dedication - au purepure.au.dk/portal/files/11411/demystifying_japan.doc · web viewit would...

Supervisor: James Bulman-MayInstitute: Aarhus School of BusinessDate: May 5th, 2010

Name: Julie Fredslund Søjberg BA-Thesis, Intercultural CommunicationName of Supervisor: James Bulman-May No. of Characters (footnotes incl.): 55978

Abstract

Today’s globalised business world calls for increased intercultural competence. Therefore, the

purpose of this thesis is to provide knowledge of and insight into a rather mystified area of the

globalised business world, namely doing business with the Japanese.

Japan is a key-player on the world market, being the second largest economy in the world. With

its population of 128 mill people, who posses considerable purchasing power, it is a very attractive

market. However, much of the literature, from where one can gain knowledge of Japanese

business culture, such as Bucknall (2006) and Chu (1988), makes the task of doing business with

the Japanese sound complicated, mysterious, and nearly impossible.

This thesis sets out to analyse how a Danish businessman can establish a successful business

relationship with a Japanese businessman or company, as well as to discuss why doing business

with the Japanese can seem difficult and complicated.

By means of well-known and time-honoured theory, such as that of Hall and Hall (1987) and

Hofstede (1980), as well as new knowledge gained through interviewing, I have analysed four of

the initial phases of the establishment of a business relationship with a Japanese person. Each

phase deals with certain cultural aspects of Japanese business culture, which can potentially cause

problems for a fictitious character, Mr Dane, whose journey is followed in the thesis. Advice is

offered but this thesis is not intended as a ‘how to’-guide to Japanese business culture.

As the analysis shows it is beneficial to only acquire knowledge to some extent of cultural

aspects such as hierarchy, collectivism and individualism, information flow, monochronic and

polychronic time, nemawashi, Confucianism, silence, and ambiguity to be successful as a foreign

businessman in Japan. The analysis also concludes that curiosity and interest are motivating

factors that help in gaining a more profound understanding of Japanese culture.

The discussion highlights three core causes for why doing business with the Japanese can seem

mysterious and complicated. The causes discussed are linked to literature, the biased opinions of

frustrated businessmen, and the present changes in Japanese culture. All three causes should be

held in mind and a critical approach towards texts on intercultural communication is necessary in

order to paint a correct picture of Japanese business culture today. However, the most important

point stressed in the thesis is that culture is dynamic and ever-changing.

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The findings of the thesis have certain implications; some of the literature used is not up-to-

date and due to the dynamic nature of culture I have paid special attention to this issue. Also,

much of the literature available on this subject compares Japan to the USA; the nations focused on

in this thesis, however, are Japan and Denmark, causing some of the literature to be less relevant,

since there of course are many differences between the USA and Denmark.

Reading this thesis shall increase intercultural competencies and paint a current and correct

picture of Japanese business culture. The thesis can be useful reading material in terms of gaining

background knowledge on doing business in Japan, but it should not be used as a ‘how to’-guide.

No. of characters: 2778

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Dedication

I wish to dedicate my BA-thesis to

Sigrid Fredslund Madsen,my beloved grandmother,

who passed away during the time I was writing my thesis.

My grandmother has always shown great interest in my academic life and has inspired me to do well, try hard and not let anything get in my way of getting

an education.

For that, I am you evermore grateful.

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愛してる

Table of Contents

1. Introduction....................................................................................................................................31.1. Why Japan?............................................................................................................................. 31.2. Problem statement..................................................................................................................41.3. Structure..................................................................................................................................51.4. Delimitation.............................................................................................................................6

2. Theory & Method...........................................................................................................................72.1. Research method.................................................................................................................... 72.2 Theory – Caveat!...................................................................................................................... 72.3. Definition of culture................................................................................................................82.4. Introducing Mr Dane...............................................................................................................9

3. Analysis “The Four Initial Phases”..............................................................................................103.1. Establishing Contact..............................................................................................................10

3.1.1. Hierarchy & Keiretsu.......................................................................................................103.1.2. Solution.......................................................................................................................... 123.1.3. “Nihongo ga hanasemasu ka”.........................................................................................133.1.4. Solution.......................................................................................................................... 14

3.2. The First Meeting...................................................................................................................153.2.1. The purpose of meetings................................................................................................163.2.2. “The ant people”............................................................................................................163.2.3. The Sea of Information...................................................................................................173.2.4. Solution.......................................................................................................................... 18

3.3. Developing a Relationship.....................................................................................................203.3.1. Monochronic and polychronic time................................................................................203.3.2. Nemawashi & Confucianism...........................................................................................213.3.3. Solution.......................................................................................................................... 23

3.4. Negotiation............................................................................................................................243.4.1. Silence speaks louder than words..................................................................................243.4.2. Tatemae & Honne.......................................................................................................... 263.4.3. Solution.......................................................................................................................... 28

4. Discussion “Why does it seem so complicated?”.......................................................................294.1. Literature...............................................................................................................................294.2. Problems accentuated for the wrong reasons.......................................................................304.3. The changes in Japanese culture...........................................................................................30

5. Conclusion.................................................................................................................................... 326. Bibliography................................................................................................................................. 34

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Appendix 1 - Interview/correspondence with external senior lecturer at Aarhus School of Business, Kristian Granild-Ueno.Appendix 2 - Japanese terms used in this thesisAppendix 3 - “Live & Learn - looking into Japanese economy”, 5th semester synopsis

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Human beings draw close to one anotherby their common nature, but habits

and customs keep them apart.Confucian saying1

1. Introduction

“It’s a small world after all.” Since 1964, 300 child-sized dolls, representing 100 different nations,

have sung the same song at the theme park Disney World, Florida2. The lyrics seem to be more

appropriate than ever, in a time where globalisation is compressing distances between people and

places. One might assume that globalisation is creating a more homogenous world, in which

culturally distinct fashions are diminishing. However, the opposite seems to be the case; nations

are holding on to what they consider ‘local’, although the perception of ‘local’ may undergo

alterations as a result of globalisation3. Therefore, when communicating and conducting business

across cultures the need for cultural intelligence, CIQ4, is more significant than ever5.

This thesis has the purpose of increasing CIQ. It shall provide knowledge of and insight into a

rather mystified area of the globalised business world, namely doing business with the Japanese.

In the introduction I will first lay out my reasons for choosing Japan as the focus of my thesis.

Then, I will present my problem statement. Thirdly, the structure of the thesis will be described

and finally I will delimitate the content of the thesis. But first, let me explain why Japan was the

country of my choice.

1.1. Why Japan?My reasons for choosing Japan as the focus of this thesis are on the one hand quite personal and

on the other just commonsensical. Japan is the country of samurais, geishas, traditional tea

ceremonies, and respect for nature and ancestors - but also the country of Hello Kitty, karaoke,

1 Gudykunst and Kim (2003). “Communicating with strangers. An approach to intercultural communication”, p. 532 http://disneyworld.disney.go.com3 Longhurst et. al. (2008). ”Introducing Cultural Studies”, p. 614 Cultural Intelligence Quotient5 Clausen (2006). ”Intercultural Organizational Communication”, p. 61

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manga cartoons, technology, and future. It is the country of 128 mill Japanese people6, who seem

to be as attached to the past as they are open to the future. This fascinates and interests me

greatly.

But it is also important to bear in mind, that Japan is one of the largest economies in the world

with a huge population of considerable purchasing power7. Japan is the tenth most important

export market for Danish companies; over 80 Danish companies have managed to penetrate the

Japanese market8 and this is rewarding to do, since acceptance of a product in a highly quality-

conscious country, such as Japan, means a quality-stamp that is valid worldwide9. It is therefore

only rational to gain more knowledge of ‘the land of the rising sun’.

1.2. Problem statementWhen I began researching into Japanese culture I quickly got the impression that Japan is a

country surrounded by mystery and that conducting business with the Japanese is a difficult and

complicated task. For instance, two of the books I read when researching were entitled “Hidden

Differences” and “The Asian Mind Game” respectively; titles that indicate a certain level of

mystery. In some of the other texts I stumbled across rather negative sounding phrases such as

these below:

- “Japan isn’t just a formidable economic challenge, it is a devastating mental challenge”10.

- “With all the pressure to avoid open commitment, it sometimes seems surprising that agreement

is ever reached at all!”11.

- “Things are often not laid out in an obvious way, but hidden messages are built in by one side to

be discovered by the other”12.

