deep structure (transformational grammar)By Richard NordquistGrammar & Composition ExpertLinguistics Grammar Noam Chomsky English Language Grammar Sentence Grammar Checker Language Theory Sentence StructureGRAMMAR & COMPOSITION CATEGORIES Writing Tips: Advice from One Writer toAnother Composition: Developing EffectiveEssays English Grammar - SentenceStructures Glossary of Grammatical & Rhetorical Terms Using Words Correctly, Effectively, andImaginatively Readings and Resources forWriters ComposingSentences Rhetoric andStyle Exercises andQuizzes Correct and Effective Punctuation &Mechanics BusinessWriting Correcting Common SentenceErrors Composition: Developing EffectiveParagraphs Blog Words &Sentences Paragraphs &Essays Style & Figures ofSpeech Updated Articles and Resources.Final del formularioDefinition:Intransformational grammar, the underlyingsyntacticstructure (orlevel) of a sentence. In contrast tosurface structure(the outward form of a sentence), deep structure is an abstract representation that identifies the ways a sentence can be analyzed and interpreted.In transformational grammar, deep structures are generated byphrase-structure rules, and surface structures are derived from deep structures by a series oftransformations. Linguistics Grammar Noam Chomsky English Language Grammar Sentence Grammar Checker(See Examples and Observations, below.)See also: Case Grammar Chomskyan Linguistics Generative Grammar Kernel Sentence Linguistic Competence Linguistic Performance Relational Grammar Surface Structure Ten Types of Grammar Transformational GrammarExamples and Observations: "[Noam] Chomsky had identified a basic grammatical structure inSyntactic Structures[1957] that he referred to askernel sentences. Reflecting mentalese, kernel sentences were where words and meaning first appeared in the complex cognitive process that resulted in anutterance. In [Aspects of the Theory of Syntax, 1965], Chomsky abandoned the notion of kernel sentences and identified the underlying constituents of sentences asdeep structure. The deep structure was versatile insofar as it accounted for meaning and provided the basis for transformations that turned deep structure intosurface structure, which represented what we actually hear or read. Transformation rules, therefore, connected deep structure and surface structure, meaning andsyntax."(James D. Williams,The Teacher's Grammar Book. Lawrence Erlbaum, 1999)Ads Evolving Perspectives on Deep Structure"The remarkable first chapter of Noam Chomsky'sAspects of the Theory of Syntax(1965) set the agenda for everything that has happened in generative linguistics since. Three theoretical pillars support the enterprise:mentalism, combinatoriality, andacquisition. . . .

"A fourth major point ofAspects, and the one that attracted most attention from the wider public, concerned the notion ofDeep Structure. A basic claim of the 1965 version of generative grammar was that in addition to the surface form of sentences (the form we hear), there is another level of syntactic structure, called Deep Structure, which expresses underlying syntactic regularities of sentences. For instance, apassivesentence like (1a) was claimed to have a Deep Structure in which thenoun phrasesare in the order of the correspondingactive(1b):(1a) The bear was chased by the lion.(1b) The lion chased the bear.Similarly, a question such as (2a) was claimed to have a Deep Structure closely resembling that of the correspondingdeclarative(2b):(2a) Which martini did Harry drink?(2b) Harry drank that martini.. . . Following a hypothesis first proposed by Katz and Postal (1964),Aspectsmade the striking claim that the relevant level of syntax for determining meaning is Deep Structure.

"In its weakest version, this claim was only that regularities of meaning are most directly encoded in Deep Structure, and this can be seen in (1) and (2). However, the claim was sometimes taken to imply much more: that Deep Structureismeaning, an interpretation that Chomsky did not at first discourage. And this was the part of generative linguistics that got everyone really excited--for if the techniques of transformational grammar could lead us to meaning, we would be in a position to uncover the nature of human thought. . . .

