1

NZETE, ONYEKACHI PRISCILLA

PG/MA/08/48719

ANALYSIS OF MEDIA CAMPAIGN ON EXCLUSIVE

BREAST FEEDING IN ABIA STATE

DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

NSUKKA

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION,

FACULTY OF ARTS, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

Webmaster

Digitally Signed by Webmaster’s Name

DN : CN = Webmaster’s name O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka

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NOVEMBER 2010

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ANALYSIS OF MEDIA CAMPAIGN ON

EXCLUSIVE BREAST FEEDING IN ABIA STATE

BY

NZETE, ONYEKACHI PRISCILLA

PG/MA/08/48719

DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

NSUKKA

NOVEMBER 2010

3

CERTIFICATION

This research project report is an original work of Nzete, Onyekachi Priscilla with

registration No. PG/MA/08/48719. It satisfies the requirements for the

presentation of research report in the department of Mass Communication,

University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

________________________ ____________________

Dr. R.A Udeajah Date

(Research Project Supervisor)

________________________ _____________________

Dr. Akpan C.S Date

(Ag. Head of Department)

________________________ _______________________

External Examiner Date

DEDICATION

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This research work is dedicated to my mum and to every woman whose earnest

intention is to give their children the best they can offer.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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I owe my total and sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. R.A Udeajah,

whose support, encouragement, direction, guidance and patience constitute the

reason this research work was possible and is completed.

I am also immensely grateful to all the lecturers in the Department of Mass

Communication of University of Nigeria, Nsukka, for teaching me.

I am most grateful to my family and friends for their financial and moral

support throughout the course of this work. I am especially indebted to Dr.

Ukasanya of Nazareth Hospital, Aba, Abia State, Mrs. Nnenna Uche, Aesthetics

Specialist staff nurse at Abia State Teaching Hospital, Mrs. Chineme Chukwudi,

staff nurse at Federal Medical Center, Umuahia, Abia State, Barrister Mrs.

Uwaeme and my great friend, Mr. Victor Adamu.

I am also truly grateful to all whose work were cited or consulted

throughout the research work and to my great friends especially Grace Ugwuadu

who helped to type and proofread the work. Thank you all.

And, to God Almighty be all the glory and thanksgiving.

Nzete, Onyekachi Priscilla.

University of Nigeria, Nsukka, 2010

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- i

Certification ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ii

Dedication ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- iii

Acknowledgments ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- iv

Table of Contents ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- v

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List of Tables ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- vii

Abstract ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- viii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 7

1.3 Objectives of the Study ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 8

1.4 Research Questions ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 9

1.5 Significance of the Study ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 9

1.6 Scope and Limitation of this Study ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 10

1.7 Definition of Terms ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 11

References 12

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Focus of the Review ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 13

2.2 Literature Review ---- ----- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 13

2.3 Theoretical Framework ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 34

References 37

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 40

3.2 Population of Study ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 40

3.3 Sample Size ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 42

3.4 Sample and sampling Technique ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 42

3.5 Measuring Instrument ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 43

3.6 Validation/Reliability ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 43

3.7 Method of Data Analysis ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 44

3.8 Delimitation of the Study ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 44

References 45

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION

4.1 Description of the sample ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 46

4.2 Data Presentation and Analysis---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 46

4.3 Discussion of Findings ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 62

References 67

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Summary ---- ---- ----- ----- ---- ---- ---- ----- ---- 68

5.2 Conclusion ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 71

5.3 Recommendations ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 72

Bibliography 75

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Appendices 79

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Showing the respondents age group ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 46

Table 2: Showing the respondents occupation -------- ---- ---- ---- 47

Table 3: Shows respondents educational status ---- ---- ---- ---- 48

Table 4: Respondent’s marital status ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 49

Table 5: Respondent’s status whether they are pregnant, breast

feeding mothers or none of them -------- ---- ---- ---- ---- 50

Table 6: Respondent’s views on media access ---- ---- ---- ---- 51

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Table 7: Respondents answers to the particular media they have access to ---- 52