- “It is extraordinarily difficult, if not impossible, for a foreigner to break into these networks”13.

- “Japanere er besværlige pernittengryn, der gør en dyd af at hænge sig i detaljer. Lovgivningen er

6 Ibid., p. 117 Clausen, op. cit., p. 118 Ibid., p. 159 Ibid., p. 2110 Hall and Hall (1987). “Hidden Differences”, p. 8811 Bucknall (2006). “Japan - Doing Business in a Unique Culture”, p. 10412 Ibid., p. 10413 Hall and Hall, op. cit., p. 6

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ugennemsigtig og fuld af barrierer. Du skal holde dig vågen igennem utallige kedelige møder om

dagen, og din lever bliver brutaliseret om aftenen”14.

What I wish to find out is how a Danish businessman can build a sustainable business relationship

with a Japanese businessman or kaisha15 without having any experience with Japanese business

culture. Furthermore, I wish to discuss why one can get the impression that doing business with

the Japanese is a difficult and complicated process; is it solely due to such literature as mentioned

above or are there other reasons as well? My thesis sets out to increase CIQ and demystify Japan

from a business perspective with starting point in the following problem statement:

This thesis is an investigation and an assessment of the ways in which a Danish businessman

can successfully establish a long-term business relationship with a Japanese businessman or

kaisha, as well as a discussion of why doing business with the Japanese can seem difficult and

complicated.

1.3. StructureMy thesis contains an analysis that is divided into four parts, each dedicated to one of the initial

phases of establishing a business relationship. These four phases are: 1. Establishing Contact, 2.

The First Meeting, 3. Developing a Relationship, and 4. Negotiation. With use of relevant theory as

well as interview material I will analyse how aspects of Japanese culture can affect the ways in

which a Danish businessman should deal with each of these phases. I will then provide a solution

to how the phases could be handled. This means, that I will be moving back and forth between

theory and practise.

Most of the theory which I have applied to each of the phases could be applied to all of them,

but I wish to avoid too much repetition. Consequently, I will only deal with for instance ‘silence’ in

the fourth phase; ‘Negotiation’.

After having analysed these four phases I will move on to a discussion of why it can seem

difficult and complicated to do business with the Japanese. Finally, I will sum up the most

important points made and finish off the thesis with a conclusion.

14 Dahl (2009). “Japan er anderledes men ikke uovervindelig.”15 Kaisha ≈ Japanese company

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Throughout the thesis I will be using a few Japanese terms to describe certain cultural

phenomena because they are more accurate than their English translations. An overview of these

terms has been enclosed as appendix 2.

1.4. DelimitationAs mentioned above, I will analyse how Japanese culture affects the way a Danish businessman

should deal with each of the initial phases of establishing a business relationship with a Japanese

person. It is important to keep in mind, that my proposed solutions to dealing with these phases

by no means are exhaustive. There may well be other possible solutions, since each business

relationship is unique and the nature of the relationship affects which course of action one decides

to take: “An appropriate decision must incorporate the peculiarities of each situation”16. To do an

exhaustive list of solutions would not be possible, due to the limitations of this thesis as well as the

dynamic nature of culture.

Furthermore, I have chosen to let this thesis focus on the business relationship between

Japanese and Danish businessmen, since the situations analysed could be different if

businesswomen were involved. In addition to this, the thesis focuses only on Japanese business

culture. Danish business culture will not be analysed. I will only say a few words about it when

comparing it to Japanese business culture.

Finally, I wish to emphasise that this thesis is not meant to be a ‘how to’. By this I mean that I

have wanted to move away from the very popular, but in my opinion also rather outdated, way of

listing dos and don’ts in terms of conducting business with the Japanese. My thesis should thus

not be used as an ‘answer key’ but as a piece of reading that can increase CIQ and make the

reader aware of things he or she did not know to begin with.

Having introduced you to my thesis, I will now move on to ‘Theory and Method’, to let you know

how I have worked with this subject.

2. Theory & Method

16 Chu (1988). “The Asian Mind Game”, p. 42

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This section contains the research method and theory I have used in this thesis as well as a critique

of some of the literature I have made use of. I also wish to give a definition of culture, and finally I

will introduce you to Mr Dane.

2.1. Research methodTo remain loyal to the research methods of cultural studies I have strived to follow the principle of

methodological pluralism: the idea that different methods of investigation can illuminate different

aspects of culture, and that methods have to be appropriate to the research question posed17. This

has influenced my research methods; on the one hand, I wanted to apply theory which has been

recognised and respected for decades, as a foundation for the thesis, since it posses great

credibility. On the other hand I wished to generate new knowledge that is up-to-date and paints a

current picture of Japanese culture.

To be able to create new knowledge, I have used interviewing. The interview with Japan-expert

Kristian Granild-Ueno, that I have conducted for the purpose of writing this thesis, is enclosed as

appendix 1. I also tried to get an interview with one of the leading Japan-experts in Denmark,

Lisbeth Clausen, an author I will be referring to in this thesis. I would have liked her to go more

thoroughly into certain aspects of her book, since I will be using it quite a lot. Unfortunately,

despite many attempts, I was unsuccessful in getting the interview.

When using existing theory I aimed at analysing it qualitatively, meaning I did not analyse all

material available on the subject, nor did I count frequencies of pre-established categories.

Instead, I selected the texts most relevant to the subject and examined them in order to ascertain

key ideas or themes, as expressed by Siegfried Kracauer18.

2.2 Theory – Caveat!As mentioned above, I wanted to use existing cultural theory. This poses certain problems since

culture is dynamic and the ways in which culture is understood will, like culture, be changing

constantly. However, some theorists are still used frequently today with certain reservations, and

in cultural studies one will undoubtedly come across their theories. As long as there is awareness

of the problems of using them, I see no harm in doing so. I have therefore used e.g. theory of Hall

17 Longhurst et. al., op. cit., p. 9018 Ibid., p. 93

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(1987) on high and low context cultures as well as Hofstede’s (1980) theories on individualism and

collectivism, which will be addressed in the analysis.

The problem of using theorists such as Hall and Hofstede is that both have a tendency to use

sophisticated stereotyping by means of bipolar cultural dimensions19. Dichotomies are set up as

categories, under which different countries are plotted in. This is done to identify patterns which

can then be used to describe differences across cultures. An example hereof could be20:

Individualism vs. Collectivism

Denmark Japan

This way of analysing cultures focuses on differences and is founded on an essentialist view21.

When applying this type of theory, generalisations can easily occur. I wish to stress, that this thesis

takes on an anti-essentialist view since I realise and acknowledge the diversity and dynamism of

culture, as well as the uniqueness of every individual. But due to the limitations of this thesis, I will

to some extent make use of the theory of both Hofstede and Hall to describe tendencies which

dominate large parts of Japan. These tendencies will not apply to all Japanese people - and to

whom they do apply they will not do so to the same extent. However, tendencies do exist to a

wide extent in Japan: “Japan, which was entirely closed to the outside world for centuries, is

recognised as ethnically and culturally more homogenous than any other major country in the

world”22. Therefore, I can justify describing some tendencies in Japan by means of bipolar cultural

dimensions.

2.3. Definition of cultureAlthough I find it rather cliché to start a thesis, or any text for that matter, with a definition of

culture, I have chosen to do so anyway to avoid any confusion or ambiguity. Culture can be more

or less anything, depending on who you ask and what their approach to culture is. In my thesis, I

will take on an anthropological approach, inspired by Milton Rokeach23, where values can be used

to explain behaviour. So when analysing Japanese business culture it will be in the sense of: ‘the

Japanese way of doing business’, which can then be explained by the underlying values of

19 Clausen, op. cit., pp. 52-5320 Gudykunst and Kim, op. cit., p. 6221 By ’essentialist’ or ’essentialism’ I mean the belief that people have an underlying essence that cannot change. An example of this could be to say that all Japanese people are and will always be more formal than Danish people. 22 Guirdham (2005). “Communicating Across Cultures At Work”, p. 10823 Ibid., pp. 44-45

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Japanese culture. I will also draw on the definition of culture by Raymond Williams, who refers to

culture as a process of development24, since this supports the anti-essentialist view of this thesis.

Having presented my research methods, criticised the theory I will be using, and having defined

culture, I will now move on to introducing you to Mr Dane.

2.4. Introducing Mr DaneI have chosen to use a fictitious person, Mr Dane, who we shall follow throughout this thesis. This

is first of all due to the need for delimitation. It would simply be impossible to mention all

potential scenarios in conducting business with the Japanese.

