LADDERSSubject 5

On the fireground, one of the most important operations is

timely and effective laddering of a structure. Proper laddering

sets the foundation for firefighting and can enhance other

support functions.

Pre-fire planning is an important and integral part of

developing proper ladder placement techniques. The

recommendations made here for prioritizing ladder location

and placement are meant to be a guide only. Individual fire

conditions may require other adapted ladder solutions.

Beyond enhancing aerial or ground ladder operations,

effective ladder placement to an involved structure acts

as the catalyst that enhances subsequent strategic and

tactical priorities such as:

—Rescue

—Ventilation

— Access to upper floors and inaccessible locations

—Emergency egress

Definitions andBasic Objectives

Strategic PrioritiesIt cannot be overstated that selecting the

proper ladder for the task improves the truckcompany’s efficiency. For example, do not use aladder that is too short for the raise. Conversely,do not use a long ladder for a comparativelyshort raise.

A number of factors influence the selectionand placement of ladders. For instance, whenladdering a structure, the roof or floor where theoperation will be performed dictates what lengthladder to use.

The following basic information will assist inchoosing ladder length:

— Residential occupancies are approximatelynine feet from floor to floor.

— Commercial occupancies are approxi-mately 10 to 12 feet from floor to floor.

— The average windowsill height is approxi-mately three feet above the floor. Windowsare normally four feet high.

These numbers also help calculate how far thebase of the ladder should be placed from thebuilding. The proper distance is one-fourth of

the desired height of the raise. This ensures thatthe ladder will be at the proper climbing angle of70 degrees.

Types of Ladders— 10-foot Attic Ladder

This ladder is considered an inside ladder forgaining access to attics and similar restricted-width areas. It should be reserved for interior use.

— 12- and 14-foot ExtensionLadders

These may reach the roofs of some one-storystructures, but are generally considered insideladders for use in gaining access to attics, lockboxes or Knox boxes, hanging salvage covers, etc.This type of ladder should be reserved forinterior use.

— 16-foot Straight Ladder

This ladder will usually reach the roofs of mostone-story residential buildings with a hip orgable roof. Occasionally, they can be used onsecond-floor windows and the lowest fire escapebalconies.

— 20-foot Straight Ladder

The 20-foot straight ladder will reach the roofsof most one-story residential buildings with flatroofs and parapets, most second-floor windows,and most of the lowest fire escape balconies.

— 24-foot Straight Ladder

This will reach the roofs of most one-storyresidential buildings, some roofs of one-storycommercial buildings, some roofs on two-storyresidential buildings with a hip or gable roof,second and third-floor windows, and most of thelowest fire escape balconies.

— 35-foot Extension Ladder

Regardless of the type of roof, this ladder will

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4'

9'

1st

2nd

3rd

6'

24'

10'

3'

HABITATIONAL

COMMERCIAL

SIDE VIEW

70˚angle

Sill hgt.

Window hgt.

reach the top of most two-story residentialbuildings, second- and third-floor windows andtwo- and some three-story fire escape balconies.

— Roof Ladders

Generally, 12-, 16-, and 20-foot roof laddersrequire the initial placement of a ground or aerialladder before implementation. These ladders aregenerally used on all pitched or sloped roofswhere footing is precarious. (Keep in mind thatpitched/sloped roofs are always steeper than theylook from the ground.)

Roof ladders can also be used to ladder the“backside” of tall parapets and fascias. Sometimesthey can be used in place of straight ladders.

Two more important considerations for ladderselection are roof slope or pitch and the presenceof tall parapets. In the former instance, if footingis precarious, always use roof ladders. A roofladder is also necessary if a parapet is ????

— Aerial Ladders

Aerial ladders add to a truck’s capabilities.Aerial ladders can reach the upper floors thatground ladders can’t. They can be placed andused the same way as a ground ladder. Take intoconsideration, however, that they are not asportable as ground ladders, and that they maynot be able to reach the sides, rear or even thefront of the building.

One of the main advantages of aerial ladders isthat they can be raised quickly by one person,freeing the remainder of the crew to either placeadditional ground ladders or gather equipment.Prompt and proper ladder selection and

placement set the groundwork for a coordinatedattack on the fire and aid in search and rescue.

The main advantage of a ground ladder is itsportability. It can be carried to positions thatwould be impossible to reach with aerial apparatus.Since a truck company has both ground laddersand an aerial ladder, generally, ground ladders canbe used for lower-story operations, freeing theaerial ladder for upper-story work.

The main disadvantages of ground ladders aretheir limited reach and the number of personnelrequired to raise them. Because of this, groundladder operations become inefficient and timeconsuming when they are used for distances overthree stories.