Table 8: Respondents views on which media they prefer ---- ---- ---- 52

Table 9: Respondents views on what appeals to them most about the channel

through which they access information on exclusive breast feeding---- 53

Table 10: Respondents views on their reaction to mass media messages ---- 54

Table 11: Respondents views on having heard of the campaign on exclusive

breast-feeding ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 55

Table 12: Respondents views on how often they get information

about exclusive breast-feeding--- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 56

Table 13: Respondents views on the last time they saw or heard a campaign

on exclusive breast-feeding ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 57

Table 14: Respondents views on how else they hear about exclusive

breast-feeding ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 58

Table 15: Respondents views on what influence exclusive breast feeding have

on women in Abia State ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 59

Table 16: Respondents views on if the information they receive effect their

perception about exclusive breast-feeding ---- ---- ---- ---- 60

Table 17: Respondents who do exclusive breast-feeding and those who do not- 61

Table 18: Respondents views on if they have challenges using any of the

media to access information on exclusive breast-feeding ---- ---- 62

ABSTRACT Media campaigns are often used to achieve audience mobilization and participation in

the process of development. Often times, however, it fails to achieve the purpose for which

it was designed owning to many factors. It is pertinent to ensure that such development

communications are properly planned and designed so as to meet the target group and

achieve the set objectives. This study examined the media campaigns on exclusive

breastfeeding in Abia State while analyzing the perceptions of women regarding the

campaigns and the various media used in the exercise, it identified the various constraints

in the utilization of the media to reach the envisioned audience. Anchored on the

innovation diffusion theory, this survey research employed questionnaire as the major

instrument of data collection. The data collected was presented in simple tables and

percentages. The findings of this research findings include; interpersonal communication

is the most effective mode of communication in communicating the exclusive

breastfeeding campaigns, the campaigns do run in adequate volumes to effect behavioral

change among these women, majority of the women reserve their predisposition towards

exclusive breast-feeding in spite the campaigns and that they have challenges using the

media through which they receive information on exclusive breast-feeding

.Recommendations made at the end of this research work will help to enhance the

planning and designing of the media campaigns in the state and Nigeria as a whole.

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Effective communication enhances sustainable development. Many researches

carried out support that communication and development are so closely related that

there cannot be development without communication. In a developing country like

Nigeria, strategies, plans and policies on developmental projects can only be effective

and the desired results produced, if the project is properly communicated.

This indicates that it is important to properly articulate the development

projects through planning and formulating strategies on how to actually implement the

objectives of the development projects to achieve results. On the other hand and

equally important is the communication regarding the development project. It must be

properly communicated in order for people to see the need, the strategies and the

desired result in view. This is what is known as development communication.

Development communication as defined by (Nwabueze, 2008:18) “is a

conscious effort by a sender to package messages aimed at persuading, encouraging

and convincing the receiver to adopt and participate in actualizing the development

plan”. Development communication is used to bring about behavioural change

towards the desired development in a particular society. These communication

processes are often done through mass media campaigns and advocacy advertising.

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Advocacy advertising champions preventive action against conditions affecting

the public welfare (Ukonu, 2004:83). In development process, advocacy is concerned

with producing information and knowledge for decision makers within the

environment where the development is required to facilitate their ability to make

informed decisions regarding the project or innovation.

It is not enough to just air these campaigns, it must be properly planned to meet

the aim for its production. It entails properly researching the people who the

development communication is targeted at, to ensure that the appropriate channel is

used, the appropriate language and the message itself packaged to suit the people.

This will in turn encourage their appreciating the development process and their

participation in it. According to (Okunna, 2000:298), “development should be a

participatory process whose success therefore ultimately depends on the involvement

of the people in whatever project is being carried out”

There have been many of such campaigns for developmental processes in

Nigeria, but whether these campaigns meet the desired objectives is a question that is

yet to be clearly answered. As (Ekwelie, 1999: 6) opines:

We have proof that development and communication can be

complimentary. We know that communication may fail to generate

development, but after making all the allowances for accidents in

nature and society, we are still left with a paradigm that links

communication with development

One of such campaigns is the exclusive breast-feeding campaign. This

campaign is no longer news to Nigerians especially women. Exclusive breast-feeding

campaign is the leading intervention in the prevention of child malnutrition which is

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the major cause of more than half of all child deaths in developing countries. In an

attempt to achieve successful breast-feeding globally by the year 2000, World Health

Organization (WHO) and United Nations international children Emergency fund

(UNICEF) launched the baby friendly hospital initiative (BFHI) in 1991. It is a project

through which exclusive breast-feeding is being supported, promoted and protected.