Second of all, I want to be less theoretical and more practical and close to reality in my

approach. The use of a fictitious character is an expression hereof. And who is Mr Dane?

Well, Mr Dane is a Danish businessman, who owns a medium sized company in Denmark. His

company produces porcelain tea sets, which are very popular in Denmark. For some time he has

considered expanding his business overseas and a colleague has pointed out to him the potential

of the Japanese market. Mr Dane does a bit of research and locates a Japanese company,

Nakamura25, which produces a large range of various porcelain table wares – but no tea sets. He

decides to try and start cooperation with Nakamura. However, he finds himself in a difficult

situation: he has never done business with the Japanese before.

We will now follow Mr Dane through the four phases mentioned under ‘Structure’. In each phase,

Mr Dane will be faced with new challenges and I will provide him with solutions based on theory

and interview material.

3. Analysis “The Four Initial Phases”

24 Longhurst et. al., op. cit., p. 225 Fictitious company

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In this section I will analyse four of the initial phases of establishing a business relationship with a

Japanese person or company. As mentioned earlier, I will move back and forth between theory

and practise. First, I will analyse the potential obstacles Mr Dane could be faced with when dealing

with Nakamura. Then, I will provide a solution to how these obstacles can be overcome.

Let us start with the first phase.

3.1. Establishing ContactAfter having realised the potential of doing business with the Japanese producer of porcelain table

ware, Nakamura, Mr Dane must take the first step and establish contact to the company.

It might seem odd to dedicate a whole paragraph to the establishment of contact, especially in

times of globalisation, where for instance the prevalence of the Internet has facilitated

communication over large distances. However, it is not that uncomplicated when dealing with the

Japanese, for two main reasons:

1) The strong influence of hierarchy in Japan, including the traces of keiretsu26

2) The language barrier

Let us take a closer look at these two challenges, starting with hierarchy and keiretsu.

3.1.1. Hierarchy & KeiretsuMr Dane will most likely experience a very clear hierarchical structure in Japanese society27. This is

for instance what Danish designer, Bo Bendixen, experienced when he went on his first business

trip to Japan: “There was an evident hierarchical order, and I could sense this without knowing the

titles of everyone”28. It is accepted in Japan that some people enjoy a higher rank and status than

others. Status can be connected to job position, heritage, or many other factors. One factor that

has been very influential in connection with hierarchy is the ‘long-term relationship-factor’. An

example of this could be keiretsu.

Keiretsu has been an all-important concept in Japanese business for many years and has been a

decisive factor in the establishment of business relationships and the closing of deals. Clausen

26 Keiretsu was earlier called zaibatsu. The Americans tried to forbid zaibatsu after World War II, but they only managed to change the name to keiretsu. Ueno (2010), p. 527 Hall and Hall, op. cit., p. 42: “The hierarchy is always there“.28 Clausen, op. cit., pp. 82-83

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(2006) describes it as a closed corporate system of cross-ownership29 and Chu (1988) calls it a

family of businesses, banks, and government agencies that work closely together to achieve

common objectives30. Earlier, when companies decided with whom they wished to do business or

when banks made decisions about who they would lend money to, creditworthiness was not the

decisive factor. Instead, factors such as long-term partnership or familiar relationships were

considered and consequently many banks and companies became tightly bound to each other

through cross-shareholdings - keiretsu.

Keiretsu worked well for many years in Japan. However, in the beginning of the 1990’s, after

the burst of the financial bubble, businesses and banks found themselves in deep debt to each

other. Keiretsu became one of the main issues causing the so-called ‘lost decade’31.

Although things are changing32, the traces of keiretsu still exist in some aspects of business.

Some of the largest companies still connected through keiretsu are Mitsubishi, Fuyo, Mitsui and

Sumitomo33. So therefore, as Clausen (2006) notes: “…the number one prerequisite for success in

Japan is the ability to draw on local connections and networks […] you cannot even take the first

step without introductions”34. In order to make a successful entry on the Japanese market, Mr

Dane needs connections and networks. Unsolicited letters, e-mails, or calls are not to be preferred

and may be ignored by the Japanese35.

However, hierarchy not only influences the way business relationships are established. It also

influences the decision-making processes. If Mr Dane chooses to direct his request for a meeting

to a random person at Nakamura, it might not ever reach someone with actual authority to make

decisions36. Furthermore, the decision-making process is slowed by the strong group-orientation in

Japan, which I will elaborate on in the next phase, ‘The First Meeting’. Although Japanese culture

is very egalitarian and horizontal in many ways, it is also quite vertical when it comes to decision-

making, paradoxically. A certain hierarchical order must be followed and no one takes

29 Ibid., p. 2230 Chu, op. cit., p. 9231 Søjberg (2010). “Live and Learn; looking into Japanese economy”, p. 432 Clausen, op. cit., p. 244: ”…the Japanese distribution system is changing. Old connections are not honoured the same way, or at all, if they are simply financially unsustainable”.33 Ueno, op. cit., p. 534 Clausen, op. cit., p. 24435 Bucknall, op. cit., p. 4336 Dahl, op. cit.: ”Japanere er generelt ikke selvkørende. Det er lederne, som tager initiativ og ansvar”.

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responsibility alone37. Yuki Araki, a secretary at Huis Ten Bosch38, explains: “There is a whole

organization behind the decision-making process […] as a secretary I know about the details

related to business, but I have no title, so I have to ask my section manager, and the section

manager has to ask his department manager, who has to ask his area manager”39.

For an actual decision to be made the ‘right’ people must agree and when it comes to meeting

with a potential business partner the Japanese do not wish to waste their time. They will only

consent to a meeting if they believe they can get something productive out of it40.

To sum up, in wanting to establish contact with Nakamura Mr Dane is faced with the following

challenges: He needs to be introduced by someone to the people at Nakamura, due to the

tradition of networks and he needs to be introduced to the right people in order to get an actual

decision-making process started from the beginning, because hierarchy slows the speed of

decision-making in Japan.

3.1.2. SolutionTo make sure that Mr Dane is properly introduced to Nakamura I would advise him to use an

intermediary. This person or institution should be selected with care, since their reputation will

rub off on Mr Dane. If the person chosen is well respected, so will Mr Dane be. But if the

intermediary is poorly regarded, so will Mr Dane be as well41.

Since Mr Dane has not done business in Japan before, he does not have any immediate

contacts. However, there are many ways of gaining access to good Japanese representatives. One

way could be to go through either the Japanese embassy in Denmark or the Danish embassy in

Japan. The former Japanese Ambassador to Denmark, Gotaro Ogawa, advices to seek guidance

through JETRO (Japanese External Trade Organisation), which will possess useful knowledge42.

Also, the Danish company “Globaleyes”43 is specialised in introducing businesspeople to the

Japanese market. The possibilities of proper introductions are many.

37 Clausen, op. cit., p. 21638 Huis Ten Bosch is Dutch and means ’House in the Woods’. It is a Dutch theme park located outside Nagasaki where you will find exact replicas of Dutch houses, ships, etc. Ibid., p. 10439 Ibid., p. 9940 Dahl, op. cit.: ”Japanerne vil ikke være prøveklud”.41 Chu, op. cit., pp. 249-25042 Clausen, op. cit., p. 1443 Ueno, op. cit., p. 2

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To get a decision-making process started Mr Dane needs to direct his request for a meeting to a

specific person. Through his intermediary he should try to obtain as much knowledge of Nakamura

as possible to figure out who possesses enough authority to get the process started44.

3.1.3. “Nihongo ga hanasemasu ka”45

Besides the issue of hierarchy and the traces of keiretsu there is another and probably more

obvious obstacle for Mr Dane; the language barrier.

According to Ueno (2010) communication between the Japanese and the Danish is not

markedly problematic, but he believes that the most common communication problem is the

language barrier. As he sees it there are three solutions to this problem for Mr Dane and they all

have their positive and negative aspects46:

1) Mr Dane could speak English with the Japanese. This would provide both parties with a

common language to communicate in. However, though many Danes speak English very well many

also overestimate their English skills. Moreover, the English skills of some Japanese people are

problematic47. Even if they posses a sufficient vocabulary and a decent understanding of grammar,

the Japanese pronunciation of English can be difficult to understand. For instance: The Japanese

do not distinguish between the letters ‘l’ and ‘r’. This can cause issues in terms of understanding

certain words. An amusing webpage has made a point of this by calling itself www.engrish.com.