StrategicConsiderations

— Rescue

Depending on priorities, size-up will dictatewhere the first ladders should be raised. Initialladders should always be raised to the victims inthe most danger. Another high priority is ladderinga means of egress for firefighters. This includeswindows, roofs, fire escapes, balconies, etc.

— Ventilation

As with rescue, size-up of the fire will dictatewhere the first ladders should be raised. Whenplacing initial ladders for ventilation, considerhow they can be used to maximum benefit,reducing the need for too many additionalladders. Also consider the location of the fire,anticipated fire progress, the amount of workand time needed on the roof, and the strongestareas of the building’s construction.

For example, corners, pilasters, hips andvalleys provide more support. The ridge of abuilding is usually a strong area also, but duringfire conditions it can be weakened substantially ifexposed to heat or flame. Consider placing asecond ladder for an alternative means of egress

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PITCHED/SLOPED ROOFSARE ALWAYS STEEPER

THAN THEY LOOK FROM THE GROUND

once you are on the roof and the area ofoperation is known. Factors that may influencethe decision for a second ladder are the type ofroof, direction of fire change, and whetherconditions on the roof are rapidly changing.

— Building Construction

One of the best areas to place a ladder is asclose to the corner of the building as possible.Corners are considered an optimum placementarea for the following reasons:

� No horizontal openings. Windows,doors and vents are not usually found in corners.

� Strength. The strongest areas of abuilding are adjoining walls, hips and valleys.

� Location. When ventilation operationsare complete, it is easy to find the ladder bylooking at the corners. This is especially an assetat night, in smoky conditions, or whenimmediate egress becomes necessary.

There are some exceptions to the advice onladdering corners with certain types of buildingconstruction:

� Tilt-ups. Most tilt-up buildings are largeand have panelized or light weight roofs. The sizeof the building is an important factor.

Consider placing the initial ladder closeenough to the anticipated area of operation onthe roof so that crews will not have to traverse agreat distance. However, it should also be farenough away so that they will not be cut off fromtheir means of progress if additional roof work,such as a strip cut, becomes necessary.

Also keep in mind that roofs are stronger overbeams and purlins. For this reason, corners ontilt-up buildings tend to be one of the weakestareas of the roof, due to lack of beams, purlins,and occasionally, even ledger plates.

� Common Storefront Commercial. Thistype of building may span a whole block, withnumerous occupancies sharing one commonattic. The space is divided up into stores by eitherpartition walls or separation walls.

When making a decision about ladderplacement in this type of occupancy, consider thelocation of the involved store(s), that is, is it inthe middle or to one end of the building? Alsoconsider which side of the building wouldsustain the greatest fire loss.

� Strip Malls. These occupancies usually havefascias along their front and part of the sides.Roofs are lightweight, and poke-throughconstruction can be found in the attics.

� Fascias. Fascias are usually constructed onthe front and part of the sides of a building.Fascias normally hide or conceal the roofline,and are usually open or common to the attic of abuilding. Another common feature of fascias is alack of firestopping.

The four factors shown in (Figure 2) should beconsidered when a fascia is involved.

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THE RIDGE OF A ROOFCAN BE WEAKENEDSUBSTANTIALLY IFEXPOSED TO HEAT

OR FLAME.

D

C

B

A

FACIA SIDE VIEW

A OVERHANG

B FACIA HEIGHT

C SUPPORTED OR UNSUPPORTED

D HEIGHT FROM ROOF

BUILDING

ROOF

FIGURE 2

1. Overhang

Consider the distance a fascia extends from thebuilding (A). Some fascias are constructed withthe ceiling joists or roof rafters extending intothem for support. Others have merely been“tacked on” as part of a remodel.

The larger the fascia or longer its extensionfrom the building, the less chance it willmaintain structural stability when exposed tofire. Therefore, if fire has already penetrated theattic or fascia in this type of building, structuralcollapse may be imminent.

2. Height

Fascia height (B) and shape will affect thestructural stability. It will also indicate theamount of building materials utilized and thepotential path of the fire.

3. Support

Is the fascia supported or unsupported?Structural stability will be enhanced if the fasciais supported by pillars, posts, or other featuresthat are often used for style or decoration (C).

4. Height

How far does the fascia rise above the roof? Ifit must be laddered, consider the distance fromthe actual roof line (D).

AccessA primary function common to all ladders is

that they allow firefighters access to the upperfloors of a structure from the outside. When afire on a lower floor blocks egress from upperfloors, ladders are invaluable. Firefighters cansimply circumvent the affected floor via ladder inorder to conduct search and rescue operations, aswell as cut off any vertical extension.