Exclusive breast-feeding means that no other drink or food should be given to

the infant except breast milk; the infant should feed frequently and for unrestricted

periods. The Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative (BFHI) recommends that infants be

breast fed for six months and thereafter until twenty-four months alongside other

proper food for the child. This recommendation is because of the various research

publications on the superiority of breast milk compared to other type of milk for the

nourishment of infant, and the offering of better health benefits to both mother and

child. All nutritional needs for children are provided by the breast milk in the right

amount and duration. This crucial benefit of breast milk prompted the need for

exclusive breast-feeding campaign.

In spite of all the efforts geared towards achieving the goals of exclusive breast

feeding campaign, which include reducing infant malnutrition and mortality, the

project still does not have 100 percent success. This is owing to a number of factors

which include gap in communication, especially in the rural areas. Writing on the

effective promotion of breast-feeding in the 21st century (Oruamabo, 2004:15) affirms

that “Women resident in the rural areas pose the greatest problems”.

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Exclusive breast-feeding campaign is communicated through the various mass

media in the country. These media include the radio, television, Newspapers and

magazines, banners, posters, and flyers. Infant welfare clinic sessions at several

hospitals and antenatal clinics are also avenues where information about exclusive

breast-feeding is communicated.

The campaigns often times are not holistic, in that they are urbanized which

removes the rural people from the picture. (Mboho, 2005:114) noted that

communication with rural people is a complex process, involving a combination of

traditional and modern mass media. Unlike in the urban communities where the

modern mass media are used to disseminate messages of development

communication, one cannot ignore the traditional means of communication. This is

owing to the lack of the basic infrastructural amenities like electricity and good road

network which often hinder the spread of these modern mass media.

Media campaigns in Abia State are often sponsored by government agencies or

international organizations that plan and place these campaigns at the national levels

of the media and through their network channels the campaigns are spread to reach

people all over the federation. Thus they may remain as one of those programmes or

advertisements to people because their contents are not localized, in that it is not done

to suit the people that the campaign is targeted at.

Again the media campaigns, because very often are sponsored by, private

agencies or as a means of publicizing a particular world programme, the campaigns do

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not come in the right volumes to sustain the process until there is the desired

behaviourial change which will bring about the developmental process.

Another part to consider is the perception of the women, of the campaigns and

the extent to which they are influenced by the campaigns to stimulate behaviourial

change which will result to the desired development. Do they buy the idea in the

campaign? Does the strategy and type of programme appeal to them and their media

patterns? All of these must be considered for the campaign to meet the target and get

the right results.

Again, it is necessary to use the most suitable medium for the right target

audience in order to achieve the desired result. The women in the urban area in Abia

state can appreciate fully the advantages of the use of modern mass media for the

campaigns; however, how effective are these media in communicating the message of

the exclusive breast-feeding campaign especially in the rural areas in Abia State? The

print media i.e. the newspapers and magazines which are mainly national dailies often

carry these breast-feeding campaigns. However this medium may not be effective in

the communication of these campaigns to these women in Abia state because of the

need for readers to be literate and again the cost of buying copies which the women

especially those in the rural areas may not readily afford.

Many scholars have repeatedly stated the power of the electronic media over all

other communication media .(Aniebona 1990:116) observed that the world has

recognized the fact that broadcasting is a powerful and effective tool for the spread of

education for both children and adults in order to achieve certain prescribed goals.

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According to Waterson (1969), the radio is a veritable channel through which group

behaviour can be directed in a concerted way in order to bring about any social

change. Radio stations are important channels through which these development

communications can be transmitted because of its cost effectiveness and the fact that

it does not necessarily require electricity to operate. Again the radio tends to identify

more with the audience including the rural dwellers in terms of programme content

and language of delivery, because information is also transmitted using the vernacular

language.