2) Mr Dane could learn Japanese. This, however, would take years of hard work. Japanese is not

impossible but rather difficult to learn and to be able to do business in Japanese, Mr Dane would

need to master it at a high level of fluency48. But one of the positives about learning the language

is that his Japanese counterparts would feel more at ease and be more willing to open up and

engage in conversations if they could use their first language49.

Speaking the language could also give Mr Dane a more profound understanding of Japanese

culture. Much context is embedded in the language. For instance, if the level of formality in the

language between two people changes, it could mean a change in their relationship as well. This,

44 Hall and Hall, op. cit., p. 7445 ”Nihongo ga hanasemasu ka” ≈ “Do you speak Japanese?”46 Ueno, op. cit., pp. 2-347 Ibid., p. 248 Ibid., p. 249 Clausen, op. cit., p. 114 & Ueno, op. cit., p. 3

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however, I will not go further into, but the importance of language should never be

underestimated.

3) Finally, Mr Dane could choose to use an interpreter. This would ease the language problems

for the Japanese as well as for Mr Dane. As mentioned above, it can be comforting to be allowed

to communicate in one’s first language. Nevertheless, it would definitely slow down the

conversation and give it a more impersonal character50. The process of choosing the right

interpreter is also difficult since it is crucial to find the right one. Besides, it can be quite expensive

to travel with an interpreter.

Summing up, Mr Dane needs to make a decision about how he will handle the language barrier.

3.1.4. Solution It takes time to learn Japanese. So for his first visit I would advise Mr Dane to bring an

interpreter. He can seek advice on how to choose one through many sources51, but I will not get

further into interpreters here. Then, when arriving in Japan, he can discretely ‘test’ the Nakamura-

people’s English skills and if they are sufficient he can switch to English and communicate with his

counterparts personally. It would probably be a good idea, though, to learn a few basic words and

phrases such as greetings, ‘thank you’, etc.

On a long-term basis I would advice Mr Dane to learn Japanese. Since much of the culture is

embedded in the language, it will be hard for a gaijin52 to gain a more profound understanding of

the business culture without speaking the language53.

To establish contact and make decisions about how to handle the language barrier is only the

beginning for Mr Dane. Now comes the phase of going to Japan for the first time and meeting with

the people at Nakamura.

50 Clausen, op. cit., p. 22151 An example of a text that provides guidance to choosing the right interpreter could be Beamer, L. and Varner, I. (2005) Intercultural Communication in the Global Workplace.52 Gaijin ≈ Foreigner53 Yoshimura (1997). “Inside the Kaisha”, p. 229

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The nail that sticks outalways gets hammered down.

Japanese saying54

3.2. The First Meeting

After having established contact with Nakamura Mr Dane is faced with a very exciting challenge,

namely the first meeting with what will hopefully become a new business partner. I have chosen

to entitle this phase ‘The First Meeting’, but the theory can be applied to the following meetings as

well.

When going to a country one has never visited before it is always a good idea to do a bit of

research beforehand. This can in many ways improve the experience tremendously. Danish

designer, Bo Bendixen, did this when he made his first business trip to Japan: “Before I left for

Japan, I had talked to people who knew about the country in order to get advice on various

traditions and how to behave”55. Amongst other things Bo Bendixen was advised to dress formally

and to bring gifts.

But as mentioned in the introduction I do not wish to set forth a list of dos and don’ts. A few

bulletin points such as ‘take your shoes off before entering a Japanese home’, or ‘do not present

your business card upside down’ are only going to get Mr Dane so far. Instead, as advised by Ueno

(2010)56, I will provide Mr Dane with some background knowledge of Japanese culture. This can

increase his interest and curiousness which can be a good starting point and motivation for

reaching a more profound understanding of the Japanese.

For that reason, in this phase, I will focus on:

1) The purpose of meetings

2) “The ant people”

3) The Sea of Information

I will analyse how these aspects of Japanese culture can affect Mr Dane’s first meeting. The first

point, ‘The purpose of meetings’ is background information for the next two points.

54 Gudykunst and Kim, op. cit., p. 6155 Clausen, op. cit., p. 8156 Ueno, op. cit., p. 2

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3.2.1. The purpose of meetingsIt is a mistake to assume that meetings are there for one purpose only. According to Hall and Hall

(1987) there are two primary functions of a Japanese meeting: “(1) to context everybody, in order

to open up the information channels and determine whether the group can work together; and (2)

to appraise the chances of coming to an agreement in the future”57. This view is supported by

Clausen (2006), who stresses that the Japanese regard meetings as a ritual that can strengthen

business relationships58.

Mr Dane could be faced with two challenges which are hinted by Hall and Hall in the above

quote, namely; the Japanese way of handling information and the strong group-orientation in

Japan. This brings us to “The ant people”.

3.2.2. “The ant people”A witty comparison has been made by Chu (1990) who compares Japanese society to an anthill.

This comparison is rather fitting, for two reasons. First of all, the Japanese are excellent when it

comes to teamwork59. As Chu (1990) describes: “In the same sense that a colony of ants is much

more powerful than a swarm of crawling insects, so Japanese society is more efficient than

societies in which the individual does not readily subjugate himself to the will of the whole”60. And

this leads to the ‘second of all’, namely the importance of belonging to a group. But to understand

the need for belonging to a group we need to know a little about individualism and collectivism.

Theorist Geert Hofstede has through large scale studies derived four dimensions of cultural

variability related to business organisational values in different cultures61. One of them is

individualism-collectivism. I mentioned earlier that it can be problematic to apply this type of

theory, but it has also received very consistent attention and several studies support that

individualism and collectivism are pervasive in numerous cultures62.

To put it briefly; individualist cultures emphasise the importance of the individual’s rights and

responsibilities as well as self-efficiency. Collectivist cultures lay emphasis on the group over the

individual, the ‘we’ over the ‘I’, and promote interdependency as well as group harmony. Hofstede

57 Hall and Hall, op. cit., p. 2958 Clausen, op. cit., p. 21959 Ueno, op. cit., p. 6: ”Japanere har opfundet teambuilding og det har vi lært meget af her i landet”.60 Chu, op. cit., p. 11661 Ting-Toomey (1999). “Communicating across cultures”, p. 6662 Ibid., p. 66

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(1991) and Triandis (1989) characterise Denmark as individualist and Japan as a collectivist

culture63. This means that the Japanese have an ability to put the wellbeing of their in-groups64

before themselves because they know it serves the greater good and the preservation of harmony

in the group. This is also why the Japanese have been known to be very dedicated to their

respective workplaces and have sacrificed much of their leisurely time to serve their company. It

should be noted, though, that this uneven distribution of time to the family and the company

respectively is undergoing some changes as a result of globalisation as well as the financial

situation in Japan65, which I will not get into here. But the importance of belonging to a group is

deeply rooted in Japanese culture and is not likely to vanish66.

This strong emphasis on group harmony can slow down decision-making processes, since

reaching a consensus takes time, as mentioned in the first phase, ‘Establishing Contact’. Here lies

another challenge for Mr Dane. It will be hard for him to receive direct feedback whilst in a

meeting. Designer, Bo Bendixen, has experienced this first hand when making business trips to

Japan: “…it seems to him that individual employees have great difficulty in expressing their

personal opinions. […] They seem to place a great deal of importance on group decision-making…

”67.

We will take a look at how Mr Dane can deal with this challenge in a bit, but first I will add

another important aspect of Japanese culture that can affect the meeting, namely the Sea of

Information.

3.2.3. The Sea of InformationThe Japanese way of handling information might seem very different for a Danish businessman

such as Mr Dane. The Japanese will keep themselves informed in every aspect of their lives. How

can the Japanese keep themselves up to date with all information at all times? They share it. They

might not all be in the same boat but they are sailing the same sea of free flowing information. A

way of illustrating how differently the Danes and the Japanese handle information could be in

terms of office layout. In Denmark many employees often have their own offices where the doors

63 Ibid., p. 6864 An in-group is a group of people that you belong to. For a Japanese person this could e.g. be other Japanese people. 65 Ueno, op. cit., p. 466 Chu, op. cit., pp. 94-9867 Clausen, op. cit., p. 96

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can be closed. One has knock to be granted access to these offices and when the doors are closed

information is kept inside. In contrast, private offices are rare in Japan. Being part of a team is

valued higher than the individual’s right to territory. Beamer and Varner (2005) have depicted the

Japanese office layout to illustrate this68.