In their capacity as an emergency exit, laddersshould be raised for firefighters as well as victims.This is necessary even if firefighters entered thebuilding through interior stairways. Laddersprovide additional, immediate exits in areas thatmay not have convenient stairway access. Theyalso let victims being rescued get to fresh air asquickly as possible without having to be carriedor led through the fire building.

Radio communication is helpful in this type ofoperation. Firefighters inside can use their radiosto call for ladders at certain locations. The personreceiving the request can advise when thoseladders are in place.

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Tactical ConsiderationsRescueDuring a rescue operation, it is imperative that

the ladder be kept a safe distance from victims asit is being raised. This keeps the victims fromprematurely grabbing onto the ladder, prevent-ing its further extension or placement. Thismaneuver is accomplished by raising the ladderin a vertical position away from the building,then pivoting it and lowering the tip toward thevictims (Figure 3).

When a ladder is placed at a window forrescue, the tip should be at or just below the levelof the sill (Figure 4). This keeps the entire widthof the window clear for evacuating victims orserving as an entrance or exit for personnel.

If a ground ladder must be use on sloped footing,place it just above the level of the sill on the downhillside of the window (Figure 5). A downslope spur canbe raised with a wood chock block or a wedge tolevel the ladder (Figure 6). These two procedures willprevent the ladder from moving away from thesupporting window frame as it is being climbed.

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FIGURE 3

FIGURE 4

FIGURE 5

FIGURE 6

When an aerial ladder is placed at a windowfor rescue, the turntable should line up with thewindow and the ladder should be perpendicularto the building. If the ladder is placed at an angleto the building, the beam of the ladder willcontact the building first. As the person climbingup approaches the tip, his or her weight will twistthe ladder until the other beam also rests on theroof edge. This is dangerous, as the twistingcauses a severe torsional load on the ladder thatcan lead to its failure.

The recommended distance of the aerialladder from its objective is two to six inches. If arescue is being performed, use the two-inchfigure so that the ladder will rest against thewindowsill after weight is placed on it. This willreduce dangerous wobbling when the personbeing rescued steps onto the ladder.

However, there is an exception to thisrecommended minimum distance: at very high

angles, allow the ladder to just barely touch thebuilding. This will prevent excessive movementwhen a crew member climbs to the higherelevations. During the climb, the ladder will beforced to rest against the building, which stabilizesit. Of course, as in every situation, be sure tofollow the manufacturers’ suggested operatingprocedures for your specific aerial ladder.

When placing a ground ladder at the front orside railing of a balcony or fire escape, the top ofthe ladder should extend a maximum of onerung above the railing. This provides a handholdfor victims stepping onto the ladder, and keepsthe landing clear.

Also avoid blocking fire escape access above orbelow by placing the ladder on the opposite sideof the openings between landings (Figure 7). Tosimultaneously ladder first-, second-, and eventhird floor fire escapes or balconies, a 35-footextension ladder can be used at the wall besideany of these landings (Figure 8).

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FIGURE 7

FIGURE 8

Ladders should be strapped to handrails towithstand any side loads or forces. Avoid placingladders next to parts of fire escapes that willinterfere with their drop ladders. Remember torelease drop ladders for use by occupants and sothat the drop ladder won’t release at aninopportune time during the incident.

There are several ways to position ladders asbridges for rescue. Bridging can be accomplishedby placing ground ladders horizontally betweentwo buildings, over an alley, walkway, narrowcourt, air shaft or from one balcony to another(Figure 9).

A straight ladder can be placed from windowto window or roof to roof by pushing it tip-firstacross the space. Several firefighters should placetheir weight on the base of the ladder to keep thetip from dropping below the victims.

Remember, however, that bridging is not astandard Los Angeles County Fire Departmentladder operation, and it is a time-consumingoperation at best. If you plan to use it, practice inadvance to develop proficiency and determinethe best techniques for the crew.

VentilationThe first ladder for ventilation should be

placed on the same side of the building you planto ventilate and at a corner away from the fire(Figure 10) so crews can traverse the roof fromthe uninvolved portion to the involved portionof the building. Avoid laddering gable ends andblocking entrances or exits unless there is noother place for the ladder. Also take intoconsideration that ladders may cause congestionor create other hazards.

When ladders are raised to the roof, theyshould extend a minimum of three to five rungsabove the roofline or parapet. This enhancesboth the ladder’s visibility and its sturdiness. Donot overextend extension ladders or use a straightladder that is too tall for the raise, as this maymake the ladder-top heavy and unstable.

When placing a second ladder for analternative means of egress, put it near the area ofoperation so crews can quickly exit the roof ifnecessary. When requesting a second ladder,consider marking the location with a drop bag tohelp ground crews find it.