However, the use and effectiveness of these broadcast media by the women is

also not very clear. (Okenwa 2000: 42) states that “the worry of many communication

scholars is that, just as research has shown evidence that broadcasting is a powerful

rural development communication tool, evidence also shows that broadcasting is yet

to be effectively utilized in the rural development communication”. This buttresses

the point by (Oruamabo 2004:21):

It would appear therefore that information packaging on breast-

feeding campaign have been very much skewed in favour of urban

dwellers and I want to believe that these findings are not unique. The

1999 NDAS figures on the time of initiation of breast-feeding showed

that 43% of the urban dwellers imitated Breast-feeding within one

hour to 36% of rural dwellers….

Thus there exists a gap in knowledge about exclusive breast-feeding benefits

and methodology between the urban and the rural women. This results in the

campaigns not achieving the purpose for their design. This sets back the process of

development. Although the women in the rural areas may be prone to do more

exclusive breast-feeding than their urban counterparts, information on the time of

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initiation of breast-feeding, duration for the exclusive breast feeding and also the

proper ways of breast feeding the child may not be fully known to them. Hence the

need to communicate these messages to them, if holistic results are to be achieved.

Equally important are the traditional media which include all kinds of verbal

and non-verbal communications designed for disseminating messages to the people

living within the locality.(Ndolo, 1998:12) defines traditional communication as “a

source of media indigenous, credible and acceptable channels of communication

utilized by rural dwellers for various societal functions including dissemination of

messages”. These traditional communication means are embedded in the culture and

social life of those in the rural areas, and are such that they cannot do without.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Even though there are myriads of these campaigns on the mass media and all

other channels of communication, there is yet to be significant success results

accruing because of exclusive breast-feeding campaign. There are still disparities in

the results obtained between the rural areas and the urban areas. Also the results

obtained at the national level do not tally with those at the state level especially in

Abia state.

These disparities in the results could be because of a lot of factors. These

campaigns are done through the various mass media and human media just as it is at

the national level, yet the results are not the same. This can be an implication of the

ineffectiveness of the media used. Again the perception of the women regarding the

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media and even the cost of assessing some of the media used are issues that can hinder

the influence of these campaigns in order to achieve the desired results.

The contents of the message and the programme type through which the

campaigns are publicized can also be a hindrance to achieving the desired objectives

of the campaign in the state.

It is the burden of the researcher therefore to evaluate media campaigns on

exclusive breast-feeding, in order to analyze its influence on the women in Abia State.

Also, to evaluate the available results in comparison to the set objectives of the

campaigns and to evaluate the disparities in the use of the campaign between the rural

and urban areas in Abia State on exclusive breastfeeding. The problem statement of

this research work thus is why media campaigns on exclusive breast-feeding in Abia

State are ineffective.

1.3 Objectives of Study

The following include the general purpose for this research work

To examine the influence of media campaigns on exclusive breast-feeding in Abia

State.

To analyze the perception of women regarding the media campaigns in the various

media in Abia State.

To identify the various constraints and challenges the women have in using the various

media for exclusive breast-feeding campaigns.

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To make recommendations on the subsequent media campaigns on exclusive breast-

feeding campaigns and other developmental campaigns in the state.

1.4 Research Questions

In line with the problem, that this study is set to solve, the following research

questions have been formulated as a guide to the study.

What is the perception of the women on various media used for the exclusive breast-

feeding campaigns?

What is the volume of these campaigns in the various media and the time frame each

of these campaigns run to ensure influence and subsequent change in behaviour?

What influence does the exclusive breast feeding campaigns have on women in Abia

state?

What are the various constraints or challenges the women have in their use of the

media use on the exclusive breast-feeding campaign?

1.5 Significance of Study

The study would enhance the effectiveness of media campaigns in Abia state

because it will help campaign designers to use the right medium for the right target

audience.

This study would be useful to media practitioners because it will provide

information on how to effectively mix the various communication media available for

the people i.e. the modern mass media and the traditional communication systems in

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the disseminations of information and development communication messages

especially to those in the rural areas.