"When the dust of the ensuing 'linguistic wars' cleared around 1973 . . ., Chomsky had won (as usual)--but with a twist: he no longer claimed that Deep Structure was the sole level that determines meaning (Chomsky 1972). Then, with the battle over, he turned his attention, not to meaning, but to relatively technical constraints on movement transformations (e.g. Chomsky 1973, 1977)."(Ray Jackendoff,Language, Consciousness, Culture: Essays on Mental Structure. MIT Press, 2007) Surface Structure and Deep Structure in a Sentence by Joseph Conrad"[Consider] the final sentence of [Joseph Conrad's short story] 'The Secret Sharer':Walking to the taffrail, I was in time to make out, on the very edge of a darkness thrown by a towering black mass like the very gateway of Erebus--yes, I was in time to catch an evanescent glimpse of my white hat left behind to mark the spot where the secret sharer of my cabin and of my thoughts, as though he were my second self, had lowered himself into the water to take his punishment: a free man, a proud swimmer striking out for a new destiny.I hope others will agree that the sentence justly represents its author: that it portrays a mind energetically stretching to subdue a dazzling experienceoutsidethe self, in a way that has innumerable counterparts elsewhere. How does scrutiny of thedeep structuresupport this intuition? First, notice a matter ofemphasis, ofrhetoric. Thematrix sentence, which lends a surface form to the whole, is '#S# I was in time # S #' (repeated twice). Theembeddedsentences that complete it are 'I walked to the taffrail,''I made out +NP,' and 'I caught + NP.' The point of departure, then, is thenarratorhimself: where he was, what he did, what he saw. But a glance at the deep structure will explain why one feels a quite different emphasis in the sentence as a whole: seven of the embedded sentences have 'sharer' as grammaticalsubjects; in another three the subject is anounlinked to 'sharer' by thecopula; in two 'sharer' isdirect object; and in two more 'share' is theverb. Thus thirteen sentences go to the semantic development of 'sharer' as follows:1. The secret sharer had lowered the secret sharer into the water.2. The secret sharer took his punishment.3. The secret sharer swam.4. The secret sharer was a swimmer.5. The swimmer was proud.6. The swimmer struck out for a new destiny.7. The secret sharer was a man.8. The man was free.9. The secret sharer was my secret self.10. The secret sharer had (it).11. (Someone) punished the secret sharer.12. (Someone) shared my cabin.13. (Someone) shared my thoughts.In a fundamental way, the sentence is mainly about Leggatt, although the surface structure indicates otherwise. . . .

"[The] progression in the deep structure rather precisely mirrors both the rhetorical movement of the sentence from the narrator to Leggatt via the hat that links them, and the thematic effect of the sentence, which is to transfer Leggatt's experience to the narrator via the narrator's vicarious and actual participation in it. Here I shall leave this abbreviatedrhetorical analysis, with a cautionary word: I do not mean to suggest that only an examination of deep structure reveals Conrad's skillful emphasis--on the contrary, such an examination supports and in a sense explains what any careful reader of the story notices."(Richard M. Ohmann, "Literature as Sentences."College English, 1966. Rpt. inEssays in Stylistic Analysis, ed. by Howard S. Babb. Harcourt, 1972) 1. SYNTAX PART 3 Sentences 2.Definition:A sentence is a grammatical unit consisting of one or more words that bear minimal syntactic relation to the words that precede or follow it, expresses a thought in the form of a statement, question, instruction, orexclamation, which starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop when written. 3.Sentence can be classified based on the categories of Pragmatic Aspect, Form, and Grammatical Structure 4.Based on the Pragmatic Aspect (realistic condition of the usage), sentence can be classified into:1 Declarative Sentence2 Imperative Sentence3 Interrogative Sentence4 Exclamatory Sentence 5.1. Declarative Sentence A declarative sentence is a sentence in the form of a statement. Examples: I have to go to work. Ill never do that. We are studying linguistics. He took my bicycle. 6.2. Imperative Sentence An imperative sentence is a sentence that tells someone to do something, gives advice or instructions, or that expresses a request or command. An imperative sentence usually have no obvious subject. Examples: Go to work! Dont do that! Dont walk on the grass! You should study hard. 7.3. Interrogative Sentence An interrogative sentence is a sentence in the form of question, which is used to request information. There are two types of interrogative sentence; those which expect the answer yes or no, and those which begin with the question words what, where, which, who, whom, when, why, whose, or how that expect the complete answer. 