Information is everywhere in Japan. For instance, the mere presence of certain people can tell

you much about the purpose of a meeting as well give the meeting a certain status69. Even the way

people are seated around the negotiation table can be informing; the person in charge might be

seated at the end of the table or right in the middle. This shows that information will lie just as

much in the non-verbal messages as in the spoken words at a meeting. It should be noted that a

lot of information is embedded in other types of non-verbal signs as well, such as gestures and

voice, but due to the limitations of this thesis I have not been able to include all aspects of non-

verbal communication.

As a result of the free flow of information, the Japanese will most likely want to know

everything and will probably have countless questions for Mr Dane. And they will also expect Mr

Dane to know certain things beforehand and be as well-updated as they are70. But while they may

have many questions there might also be periods of silence at the table. This is connected to the

aspect of context, which I will get back to in the fourth phase, ‘Negotiation’.

Summing up; Mr Dane will be faced with the following challenges when meeting with the

people at Nakamura:

- There will be a tendency of slow decision-making processes and Mr Dane might have a hard time

getting direct feedback from the Japanese due to the influence of collectivism.

- The Nakamura-people will have huge amounts of questions but will also expect Mr Dane to know

certain things in advance and therefore be silent at times.

3.2.4. SolutionMr Dane must look at his objectives. He is in Japan to work on getting a deal with Nakamura.

Therefore he must play by the Japanese rules, and it really is not that difficult. He should answer

their questions, keep himself informed by seeking advice from for instance his intermediary, and

68 Beamer and Varner (2005). “Intercultural Communication in the Global Workplace”, p. 19469 Hall and Hall (1990). “ Understanding cultural differences”, p. 870 Djursaa (1995). “Getting to No. A matter of English ethics or culture?”, p. 3

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not rush anything. By letting things take the time they need there is a greater change of success. In

the meantime he should observe and be attentive to non-verbal signs. This might also help him

figure out who enjoys most authority at Nakamura71 and thereby who can get decision-making

processes started. Listen and learn.

Due to the influence of collectivism as well as the free flow of information a tight agenda for the

meeting will not be possible. Group decision-making takes time and cannot be controlled by an

agenda. Plus, with the free flow of information it can be insulting to the Japanese to even have an

agenda that spells out the purposes of the meeting, since the Japanese will probably already know

this72.

Finally, since this is Mr Dane’s first trip to Japan he might be afraid of making a cultural faux

pas. But he must remember that the Japanese do not expect foreigners to know and understand

everything, such as the proper Japanese way of bowing or the correct exchange of business cards.

Therefore, if one has absolutely no clue about what to do when in Japan it is better to act in

accordance with one’s own national etiquette than to make a clumsy attempt to model the

Japanese73. The Japanese are very proud of their culture and customs and will most likely enjoy

telling about them and be very forgiving74.

Mr Dane will probably have many meetings with the people from Nakamura before anything is

settled. But these meetings will not only take place around a table in an office. Now comes the

time for building the foundations for a solid business relationship through Nemawashi and this

leads us to the third phase, ‘Developing a Relationship’.

71 Dahl, op. cit.72 Hall and Hall, op.cit., p. 2173 Clausen, op. cit., p. 3874 Ueno, op. cit., p. 3

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3.3. Developing a Relationship

Mr Dane has now reached a very important phase which is really the core of this analysis. He has

established contact and had his first meeting with the people at Nakamura. One might assume

that the hard part is over now. However, as we saw in the previous paragraph about the first

meeting, meetings are not only meant for business talk. The Japanese also use meetings as a way

of getting to know and observe their counterpart and this part is far from over yet.

In this paragraph we shall have a look at the Japanese attitude towards time. It will help Mr

Dane to know something about:

1) Monochronic and polychronic time

2) Nemawashi & Confucianism

3.3.1. Monochronic and polychronic timeMonochronic time is explained by Hall and Hall (1987) as paying attention to and doing only one

thing at a time whereas polychronic time is described as being involved with many things at

once75. Time is experienced differently in monochronic and polychronic cultures. In a monochronic

culture time is seen as a linear process from A to B, e.g. from the past to the future. Schedules,

agendas, appointments, and such characterise monochronic time cultures. This makes time a

tangible phenomenon; it can be saved, wasted, spent or even lost. In monochronic time cultures

there is no room for interruptions and everything has to happen in a certain order.

Polychronic time, on the other hand, is almost the complete opposite of the above. In

polychronic time cultures people come before schedules. Time is less tangible and not as much a

linear process as just a single point. People in polychronic time cultures will simply postpone

appointments if something more important comes up, such as a visit from a dear old friend. This is

also one of the reasons why meetings cannot follow a tight agenda in a polychronic time culture,

as we saw in the previous phase, ‘The First Meeting’.

Where Danish people are very much influenced by monochronic time, the Japanese time

system combines both monochronic and polychronic time76. This means, that it is very important

to be on time and show punctuality when it comes to meetings and other appointments77. But

75 Hall and Hall, op. cit., p. 1676 Ibid., pp. 17-1877 Ibid., p. 23

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when it comes to establishing business relationships, the Japanese will take their time to get to

know their counterpart, before any contracts are signed. Great involvement with people is

characteristic for polychronic time cultures78 and for the process of getting to know each other

there are no time limits. As we saw in the previous phase, ‘The First Meeting’, the Japanese live in

a sea of free flowing information. They want to know everything about the people they are doing

business with and this of course takes time and can draw out decision-making79.

So Mr Dane is faced with some similar challenges as in the previous phase; decision-making will

take time and cannot be rushed, and tight agendas are a bad idea. Mr Dane must try to leave his

monochronic time-perspective in Denmark. Before providing him with a solution I will give him

some information about two other crucial aspects of Japanese culture: Nemawashi and

Confucianism.

3.3.2. Nemawashi & ConfucianismNemawashi can be translated and explained in many ways e.g. with Djursaa’s differentiation of

‘contract cultures’ and ‘relationship cultures’80; contract cultures function on the basis of the clear-

cut written word, hence the term contract culture, while relationship cultures operate on the basis

of personal networks. Nemawashi is a product of the relationship culture. Ueno (2010) also uses

words such as ‘friendship’ and ‘bonding’ to explain nemawashi81.

Nemawashi consists of informal meetings outside the office buildings. Typical activities could

involve dinners, kabuki82, fishing trips, or drinks in one of the infamous karaoke bars. Especially

when alcohol is involved the Japanese tend to loosen up more, since it is accepted that the normal

rules of behaviour are less important in such situations. What happens at the karaoke bar stays at

the karaoke bar83, so to speak.

The ultimate goal of nemawashi is ‘amae’ or to get as close to amae as possible. Directly

translated amae means dependence. The deeper meaning, however, is a bond of shared trust and

interdependency84. Amae can exist in any kind of relationship. If Mr Dane can reach this level in his

78 Ibid., p. 1779 Guirdham, op. cit., p. 16680 Djursaa, op. cit., p. 281 Ueno, op. cit., p. 282 Kabuki ≈ traditional Japanese theatre83 Ueno, op. cit., p. 684 Chu, op. cit., pp. 105-106

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business relationship with Nakamura he is guaranteed a loyal business partner for life. This is the

‘trick’ of amae; although Nakamura might find a better deal somewhere else, after having done

business with Mr Dane for some years the bond of amae will not allow them to drop him as a

business partner. The Danish ‘Hatting Bakeries’ spent nearly a decade working on the relationship

with their Japanese business associates and this has paid off: “…the payback for the time and effort

invested has been that their Japanese partners have been extremely loyal”85.

The phenomenon, nemawashi, is actually so important in Japan that Japanese companies have

separate entries in their budgets for the single purpose of nemawashi86. However, it will be

interesting to see how the influence of nemawashi will develop; the Japanese economy is in poor

shape and companies might have to cut back on such ‘pleasure-costs’.

Nemawashi is closely related to the attitude towards time in Japan and this leads us to the aspect

of Confucianism. Confucius was a Chinese philosopher. He lived from 551 to 479 B.C. and his

philosophies are the foundation of Chinese society, but Japanese culture is also highly imbued

with Confucianism. Bond (1991, 1996) introduced the term Confucian work dynamism as part of

Confucianism87. Hofstede labels it ‘long-term orientation’88 which is also the term I will be using.