Decision makers on development programmes should be able to use

contributions from this study to design campaigns that are balanced. Campaigns that

take the constraints of women have in the use of various media for campaigns in the

state into consideration, thus increasing the desired behaviourial change geared

towards development because the campaigns will be effective.

This study could also be helpful for initiators of these campaigns to analyze and

evaluate the results on the exclusive breast feeding campaigns in the state because it

will analyze the perception of the women on the various media and type of

programme used for the campaigns and thereby improve on subsequent development

communication.

This study will also be a source of literature for further studies in this area.

1.6 Scope and Limitations of the Study

This research work carried out an analysis of the influence of media campaigns

on exclusive breast-feeding on in Abia State. It analyzed their preferences of the

various media available to them in the exclusive breast-feeding campaign, the

constraints that hamper the usage of media and the appreciation of these campaigns by

these women.

The research is limited to the women living in Abia State and not all the women

living in Nigeria. The research work will be carried out only in three villages in the

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three senatorial districts in Abia state in order for results obtained to be efficiently

analyzed. Only women of childbearing age were used for the study. Time and lack of

financial resources are the other constraints that limited the methodology of this

research work.

1.7 Definition of Terms

Campaign: A series of planned activities and messages aimed at changing the

attitude of a target audience concerning a particular issue, in this context, exclusive

breast-feeding.

Media: The various means of mass communication considered as a whole, including

television, radio, magazines, and newspapers, together with the people involved in

their production.

Breast-feeding: To feed a baby by holding it so that it can suck milk from the

mother’s breasts.

Antenatal care: a follow up care given to a pregnant woman from conception to just

before she puts to bed by qualified professional health care givers in order to ensure

that mother and child are healthy after birth.

Exclusive breast-feeding: the absolute feeding of an infant with only breast milk and

no other substitute from birth to at least six months of infant life.

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REFERENCES

Aniebona, E (1990). The role of broadcasting in a developing content. In I.E Nwosu

(Ed), Mass communication and national development: perspectives on the

communication environment of development in Nigeria. Aba: Frontier

publishers.

Ekwelie, S. (1999). Development: capacity building. In development communication

in Nigeria. Paper presented at a seminar on development in Nigeria: challenges

of the millennium. Organized by PTF zone II in Enugu, March 16, 1999.

Katz, et al. (1974). Utilization of mass communication by the individual. In Blumber

and Katz (Eds): Uses of mass communication: current perspectives in

gratifications research. Beverly Hills: Safe.

Mboho, M. (2005). Mass Communication and rural development. In Journal of media

studies. Vol. 1. No 1

Ndolo I. (1998). Foundations of Mass Communication. Enugu: Zik – Chuks

Communication.

Nwabueze. C (2008). Communication and rural development in Africa: critical role of

broadcasting. In Agbanu,V. and Nwabueze, C. (Eds) Readings in Mass

Communication: Global perspective in communication issues ((2008). Imo: Top

Shelve publishers.

Okenwa, S.N (2000). Mass media- uses and regulations. Enugu: Bismark publications.

Okunna, C.S (2001). A quick look at development communication. In C.S. Okunna

(Ed) Teaching mass communication. Enugu: New Generation books.

Onabanjo, O (2002). Elements of rural broadcasting. Lagos: Gabi conc£ept Ltd.

Oruamabo, R. (2004). Effective promotion of breast feeding in the 21st century:

Promotion of infant and child nutrition. Zaria: 35th

Annual conference of the

Pediatric Association of Nigeria.

Severin, W.J and Tankard, J.N (1997). Uses of Mass Media in W.J. Severin and J.N

Tankard (Eds). Communication theories: origins methods and uses in mass

media 4th

ed. New York: Longman

Ukonu, M (2004). Advertising and national development. In Nsukka journal of

communication. Biannual journal vol.1, No 1.

Waterson, (1969). Development planning: Issue of experience. In McLuhan M. (Ed).

Studies in Social Movements: New York: The Free press.