8. Examples: Do you have to go to work? Did you do that? Have you got the message? Yes/no questions. Are you OK? Is she your girlfriend? What are you doing? Why did you do that? Whose car is that? Wh- questions. Where is my book? How are you? 9.4. Exclamatory Sentence An exclamatory sentence is a sentence that expresses strong feelings by making an exclamation. Examples: I did it! What a fool I was! What a beautiful country! Oh my God! 10.Based on the Form (completeness of the structure), sentence can be classified into: MAJOR SENTENCEA MINOR SENTENCEB 11.A. MAJOR SENTENCE A major sentence is a regular sentence which contains a finite verb; it has a subject and a predicate. Example: I have a book. (in this sentence, one can change the persons, such as: we have a book, she has a book, you have a book, and so on.) 12.B. MINOR SENTENCE A minor sentence is an irregular type of sentence. It does not contain a finite verb, and frequently found in colloquial speech. Examples: Just a minute. Yes. Coffee? 13.Based on the Grammatical Structure (the composition and relation between clauses), sentence can be classified into:A SIMPLE SENTENCEB COMPOUND SENTENCEC COMPLEX SENTENCED COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE 14.A. SIMPLE SENTENCE A simple sentence is a sentence which consists of one independent clause (main clause) with no dependent clause (subordinate clause). Examples: I come. The boy cried. Canada is a rich country. The girl ran into her bedroom. Some students like to study in the morning. 15.B. COMPOUND SENTENCE A compound sentence is a sentence consists of two or more independent clauses (main clauses) with no dependent clause (subordinate clause); usually linked by the coordinating conjunctions: and, but, so, or, either . or, neither . nor, or then. She works in the city but She lives in the suburbs Coordinating Conjunction Independent Clause Independent Clause (Main Clause) (Main Clause) 16. Other Examples: 1. My friend invited me to a birthday party, but I dont want to go. 2. He ran out and fell over the suitcase. 3. Either the students or the teacher takes a day off every month. 4. He could neither eat nor sleep. 5. Do you want to stay here, or would you like to come with me? 6. She has five children, so she is incredibly busy. 7. She ate breakfast, then went to school. 17.C. COMPLEX SENTENCE A complex sentence is a sentence consists of one independent clause (main clause) and at least one dependent clause (subordinate clause), and often formed by putting the subordinating conjunctions, such as: as, as if, before, after, because, although, while, when, whenever, during, as soon as, as long as, since, until, unless, where, wherever, etc. Examples: John cannot set up his computer because the setting is complicated. She became queen when her father died, because she was the eldest child. 18.John cannot set up his computer Independent Clause because the setting is complicated. Dependent Clause Subordinating Conjunction 19.D. COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE A compound-complex sentence is a sentence consists of two or more independent clauses (main clauses) and at least one dependent (subordinate clause).Example: Although she worked hard to gain recognition, many people did not know who she was, and her friends did not even appreciate her work. 20.Although she worked hard to gain recognition, many people did notknow who she was, and her friends did not even appreciate her work. Although she worked hard to gain recognition, (Dependent Clause) many people did not know who she was, (Independent Clause) (Subordinating (Coordinating Conjunction) and Conjunction) her friends did not even appreciate her work. (Independent Clause) 21.Summary of Sentence Patterns based on the Grammatical Structure: Type of Independent DependentSentence: Clause: Clause:Simple Sentence Compound Sentence or > Complex Sentence at least Compound-Complex Sentence or > at least 22.GRAMMATICAL RELATIONS (SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS) So far, we have looked at the types of sentences based on the usage, form, and structure. Now we will focus on the internal structure of sentence, involving the grammatical relations (syntactic functions). Commonly, the basic pattern of the simple English sentence is: (Adjunct) + (Subject) + Predicate + (Object) + (Complement) + (Adjunct) (A) (S) P (O) (C) (A) where only the Predicate (P) is essential, and in which the Adjunct (A) is mobile. 23.NOTE: A noun (person or thing) which performs the action of a verb, or which Subject is joined to a description by a verb. (S) A part of sentence or clause containing a verb and stating something Predicate about the subject. (P) Object A noun (person or thing) that is affected by the action of a verb or (O) involved in the result of an action that is done by a subject. Adjunct A word used as modifier in a sentence. (A)Complement A word or word group that completes the predicate in a sentence. (C) 24. The following example will show how the previous pattern works: The man called the boy suddenly (Noun Part) (Verb Part) (Noun Part) (Adverb Part) S P O A We call the noun part a subject (S), the verb part a predicate (P), the other noun part an object (O), and the adverb part an adjunct (A). 25. As mentioned before that an adjunct (A) is usually mobile. See the following examples:The man called the boy suddenly.The man suddenly called the boy.Suddenly the man called the boy. 26.EXAMPLES of COMPLEMENT: She is beautiful. She becomes a doctor. He was in the bus. Your perfume smells very good. Before the show, she seemed nervous.A word or a group of words that involve linking verbs (such asAPPEAR, BECOME, BE, SEEM,GROW, LOOK, TASTE, SMELL,SOUND, FEEL, etc.) to complete the predicate in a sentence, is calleda Complement (C).Thus, the words: beautiful, a doctor, in the bus, very good, andnervous in the sentences above are all complements. 