The emphasis that is put on the long-term orientation in Japan can be illustrated with these

three examples:

- Age gives a person status. Younger people must respect those who are older.

- Many Japanese companies make 10 or 20-year plans for the future89. Sometimes only

symbolically, but it still emphasises long-term commitment.

- Time is sometimes used as a measurement for competence. E.g. if you have been at a company

for a long time you are regarded a more competent worker90.

But the essence of long-term orientation lies in the focus on personal relationships. This

matches well with the aims of nemawashi.

85 Clausen, op. cit., p. 2186 Ueno, op. cit., p. 687 Ting-Toomey, op. cit., pp. 74-7588 Gudykunst and Kim, op. cit., p. 8189 Yoshimura, op. cit., p. 13990 Hall and Hall, op. cit., p. 22

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Therefore, besides the challenges caused by the polychronic time-orientation in Japan, Mr Dane

must also spend a lot of time bonding with the Nakamura-people and deal with the long-term

orientation rooted in Confucianism.

3.3.3. SolutionHow can Mr Dane, who comes from a monochronic time culture and has no knowledge of

Confucianism deal with the Japanese long-term orientation and great emphasis on personal

relationships?

My advice for him would be to take things slow and keep his eyes on the prize. He has come to

Japan to be successful and in order to be so he must put in the time needed to develop a

sustainable business relationship with the people at Nakamura. This is really the essence of this

analysis and it cannot be stressed enough how important it is to make good connections and get

as close to amae as possible. As Chu (1988) says: “Do not count on quick profits. It can take a

considerable amount of time to develop the necessary relationships. Many persons and

organizations will not take you seriously until you have demonstrated your intention to stick

around”91.

It seems as if Mr Dane has some work to do. But at some point his Japanese counterparts will be

ready for an actual negotiation. And in a negotiation-situation there are also some important

cultural aspects to be aware of. Let us move on the fourth and last phase, ‘Negotiation’.

91 Chu, op. cit., p. 243

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Eloquence is silver.Silence is gold.

Japanese saying92

3.4. Negotiation

After some time the Japanese will be ready to negotiate with Mr Dane. It is not possible to predict

when this will happen since, as we saw in the previous phase, ‘Developing a Relationship’, Japan is

a polychronic time culture when it comes to bonding and nemawashi. But if they invest time in Mr

Dane and show interest in getting to know him, it is certain that they wish to do business and

negotiate with him.

The negotiation situation is a fascinating area of Japanese business culture; it has been

described as being very mysterious and complicated. Chu (1988) describes how one can learn and

use ancient war tactics when doing business with Asians and paints a rather intimidating picture of

Japanese negotiation tactics. In her book “The Asian Mind Game” she writes, for example: “The

ability to mislead an adversary has always been seen by Asians as admirable”93.

Other researchers, such as Hall and Hall (1987), Bucknall (2006), Clausen (2006), and many

more have also dealt with the Japanese negotiation techniques. Two terms which seem to recur in

their texts are ‘silence’ and ‘ambiguity’. These two terms I would like to elaborate on now.

3.4.1. Silence speaks louder than words

Silence is part of what Beamer and Varner (2005) call nonverbal conventions in face-to-face

communication94. Non-verbal communication is in many ways just as important as spoken words;

some researchers consider 93 percent of an oral message in face-to-face communication to be

communicated non-verbally. Paul Watzlawick’s claim sums it up quite well: You cannot not

communicate95.92 Hall and Hall, op. cit., p. 12693 Chu, op. cit., p. 2794 Beamer and Varner, op. cit., p. 17795 http://www.colorado.edu

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http://www.colorado.edu/


Many businessmen have experienced situations where their Japanese counterparts have done

nothing but sit silently without as much as nodding, smiling, or in any way showing signs of

listening. Statistics have even been presented to illustrate the frequent occurrence of silent

periods during negotiations with the Japanese96. But according to Beamer and Varner (2005) even

dead silence is communication.

The reason why the Japanese sometimes remain silent is partly due to the sea of information

they work in, as described in the second phase, ‘The First Meeting’. Everyone is expected to read

each others minds and to be well-informed about everything that is going on. Therefore, they will

occasionally reflect on things in silence97. Nothing is said because nothing needs to be said. Some

things can simply not be communicated with words. The Japanese call this ‘ishin denshin’98.

However, another important reason for the Japanese silence is the matter of context, which I

will now give a brief explanation of.

Hall (1976) divides cultures into high context and low context99. Put very simply his division

should reflect the fact that different cultures have different priorities in term of how much

information is needed for communication to take place. It can be illustrated through the figure

below:

The figure is supposed to show the following difference between high context cultures and low

context cultures: In high context cultures people do not need much information (text) in order to

understand the messages conveyed because most of the information is embedded in the context

96 Katan (2004). ” Translating Cultures. An Introduction for Translators, Interpreters and Mediators”, p. 29997 Hall and Hall, op. cit., p. 12698 Scollon and Scollon (2001). “Intercultural communication”, p. 15399 Katan, op. cit., p. 245

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surrounding the situation. As mentioned in the second phase, ‘The First Meeting’, the Japanese

keep themselves informed at all times and therefore do not need as much information.

There is also a connection between context and the dimension of individualism vs.

collectivism100. High context communication is characteristic for collectivist cultures and low

context communication prevails in individualist cultures. In low context cultures information is not

shared as much as in high context cultures and people need a lot of verbal, explicit information to

comprehend messages because they rely little on the context surrounding the situation. Japan is

quite high context whereas Denmark is much lower101. It can cause frustration when high and low

context cultures negotiate. As one non-Danish manager noted: “… negotiating with the Danes is

never difficult, it just always begins anew”102. This statement reflects the need that Danes have for

being briefed before every meeting and having certain information repeated several times.

Being aware of the context makes the Japanese very skilled at reading body language103 and

their sometimes silent behaviour can confuse many businessmen and it might also puzzle Mr

Dane. However, as Ueno (2010) points out: ”… dette er ikke unikt for japanere, det er også i høj en

del af den måde som vi [Danes] kommunikerer på”104. I will get back to this similarity in

communication styles between the Japanese and the Danish in the discussion. For now, let us have

a look at ambiguity.

3.4.2. Tatemae & HonneThis paragraph on ambiguity is entitled ‘Tatemae & Honne’. In Japanese these terms cover what

one is supposed to do according to accepted behaviour (tatemae) and one’s real intent, what one

would like to do (honne)105. The Japanese have a reputation of being rather bad at saying ‘no’ and

therefore they say ‘yes’ without meaning it. This reputation is highly stereotypical and also rather

exaggerated, but I will get back to this later. Let us first explore why this reputation even exists.

Many authors dealing with Japanese negotiation situations mention the issue of the ambiguous

‘no’. One of them is Bucknall (2006) who has written a book of dos and don’ts in connection with

doing business in Japan. He writes: “Negotiations can sometimes seem frustrating when you

100 Clausen,op. cit., p. 53101 Hall and Hall, op. cit., p. 8 and Clausen, op. cit., p. 53102 Clausen, op. cit., p. 57103 Ueno, op. cit., p. 7: ”Japanere er gode til at læse kropssprog, og tavshed bliver også opfattet og tolket”.104 Ibid., p. 7105 Hall and Hall, op. cit., p. 118

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cannot discover if they agree or disagree with what you suggest”106. He links the issue of ambiguity

to history with the argument that an ambiguous answer was safer in terms of one’s own safety in

samurai-times107. However, he also connects it to ‘face’.

Face is the positive social value people assume for themselves, the image they try to project to

the public108. While all people strive to uphold their image and to not ‘lose face’, people from

collectivist cultures are especially cautious of using ‘face work’, and the face concern is intended

for themselves as well as for others. In contrast, people from individualist cultures focus more on

their own face109. According to Bucknall (2006) the Japanese do not wish to say ‘no’ directly

because they fear it will cause face loss for the counterpart to be rejected. Therefore, they use

more ambiguous phrases to express a ‘no’110.

Many of the texts I have read which touch upon this issue have a tendency to make it sound

completely impossible to see through the Japanese statements. However, Ueno (2010) believes it

to be exaggerated excessively: “Fænomenet er stærkt overdrevet, og stammer fra tungnemme

amerikanske forhandleres manglende evne til at forstå noget som helst med mindre at det bliver

sagt på lige den måde de plejer at høre det. Den japanske måde at sige nej på kan vel

sammenlignes med den jyske ”sådan kan man jo os’ se på det” (i betydningen: jeg er helt uenig).