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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Focus of the Review

The general purpose for this research work include: to examine the influence of

media campaigns on exclusive breast-feeding in Abia State, to analyze the perception

of women regarding the media campaigns on the various media in Abia State, to

identify the various constraints and challenges the women have using the various

media for exclusive breast-feeding campaigns and to make recommendations on the

subsequent media campaigns on exclusive breast-feeding campaigns and other

developmental campaigns in the state.

The focus of the review is firstly, a general overview of exclusive breast-

feeding in Nigeria and Abia State. It also focuses on the relationship between

exclusive breast feeding, quality health and its resultant effect on development. It

reviews opinions of scholars on the subject. The review analyzes the various

communication strategies and barriers which communication campaigns designers

ought to pay adequate attention to, to be able to effectively reach their goals for the

campaigns.

2.2 The Review itself

One of the indices of a developed country is the provision of quality health

care, where structures are put in place to ensure that the lives of the citizens in the

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society are protected especially the lives of women and children. This is the major

concern of all the nations of the world.

A special report of the millennium development goals (MDGs) included in

the World Health Statistics 2010 highlights the urgency to improve the life of the

new born in order to achieve MDG goals. The report shows that globally about

40% of deaths among children less than five years of age occur in the first month

of life and the majority of those in the first week. Nearly 10 million children under

the age of five die each year and more than 1000, every hour. However most could

survive these threats and live with access to simple affordable intervention (World

health statistics, 2010).

These deaths are caused by a number of factors which include under

nutrition or malnutrition. According to a data published by World Health

Organization (WHO) on the causes of infant deaths, the presence of under nutrition

account for 35 percent of these infant deaths. For the African continent, the major

causes of death for 2008 reports states that 29 percent of the new born die, and 28

percent of these deaths are caused by neo-natal infection for which malnutrition or

under nutrition is a major cause (World Health Statistics, 2010).

In Nigeria, malnutrition is wide spread. For example, 43% of all children

less than five years of age are stunted, 9% wasted and 25% are under weight.

(Nigeria National Demographic and Health Survey, 2003). According to the

National policy on infant and young child feeding in Nigeria, the immediate cause

of malnutrition in the first two years of life are inappropriate breast-feeding and

complementary feeding practices coupled with high rates of infections. This policy

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notes that over 50% of Nigeria infants are given complementary foods too early

and are often of poor nutritional values mostly inadequate in terms of energy,

protein, and micronutrients such as iron, zinc, iodine and vitamin A. These reports

are the harsh realities of the world especially for the developing countries like

Nigeria. These occurrences have called for world collective efforts to curb such

menace to the barest minimum. One such intervention is the exclusive breast-

feeding campaign.

Exclusive breast-feeding campaign is an intervention programme structured

to combat the menace of child malnutrition which is the major cause of child

mortality in developing countries. In attempt to achieve successful breast feeding

globally by the year 2000, World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations

International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) launched the baby friendly

hospital imitative (BFHI) in 1991, to promote and sustain breast feeding by

mothers for their children.

Williams (2003, March 12) opines:

By exclusive, we mean to breast feed without adding water. No

infant formula, herbal medicine or whatever, and also to initiate

breast feeding within the first hours of birth is critical.

Immediately after delivering, the baby should be put to breast,

even before the mother is cleaned because that has other effect

on the release of placenta.

Exclusive breast-feeding is a guarantee to reducing child mortality and thus

a plus in the developmental processes. Various researches done have proven that

the benefits are indeed many and will go a long way to improve the family health

of members of a society. According to Adelaja, (2010, Para 4) “breast feeding is

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the most cost effective public health intervention for a child’s survival, yet many

women do not breast feed exclusively for 6 months”.

According to Sakai, “Exclusive Breast feeding is vital to the children

because the breast milk is nutritious, strengthens the child, and protects him from

diseases. It aids the child’s robust growth and intellectual development. How well

children develop into adulthood, she emphasizes, depends much on the EBF milk

he or she had in the first 6 months of life” (Adelaja, 2010, March 2). Breast milk

provides complete and perfect nourishment for infants boosting their immune

system and protects them from potential killers such as diahorrea and pneumonia.

It minimizes exposure to unsafe food and water and is estimated to save six million

lives every year. According to researches done in the past, during the first six

months of life, breast milk completely meets an infant’s nutritional requirements

yet only 13% of children in Nigeria are exclusively breast fed from birth to six

months.