27.There are two kinds of Complement: Subject Complement Object Complement 28.(1) Subject complement is the complement that provides information on the subject (like in the previous examples), such as: He was in the bus. S P C (in the bus provides the information about the subject he).(2) Object complement is the complement that provides information on the object, for examples: The man called his brother a fool. S P O C (a fool provides the information about the object his brother) Susan found the assignment difficult. S P O C (difficult provides the information about the object assignment) 29. Example of the complete basic pattern of simple English sentence:John often called his brother a fool S A P O C 30.Word Order Typology of English PATTERNS: EXAMPLES: P Go PA Go quietly SP John slept SPA John slept quietly PO Eat your breakfast SPO John ate his breakfast SPOA John ate his breakfast quickly SPC John is a fool ASPC At times John is a fool SPOC John called his brother a fool SAPOC John often called his brother a fool 31. Dealing with the sentence patterns, there are four kind of operations that can be used to examine a sentence variation without changing its semantic aspect. They are: 1 Insertion (Addition) 2 Deletion 3 Substitution 4 Transposition (Permutation) 32.1. Insertion (Addition) Insertion is the process of putting one or more constituents inside a sentence. Example: The boy is clever. The handsome boy is very clever. insertion insertion 33.2. Deletion Deletion is the process of removing one or more constituents of a sentence. Example: The handsome boy is very clever. The boy is clever. deletion deletion 34.3. Substitution Substitution is the process of substituting both subject or object into pronouns, or verb phrases into auxiliary verbs. Examples: a. The young man visited her mother He visited her. 35.4. Transposition (Permutation) Transposition (permutation) is the process of exchanging the position or the order of constituents in a sentence without changing the grammatical and semantic aspects. Example: The man called the boy suddenly. S P O A The man suddenly called the boy. S A P O Suddenly the man called the boy. A S P O 36.GRAMMATICAL vs. UNGRAMMATICAL SENTENCES In English and in every language, every sentence is a sequence of words, but not every sequence of words is a sentence. Sequences of words that conform to the rules of syntax are said to be grammatical, and those that violate the syntactic rules are called ungrammatical. In other words, utterances (sentences) which are constructed appropriately based on grammatical rules are normally called grammatical sentences; while utterances which are not constructed based on the grammatical rules are called ungrammatical sentences. 37. In linguistics, an ungrammatical sentence is normally marked with an asterisk (*) sometimes two in front of it. Example: a) The boy kissed the girl. (grammatical) b) *The boy kissing the girl. (ungrammatical) 38.GRAMMATICAL & ACCEPTABLE As the grammatical refers to the condition in which the utterance is constructed appropriately based on grammatical rules, acceptable is used to decide whether or not an utterance (sentence) can be accepted in case of form or the effectiveness of the sentence. Compare the following sentences: 39. The man hit the dog. (grammatical-acceptable) The dog chased the cat. (grammatical-acceptable) The cat died. (grammatical-acceptable)Based on the structure, we can combine the three sentencesas follow: The cat that the dog that the man hit chased died. (grammatical-unacceptable)Most native speakers would not accept the sentence above.It is certainly grammatical in that all we have done is add one adjective clausethat the man hit that describes the dog.However, the consecutive/serial verbs (hit-chased-died) make the sentenceunacceptable. 40. When they are embedded within a sentence, most people cannot accept more than two adjective clauses. However, as soon as the adjective clauses occur at the end of the sentence, we can accept any number of them. Thus, the previous sentence will be both grammatical and acceptable by this structure: This is the man that hit the dog that chased the cat that died. (grammatical-acceptable) 41.AMBIGUOUS & INTERPRETABLE When a word or phrase has more than one possible meaning and may cause confusion, it is called lexical ambiguity, and this is a common feature of English and of many other languages. Example: a small piece of wood CHIP a long thin piece of potato a small piece of siliconLexical Ambiguous 42. As well as lexical ambiguity, there is also syntactic ambiguity where a structure is capable of more than one interpretation. Example: Visiting relatives can cause problems Syntactic Ambiguous This sentence is ambiguous because it can be interpreted as: 1. Relatives who visit us can cause problems. OR 2. When we visit relatives, there can be problems. 43.Diagram of the Correlation between Interpretation and Ambiguity: AmbiguityLexical Ambiguity Syntactic Ambiguity Interpretation