confident that the adoption of these recommen-dations, however, will advance this LCA initiative and serve the industry well from both an internal improvement and external communication perspective in the future.
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Sincerely, Jamie Meil The Athena Institute (On behalf of the Critical Review Committee) 4 http://www.leidenuniv.nl/cml/ssp/projects/declaration_of_apeldoorn.pdf 5 http://www.estis.net/sites/lciatf3/ 6 http://www.usetox.org/ 7 http://www.springerlink.com/content/8217520256r12w36/fulltext.pdf
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APPENDIXG:IMPACTINDICATORS
PrimaryEnergyDemand
PrimaryEnergyDemand isoftendifficulttodetermineduetothevarioustypesofenergysources.Pri‐
maryEnergyDemandisthequantityofenergydirectlywithdrawnfromthehydrosphere,atmosphereorgeosphere,orenergysourcewithoutanyanthropogenicchange.Forfossilfuelsanduranium,thiswouldbetheamountofresourcewithdrawnexpressedinitsenergyequivalent(i.e.theenergycontentofthe
rawmaterial).Forrenewableresources,theenergy‐characterizedamountofbiomassconsumedwouldbe described. For hydropower, it would be based on the amount of energy that is gained from thechangeinthepotentialenergyofthewater(i.e.fromtheheightdifference).Asaggregatedvalues,the
followingprimaryenergiesaredesignated:
Thetotal“Primaryenergyconsumptionnon‐renewable”,giveninMJ,essentiallycharacterizesthegainfromtheenergysourcesnaturalgas,crudeoil, lignite,coalanduranium.Naturalgasandcrudeoilareusedbothforenergyproductionandasmaterialconstituents(e.g.inplastics).Coalisprimarilyusedfor
energyproduction.Uraniumisonlyusedforelectricityproductioninnuclearpowerstations.
Thetotal“Primaryenergyconsumptionrenewable”,giveninMJ,isgenerallyaccountedseparatelyandcompriseshydropower,windpower,solarenergyandbiomass.
Itis importantthattheendenergy(e.g.1kWhofelectricity)andtheprimaryenergyusedarenotmis‐calculatedwitheachother;otherwisetheefficiencyforproductionorsupplyoftheendenergywillnot
beaccountedfor.
Theenergycontentofthemanufacturedproductsisconsideredasfeedstockenergycontent.Itischar‐acterizedbythenetcalorificvalueoftheproduct.Itrepresentsthestill‐usableenergycontent.
GlobalWarmingPotential(GWP)
Themechanismofthegreenhouseeffectcanbeobservedonasmallscale,asthenamesuggests, ina
greenhouse.Theseeffectsarealsooccurringonaglobalscale.Theoccurringshort‐waveradiationfromthesuncomesintocontactwiththeearth’ssurfaceandispartlyabsorbed(leadingtodirectwarming)andpartlyreflectedasinfraredradiation.Thereflectedpartisabsorbedbyso‐calledgreenhousegases
inthetroposphereandisre‐radiatedinalldirections,includingbacktoearth.Thisresultsinawarmingeffectattheearth’ssurface.
Inaddition to thenaturalmechanism, the greenhouse effect isenhancedbyhumanactivities.Green‐housegasesthatareconsideredtobecaused,orincreased,anthropogenicallyare,forexample,carbon
dioxide,methaneandCFCs.Figure31shows themainprocessesof theanthropogenicgreenhouseef‐fect.Ananalysisofthegreenhouseeffectshouldconsiderthepossiblelong‐termglobaleffects.
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Theglobalwarmingpotential iscalculated
in carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2‐Eq.).Thismeans that thegreenhousepotentialof an emission is given in relation to CO2.
Since the residence time of the gases inthe atmosphere is incorporated into thecalculation, a time range for the assess‐
ment must also be specified. A period of100yearsiscustomary.
CO2 CH4
CFCs
UV - radiation
AbsorptionReflection
Infraredradiation
Trace gases in th
e a
tmosphere
Figure31.Greenhouseeffect
AcidificationPotential(AP)
Theacidificationofsoilsandwatersoccurspredominantlythroughtransformationofairpollutantsintoacids.This leads toadecrease in thepH‐valueof rainwaterand fog from5.6 to4andbelow.Sulphur
dioxide,nitrogenoxideandtheirrespectiveacids(H2SO4undHNO3)producerelevantcontributions.Thisdamagesecosystems,wherebyforestdiebackisthemostwell‐knownimpact.