(According to the Australia Breast Feeding Association 2006: 56)

Human milk is the ideal food for human basics. It contains all

nutrients required at least six months of a baby’s life and remains the

most important part of his diet throughout the first year. The milk

supplies half or more than the required nutrients to his or her first

birthday and up one third of his second birthday and beyond.

“Infants that are exclusively breastfed in the proper way are expected to

show the normal growth without signs of or records of growth faltering” Amosu,

Oyewole, and Ojo, (2010). Infants who have been breastfed optimally have

reduced risk of common childhood illnesses such as gastrointestinal and

respiratory infection, ottitis media, atopic eczema and allergy during childhood

25

(Alemayelu, Haidav, and Habte, 2009:12). Tewodros et al also opines that where

the negative impact of HIV/ AIDS is high, exclusive breast-feeding for the first six

months has greater benefit than mixed feeding or formula feeding for the

prevention of mother to child transmission.

Exclusive breast-feeding also has many benefits for the mother. According

to Labock (1999) women who breastfeed are less likely to develop osteoporosis

and breast cancer. Uvans- Moberg (1998) opines that they may also have less

stress and better social interaction. Locklin and Nabor (1993) note that breast

feeding empowers low income women and helps with pregnancy spacing. There is

an increasing belief now that breast-feeding is also a valuable natural resource

which promotes health, helps prevent infant and childhood disease and saves

health care cost (Dahich et al ( 2006)

Despite efforts by international agencies like UNICEF and National

Government agencies like NAFDAC, too many babies are still suffering

malnutrition and even dying in many cases because they are not being exclusively

breast fed. According to researches, exclusively breast-feeding for the first 6

months with continued breast-feeding for the first year could save 1.3 million lives

every year will over 3,000 lives each day (allafrica. com,May 20 ).

Even though exclusive breast-feeding is of great benefit to both mother and

child, a lot of recent reports also show that the rate of exclusive breast-feeding is

dropping continuously, and thus worsening the combat against infant mortality.

The 2007 preliminary report on Nigeria multiple indicator survey of WHO Global

Data Bank infant and young child feeding shows that in the Southeast of Nigeria

26

only 6.7 percent of a sample of 133 children are breast-fed exclusively for 6

months, 9.0 percent of a sample size of 85 children are exclusively breast fed for 4

months and none of these had early initiation of breast milk after birth.

In 2003, in the southeast, out of a sample size of 371 children, 97.1 percent

were breast fed. However the median on exclusive breast-feeding was 0.4 percent

and only 57.5 percent of their mothers initiated breast milk out of a sample size of

360 children. In 1999, there was 97.6 percent of never breast fed children out of a

sample of 649 children. 0.5% of exclusively breast-fed children out of 532 children

and 51.4% of a sample size of 629 children had an early initiation of breast milk

(WHO Global Data Bank Infant and Young Child feeding Nigeria, 2010). The

current rate of exclusive breast feeding in Abia state is 7.4%, in Adamawa, it is

30%, 36.0% in Kwara, 51.9%, in Osun, while it is 51.5% for both Nassarawa and

Plateau states.

The big question then becomes, why is the margin rather low in Abia state?

Being an effort made toward development and increase in the well being of the

Nigeria society, there is need to ensure that the anomaly is corrected so as sustain

the developmental process which Nigeria and the world at large is fighting to

improve. This is how social change can be sustained in our society.

Social change is a product of development. It is often the result of planned,

sustained processes which a people embark upon in order to achieve certain

desired levels of development. According to Kleinjams as quoted in Okenwa

(2002) “development ultimately is not growth of technology or gross national

product but the attainment of new knowledge or skills, the growth of a new

27

consciousness, the expansion of human confidence”. Rodney (1976) opines that

development in a human society is a many sided process. He notes that at the level

of individual, it implies increased skill and capacity, greater freedom, creativity,

self discipline and maturity well being.

The achievement of any of these aspects of personal development very

much reflects on the general state of the society. Thus it starts with the individual.