If additional companies are ordered to theroof, they should provide their own ladders foraccess. Each company should have its own ladderfor access and emergency egress.

Tilt-ups

Again, consider placing the ladder to one sideof a pilaster or cold joint. This results in a 50-percent chance of stepping on a beam or purlin,depending on the direction they run across the

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FIGURE 9

WHEN A LADDER ISPLACED AT A WINDOWFOR RESCUE, THE TIP

SHOULD BE AT ORJUST BELOW THE LEVEL

OF THE SILL

FIGURE 10

building (Figure 11). Avoid laddering the cornersof a tilt-up unless there is no other choice.

Strip malls

Since most strip malls have fascias, place aladder to the sides or rear of the building,avoiding the fascias.

Common Storefront commercial

Consider placing a ladder to the corner of oneof the exposed occupancies on either side of theinvolved occupancy. Potential dollar loss mayinfluence the side you choose (Figure 12). Aladder at this location would give crews enoughtime to ventilate the occupancy, perform anyother necessary topside work, and exit via thesame ladder.

Fascias

Due to the poor construction of most fasciasand the same factors mentioned under “StrategicConsiderations — Fascias,” make every effort toavoid laddering this type of construction. If youmust ladder a building with a fascia, ladder thesides or rear of the building. This protects crewmembers and the ladder in case of fascia collapse.

Pitched or sloped roofs

Roof ladders are placed on the roof whereventilation operations are anticipated. Placeground or aerial ladders near or next to thesection of roof to be ventilated. This willfacilitate placement of the roof ladder next to thesection of roof to be ventilated.

Parapets

It is imperative that the base of roof ladder bethe first end carried up the ladder. This puts theladder in position to be placed down thebackside of the parapet. Secure the ladder to theadjacent ground or aerial ladder or to theparapet.

Upper Floors and Inaccessible Locations

An aerial ladder can solve this problem, butground ladders can be used by raising them tothe roof of an attached or nearby building that islower than the involved structure (Figure 13).

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FIGURE 11 FIGURE 12

FIGURE 13

Crews should first climb onto the roof of the lowerbuilding. If it is no more than two stories high,ground crews can pass additional ladders to the roofcrews, who should be able to pull them up by hand.If the lower building is more than two stories high,the ladders should be hoisted by rope.

Once the additional ladders are on the roof of thelower building, raise them to the proper positionson the side of the involved building. Sometimesthis will require ladders longer than those used toget to the roof. Figure out in advance the height ofthe required raise and which ladders will reach.

Emergency Egress

Ladders should be raised at fire escapes andhallway windows, if their locations are known.Firefighters should be trained to expect ladders atthese locations. Alternative positions include justabout any window on the fire floor and the floorabove the fire.

Considerations— Ground ladders should be properly spotted,

shifted or moved into position for raising prior tobeing raised. This is due to the followingconsiderations:

� Ground ladders are most easily and safelymaneuvered on the ground

� Once a ground ladder is in a vertical position,additional movement increases the chances oflosing stability or striking wires.

— Keep all ladders away from electrical wires. Beaware of any wires in the vicinity when carrying,raising, and climbing.

— Ladder movement is simplified and safetyenhanced when ladders are moved in the horizontalposition — on the ground—rather than the verticalposition — in the air.

— The base of an extension ladder may beshifted toward a building or to either side after it islowered to the objective.

— When shifting extension ladders, capture the

halyard on the front side to prevent the dogs fromaccidentally unlocking.

— When necessary, a ground ladder should besecured to its objective by ladder hose straps, rope,etc.

— When climbing, always keep one hand on theladder. If you have a tool in the other hand, yourfree hand should be positioned behind the beam,maintaining constant contact with the beam andready to pull you into the ladder in case of amishap. If possible, the hand carrying the toolshould be positioned behind the ladder, with thewrist cocked just against the beam.

— Do not overload ladders.

— Do not rely on other companies’ ladders. Putup your own.

— Never extend or retract any aerial ladder whilesomeone is climbing it.

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SummaryTypical ladder operations involve a lot of choices,

and an incorrect decision can put everyone indanger. Different types of occupancies imposedifferent considerations for ladder choice,placement, and use. Rescue is always the primaryconsideration.

Remember, ladder placement is a subject toconsider long before the alarm comes in. Effectiveladdering may not only save the life of victims, itmay also save your own and that of your fellowcrew members.

Suggested Reading1992 In-service IV Ladders manual

Fire Officer’s Handbook of Tactics, JohnNorman

Truck Company Fireground Operations, HaroldRichman

Volume 4, Training and Equipment, Chapter6, Subject 5, Page 6: Tying Off Equipment.

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