Sagt på en anden måde er det ikke så forskelligt fra den måde vi udtrykker os på i DK.” So

according to him, Danes and Japanese both communicate in a way that can be regarded by others

as ambiguous and it should thus not be impossible for Mr Dane to comprehend the Japanese

messages being conveyed. This brings us to the final solution I will offer Mr Dane.

3.4.3. SolutionAs mentioned, Mr Dane will most likely experience the Japanese use of silence as well as some

slightly indirect messages. These two aspects of Japanese culture can be explained with the theory

of Hall (1976) on context as well as the notion of face, as presented by Guirdham (2005). Ueno

(2010) argues that neither silence nor ambiguity from the Japanese will be a problem for Danes

since they actually communicate in a quite similar way as the Japanese. According to him, there

106 Bucknall, op. cit., p. 104107 Ibid, p. 104: ” …a samurai was allowed to chop off the head of a member of any other class… Under such circumstances, a straight ”yes” or ”no”, delivered incautiously, could literally prove fatal”.108 Guirdham, op. cit., p. 98109 Ibid., p. 98110 Bucknall, op. cit., p. 105. (Bucknall has here listed some phrases that, according to him, usually mean ’no’ in Japan such as: ‘I will do my best’, ‘I will see what can be done’, etc.)

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has been made a mountain out of a molehill due to for instance Americans who have suffered bad

experiences in Japan and therefore accentuate certain problems more than necessary. As one

successful American businessman in Tokyo says: “You can do business in Japan. Don’t be

discouraged by other Americans who tell you how difficult it is. They just don’t want any more

competition”111. This whole issue I will get back to in the discussion. First, Mr Dane needs a bit of

guidance and this is the best advice I can give him: Do not break the action chain.

The action chain is pretty much what it sounds like. As Hall and Hall (1987) put it: “An action

chain is an established sequence of events in which one or more people participate – and

contribute – to achieve a goal”112. This goal, however, can be more than one thing. Mr Dane’s goal

might be to sign a contract with Nakamura but the Nakamura-people will want to establish a

relationship with Mr Dane first, as we discovered in the third phase, ‘Developing a Relationship’. In

this way there is a hierarchy of action chains that might be different for the various participants.

Here it is important to accept the fact that one might have to give up one goal to achieve

another113.

Mr Dane should therefore try not to rush the slow group decision-making process and

nemawashi. He should keep his eyes, ears, and mind open and pay attention to non-verbal signs.

Finally he should respect the free information flow and be cautious of face-threatening acts. There

is an expression in Japanese, saying: the Japanese listen nine times and speak once, whereas

Westerners talk nine times and listen once114. That is definitely the lesson to be learned here.

Mr Dane has gone through the four initial phases of establishing a business relationship with the

Japanese. Is seems, that with a bit of knowledge and some advice he should be able to complete

the task. But then how come it can seem so complicated and difficult to do business with the

Japanese, as we saw in the introduction? This I will now discuss.

111 Hall and Hall, op. cit., p. 94112 Hall and Hall, op. cit., p. 30113 Chu, op. cit., p. 55114 Clausen, op. cit., p. 229

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4. Discussion “Why does it seem so complicated?”

As mentioned in the introduction I came across many statements about the difficulties of doing

business with the Japanese, while I was researching. This gave me the impression that the

Japanese way of doing business is covered in mystery and ambiguity. It also gave me the

impression that doing business with the Japanese is extremely difficult and complicated – a nearly

impossible task. Why did I, as well as others before me, get this impression? This I will discuss now.

4.1. LiteratureFirst of all there is the issue of the literature dealing with the subject. There are several problems

with some of this literature:

- As mentioned under ‘Theory and Method’ some of the literature and theory in the area of

intercultural communication can be risky to use. Hall and Hofstede, for instance, have a tendency

to use sophisticated stereotyping through bipolar cultural dimensions115. This theory therefore

tends to focus more on differences than similarities. The focus on differences can make them

seem more severe than they are116 and people then forget to look for the similarities there might

be.

It can be beneficial, though, to be aware of the differences, especially as a businessman: …for

den travle forretningsmand er det nok ikke rentabelt at fokusere på ligheder. Her er det nok en god

ide at fokusere på de do’s og dont’s der helt konkret kan skabe problemer”117. This, however, is

only a suitable solution for those going to Japan maybe once or twice. For the long-term business

relationship with a Japanese person it is important to look at similarities as well as differences to

get the full picture.

- Another problem is that much of the literature written about intercultural communication often

compares Japan to the USA. The differences between Americans and the Japanese are bigger than

between the Japanese and the Danish118. This must be taken into account when using the

literature which is it also one of the reasons why I conducted an interview with a Danish person

and used the theory of Clausen (2006) to compare Japan to Denmark.

115 Ibid., pp. 52-53116 Ueno, op. cit., p. 1117 Ibid., p. 1118 Ibid., p. 1

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Again, to get the full picture, it would have been relevant to look at the Japanese’s perception

of the Danes. There was not much information available on this, though, and therefore my thesis

can only tell one side of the story; knowing how the Japanese businessman sees his Danish

counterpart could have been very valuable to know as well.

4.2. Problems accentuated for the wrong reasonsThe second issue making the Japanese seem difficult to do business with appears to be that some

of the problems accentuated in this connection are being accentuated for the wrong reasons.

Ueno (2010) brought this to my attention during the interview. In connection with the rumour of

the often ambiguous Japanese communication style he says: ” Det er mit indtryk at amerikanere,

trods deres flerkulturelle hjemland, tit er meget ensporede kulturelt, og mange har svært ved at

acceptere andre kulturelle værdier og normer. Samtidig er deres kultur meget anderledes den

japanske (højlydt og selvhævdende) og dette giver tit et forvrænget billede når de prøver at

beskrive den japanske kultur” 119. Therefore it is important to be critical when reading about other

people’s experiences with Japanese business culture. Their opinions might be biased by their own

frustrations, for which they, perhaps, only have themselves to blame.

But then again, since many people have described and accentuated the same problems in

connection with Japanese business culture, such as silence and ambiguity, there must be some

truth to it. Therefore, the various issues must definitely be taken into account but with certain

reservations; just because the issues exist does not mean that they cannot be overcome.

4.3. The changes in Japanese cultureThird of all it must be noted that the Japanese culture is undergoing some significant changes

which, in many ways, can affect communication between the Japanese and other nationalities.

These changes are either not described or not taken into account in some of the literature dealing

with the subject, which can make Japan seem old-fashioned and therefore difficult to do business

in. Some of the newest material that describes the Japanese-Danish business relationship which

was available to me, besides from the interview, dates back to 2006. Much has happened since

then and especially since Hall and Hofstede presented their theories in the 1980’s. According to

commercial counsellor, Jesper Vibe-Hansen, the Japanese society has changed remarkably since

he did business in Japan in the 1990’s: “Der er stadig mange mørke jakkesæt og slips. Men den

119 Ibid., p. 8

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yngre generation er langt mere udadvendte i deres væremåde. De taler mere engelsk og har ofte

besøgt indtil flere lande i Europa. Over 10 procent af den japanske befolkning rejser udenlands

årligt, og det er ikke længere et særsyn at se udlændinge i gadebilledet.”

The changes are taking place in all parts of Japanese society; economy, politics, culture, etc.

This has the potential to influence communication between the Japanese and the Danish. Ueno

(2010) even gets the impression that the Japanese are becoming more Scandinavian: “Jeg tror at

fænomener som hikikomori og freeter120 blandt unge japanere er et symptom på disse forandringer

i de grundlæggende værdier i samfundet. Generelt tror jeg at japanerne bliver mere

”skandinaviske” i deres tankegang, specielt omkring familieværdier, og jeg kan ikke tro andet end

at det betyder at kommunikation bliver lettere”121.

Already there are certain similarities in the ways Danes and Japanese communicate. Gotaro

Ogawa, the former Japanese ambassador to Denmark, believes that one of the reasons why these

to nations are similar is the concepts we share. He compares Confucian ethics to the Law of Jante

(Janteloven): We share the concept that we should be humble and not think that we are the

best…”122. According to him, Danes are humbled by the Law of Jante and though some Danes

might resent this law it can apparently be used as a positive factor in some situations when dealing

with the Japanese.