Acidificationhasdirectandindirectdamagingeffects(suchasnutrientsbeingwashedoutofsoilsoranincreasedsolubilityofmetalsintosoils).Butevenbuildingsandbuildingmaterialscanbedamaged.Ex‐
amplesincludemetalsandnaturalstoneswhicharecorrodedordisintegratedatanincreasedrate.
Whenanalyzingacidification, itshouldbeconsideredthatalthough it isaglobalproblem, theregionaleffectsofacidificationcouldvary.Figure32displaystheprimaryimpactpathwaysofacidification.
The acidification potential is given in sul‐phur dioxide equivalents (SO2‐Eq.). The
acidification potential is described as theability of certain substances to build and
releaseH+‐ions.Certainemissionscanalsobe considered to have an acidificationpo‐tential, if the given S‐,N‐ andhalogen at‐
omsareset inproportiontothemolecularmass of the emission. The reference sub‐stanceissulphurdioxide.
SO2
NOX
H2SO
44
HNO3
Figure32.AcidificationPotential
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EutrophicationPotential(EP)
Eutrophicationistheenrichmentofnutrientsinacertainplace.Eutrophicationcanbeaquaticorterres‐trial.Airpollutants,wastewaterandfertilizationinagricultureallcontributetoeutrophication.
Theresultinwaterisacceleratedalgaegrowth,whichinturn,preventssunlightfromreachingthelower
depths. This leads to a decrease in photosynthesis and less oxygenproduction. In addition, oxygen isneeded fordecompositionofdeadalgae. Both effectscauseadecreasedoxygenconcentration in thewater,whichcaneventuallyleadtofishdyingandtoanaerobicdecomposition(decompositionwithout
thepresenceofoxygen).Hydrogensulphideandmethanearetherebyproduced.
Oneutrophicatedsoils, increasedsusceptibilityofplants todiseasesandpests isoftenobserved,as isdegradationofplantstability.Iftheeutrophicationlevelexceedstheamountsofnitrogennecessaryforamaximumharvest, it can lead toanenrichmentofnitrate.Thiscancause,bymeansof leaching, in‐
creasednitratecontentingroundwater.Nitratealsocanendupindrinkingwater.
Nitrate at low levels is harmless from atoxicological point of view. However, ni‐trite,a reactionproductofnitrate,canbe
toxic to humans at excessive doses. Thecauses of eutrophication are displayed inFigure 33. The eutrophication potential is
calculated in phosphate equivalents(PO4‐Eq).Aswithacidificationpotential,it’simportanttorememberthattheeffectsof
eutrophication potential differ regionallyandcanvarysignificantlyindifferentwaterbodies.
Waste water
Air pollution
Fertilisation
PO4-3
NO3-
NH4+
NOXN2O
NH3
Waste water
Air pollution
Fertilisation
PO4-3
NO3-
NH4+
NOXN2O
NH3
Figure33.EutrophicationPotential
PhotochemicalOzoneCreationPotential(POCP)
Despiteplayingaprotectiverole inthestratosphere,atground‐levelozoneis classifiedasadamagingtrace gas. Photochemical ozone production in the troposphere, also known as summer smog, is sus‐pectedtodamagevegetationandmaterial.Highconcentrationsofozonearetoxictohumans.
Radiationfromthesunandthepresenceofnitrogenoxidesandhydrocarbons incurcomplexchemical
reactions,producingaggressivereactionproducts,oneofwhichisozone.Nitrogenoxidesalonedonotcausehighozoneconcentrationlevels.
Hydrocarbon emissions occur from incomplete combustion, in conjunctionwith petrol (storage, turn‐over,refuelingetc.)orfromsolvents.Highconcentrationsofozonearisewhenthetemperatureishigh,
humidity is low,whenair is relatively staticandwhen therearehigh concentrationsofhydrocarbons.
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BecauseCO(mostlyemittedfromvehicles)reducestheaccumulatedozonetoCO2andO2,highconcen‐
trationsofozonedonotoftenoccurnearhydrocarbonemissionsources.Higherozoneconcentrationsmorecommonlyariseinareasofcleanair,suchasforests,wherethereislessCO(Figure34).
In Life Cycle Assessments, PhotochemicalOzone Creation Potential (POCP) is re‐
ferred to in ethylene‐equivalents (C2H4‐Äq.). When analyzing, it’s important toremember that the actual ozone concen‐
tration is strongly influenced by theweather and by the characteristics of thelocalconditions.
HydrocarbonsNitrogen oxides
Dry and warmclimate
Hydrocarbons
Nitrogen oxides
Ozone
HydrocarbonsNitrogen oxides
Dry and warmclimate
Hydrocarbons
Nitrogen oxides
Ozone
Figure34.PhotochemicalOzoneCreationPotential