But of course the Japanese are also holding on to certain values and will never become exactly

like the Danes. And whether or not it is fair to highlight various differences between the Japanese

and other nations highly depends on the reasons for doing so. In some texts the differences have

been exaggerated to illustrate tendencies in various cultures. They have been accentuated in

books intended for businessmen doing business in Japan in order to give them advice on how to

behave and what to expect. But to paint a correct picture of how hard or easy it is to do business

with the Japanese one must also take into account that there are similarities. Also, one must be

critical towards the literature dealing with the subject and not accept ‘whatever’ solely because it

is written in a book.

Culture is dynamic, ever-changing. There are no end-results. So the changes in Japanese culture

must also be taken into account when looking at cultural differences.

120 The terms Hikikomori and Freeter are both explained in appendix 2.121 Ueno, op. cit., p. 4122 Clausen, op. cit., p. 13

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What can be concluded from this analysis and this discussion? Well, let us have a look at the final

part of this thesis; the conclusion.

5. Conclusion

If a Danish businessman such as Mr Dane wishes to successfully establish a long-term business

relationship with a Japanese businessman or company the key advice is: focus on nemawashi and

spend the time that is necessary to get as close to amae as possible. As the analysis has shown

Japan is a high context culture that is dominated by collectivism and long-term orientation.

Therefore they focus on personal relationships and trust. If one manages to build a strong bond

with the Japanese they will remain loyal and honour this bond. Doing business is of course about

making a profit and this can certainly be done in Japan, but one should not expect quick profits.

It can seem complicated and difficult to do business with the Japanese and Japan can seem

covered in mystery. In the discussion I stated that the differences between the Japanese and other

nations such as the Danish often are overrated. This is due to many factors such as the type of

theory that has been applied to this area as well as the literature. Both can have a tendency to

accentuate differences by means of sophisticated stereotyping which can make the differences

seem bigger and more deterrent than they actually are. Therefore, one can easily get the

impression that doing business with the Japanese is much harder than it is in reality. It is a good

idea to be aware of both differences and similarities in order to find the proper way of dealing

with Japanese culture. Also, cultural changes must be taken into account. Culture is not static and

what was true for Japan 10 years ago might be rather different today.

One thing I have realised during the process of writing my thesis is that everything is connected. I

could have applied much of the theory on Japanese culture to all four phases in the analysis. One

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area affects the next and interlinks everything. Therefore, it is valuable to have a general

understanding of some of the basic cultural aspects that affect all the phases of establishing a

successful business relationship with a Japanese person.

However, it was difficult to assess how much knowledge Mr Dane should be provided with. The

question I had to consider was: Is it true that the more you know the better? Does one need to

have en extensive knowledge of Japanese culture in order to be successful? Well, in order to build

a sustainable relationship it is recommendable to be aware of some basic cultural aspects. It can

demystify certain areas of culture and make a country such as Japan seem more manageable. Also,

it shows an interest and willingness to learn, if one decides to do research before going to Japan

on business. This will undoubtedly make a good impression on the Japanese. However, curiosity is

an important part of nemawashi and one should be prepared to ask question and to learn whilst

abroad since this is a great motivation for reaching a real understanding of Japanese business

culture.

Japan is not that mysterious and the Japanese are not that difficult to do business with. They are

just different. By learning and by being curious one can achieve an understanding of Japanese

culture. It will be very interesting to see how the Japanese culture will change and how the

changes will affect communication across cultures.

Culture will forever be changing; that is the only thing that will never change.

6. Bibliography

The bibliography is divided into primary and secondary sources. The primary ones are mentioned in the thesis. The secondary ones have been used as inspiration and for background knowledge.

Primary sources:

Articles:

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Dahl, K. 2009, “Japan er anderledes men ikke uovervindelig”, EksportFokus 0608. version

1.0. Kan findes gennem Udenrigsministeriets hjemmeside eller på

http://www.netpublikationer.dk/um/9236/index.htm

Djursaa, M. 1995, "Getting to No. A matter of English ethics or culture?", Business Ethics. A

European review., vol. 4, no. 1.

Kjær, E. 2003, “Japan kræver kvalitet og tålmodighed”, www.business. dk . Artiklen kan

findes på http://www.business.dk/diverse/japan-kraever-kvalitet-og-taalmodighed

Books:

Beamer, L. and Varner, I. 2005, Intercultural Communication in the Global Workplace, 3rd

edn, McGraw-Hill.

Bucknall, K.B. 2006, Japan - Doing Business in a Unique Culture, 1st edn, Boson Books,

Raleigh.

Chu, C. 1990, The Asian Mind Game, 1st edn, Rawson Associates, New York.

Clausen, L. 2006, Intercultural Organizational Communication, 1st edn, Copenhagen

Business School Press, Gylling.

Gudykunst, W.B. and Kim, Y.Y. 2003, Communicating with strangers. An approach to

intercultural communication. 1st edn, McGraw-Hill, New York.

Guirdham, M. 2005, Communicating Across Cultures At Work, 2nd edn, Palgrave

Macmillan, New York.

Hall, E.T. and Hall, M.R. 1990, Understanding cultural differences, 1st edn, Intercultural

Press.

Hall, E.T. and Hall, M.R. 1987, Hidden Differences, 1st edn, Doubleday, New York.

Katan, D. 2004, Translating Cultures. An Introduction for Translators, Interpreters and

Mediators, 1st edn, St. Jerome.

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http://www.business.dk/diverse/japan-kraever-kvalitet-og-taalmodighed

http://www.business.dk/

http://www.netpublikationer.dk/um/9236/index.htm


Longhurst, B., Smith, G., Bagnall, G., Crawford, G., Ogborn, M., Baldwin, E. and McCracken,

S. 2008, Introducing Cultural Studies, 2nd edn, Pearson Education Limited, Essex.

Scollon, R. and Scollon, S.W. 2001, Intercultural communication, 2nd edn, Blackwell,

Oxford.

Ting-Toomey, S. 1999, Communicating across cultures, 4 printing edn, Guilford Press, New

York.

Yoshimura, N. and Anderson, P. 1997, Inside the Kaisha, 1st edn, Harvard Business School

Press, Boston.

Webpages:

, http://www.ambtokyo.um.dk/da 2010, April, 1st 2010-last update. Available:

http://www.ambtokyo.um.dk/da [2010, April, 2nd].

, www.colorado.edu. Available:

http://www.colorado.edu/communication/meta-discourses/Theory/watzlawick/

[2010, April, 30th].

, www.disneyworld.disney.go.com. Available:

http://disneyworld.disney.go.com/parks/magic-kingdom/attractions/its-a-small-world/

[2010, April, 2nd].

Unpublished work:

Søjberg, J.F. Live and Learn; looking into Japanese economy, 5th semester synopsis.

(Enclosed as appendix 3)

Interview with Kristian Granild-Ueno, 2010. (Enclosed as appendix 1)

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http://disneyworld.disney.go.com/parks/magic-kingdom/attractions/its-a-small-world/

http://www.disneyworld.disney.go.com/

http://www.colorado.edu/communication/meta-discourses/Theory/watzlawick/

http://www.colorado.edu/

http://www.ambtokyo.um.dk/da

http://www.ambtokyo.um.dk/da


Secondary sources:

Articles:

Hofstede, G. 1984, "The Cultural Relativity of the Quality of Life Concept", Academy of

Management Review, vol. 9, no. 3.

Ito, K. 2005, "A History of Manga in the Context of Japanese Culture and Society", The

Journal of Popular Culture, vol. 38, no. 3.

Kjær, E. 2003, "Japan kræver kvalitet og tålmodighed", www.business.dk.

Moeran, B. 2007, "The orient strikes back: advertising and imagining Japan", Theory,

Culture & Society, vol. 13, no. 3.

Søderberg, A.M. & Holden, N. 2002, "Rethinking Cross Cultural Management in a

Globalizing Business World", International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, vol. 2,

no. 1.

Unknown 2008, "Sayonara, salaryman", Economist, vol. 386, no. 8561.

Books:

Hall, E.T. & Hall, M.R. 1990, Understanding Cultural Differences, 1st edn, Intercultural Press.

Trompenaars, F. & Hampden-Turner, C. 2004, Understanding cultural diversity in business,

2nd edn, Brealey.

Varner, I. & Beamer, L. 2005, Intercultural communication in the global workplace, 3rd edn,

McGraw-Hill/Irwin, New York, NY.

Webpages:

, www.engrish.com 2009, [2010, May 1st].

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http://www.engrish.com/

http://www.business.dk/

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