When there is the sustained, progressive increase in the desired change of a large

number of people of a society, then it can be said that there is national

development. Africa and indeed Nigeria is among the countries of the world whose

developmental needs are not just infrastructural, but the kind that embraces the

humans in the society and which increases the individual skills and intellect. The

type, that affects the people living in both the rural and urban areas. According to

Rodney (1976)

“Any notion or definition of development in Africa that does not

take into account fundamental change for the better in the life

style of the peasant farmer, the fisherman, the petty trader, the

herdsman or the laborer is grossly inadequate”

According to (Opubor 1985:183), for social change to endure, it must be

activity embraced by an enthusiastic people who perceive themselves as involved

in creating change. Hence the need for effective communication of the planned

process of development. Development is about change and communication is an

agent of change (Okenwa, 2002: 5). Explaining, (Opubor 1985:183) opines that

28

One key question in social change is: How can the acceptance

of new ideals be transformed from a passive to an active

phenomenon. It is the creation of an atmosphere of

participating communication, involving dialogue, cooperation,

mutual respect and the sharing of initiation.

This goes to explain that national development and invariably social change

can be achieved through a planned, organized, and directed communication

(Udoakan, 1998:13). No statement explains it better like when Okenwa says that,

“communication is central to the process of development to the extent that the

dependence of one on the other has virtually been taken for granted” (2002:1.)

Although both processes are almost inseparable, it is important to take into

cognizance the role of communication in the actualization of the process of

development.

These development processes cannot be communicated as other issues or

ideas are done. It demands planned, systematic and sustained type of

communication. Communication types like development communication and

proactive models or approaches such as behaviourial change communication or

communication for social change. Behaviour change communication is a strategy

which requires the systematic attempt to modify or influence behaviour or

practices and environmental factors related to that behaviour which directly or

indirectly promote health, prevent illnesses or protect individuals from harm.

According to Wikipedia (2010), “behaviour change communication has become a

central objective of public health intervention over the last decades as the influence

of prevention within the health services has increased”.

29

Communication for social change is also systematic in its approach.

According to Figueroa et al. (2002). It “describes an iterative process where

community dialogue and collective action work together to produce social change

in a community that improves the health and welfare of all of its members”. Hence

for developmental issues such as improving the quality of healthcare in our

society, caution must be given to what approaches that are adopted in

communicating such issues. Equally important is the development communication

approach.

“Development communication is an attempt to influence the public to

accept new ways of doing things. Its success depends on the quality of persuasion

and the type of project which the citizens are persuaded to accept” (Udoakah,

1998: 27). (Nwosu 2005:157) opines that development communication is a serious

communication; because it is expected to improve the standard of living of the

people, through communicating inspiring messages regarding their environment. It

can also be defined as the use of all forms communication in the reporting,

publicizing and promotion of development at all levels of a society (Edeani 1993:

30). Thus for exclusive breast feeding information, development communication

suits it most, as it supports the employment of all forms of communication in order

to reach the target audience for the information.

This buttresses the point that the mass media is indispensible in the

processes of development for it is the channel through which people are informed

about the development and its processes. The term mass media can be referred to

as those agencies that possess the capacity to reach large audience simultaneously.

30

Such agencies are the television medium, radio medium and print medium

(Okenwa, 2002:65). “Through the media, people’s awareness can be raised through

provision of relevant information from within or outside the society”. Okunna

(1999:102) says that “the mass media derives her power largely from their ability

to reach a massive audience which can be made up of millions of people”.

To create a climate of development there is the need for widening the

horizon of the people through greater flow of information of what needs to be done

and how it is to be done (Okenwa 2002 : 23). McQuail (1972: 13) agrees that “the

mass media help in shaping individual and collective consciousness”. Hotham

(1995) states that mass media can influence health consciousness, knowledge and

attitude that can cause behaviourial and social change.

Schramm quoted in Okenwa points out the various roles which the media is

to play in the process of national development known as the development functions

of the mass media, they include:

Widen the horizon of society members

Focuses attention on important issues in the society thereby

setting agenda for society

raise aspiration

Creates a climate for development

Help change strongly held attitudes or values

Feed interpersonal channels

Confer status

Broaden policy dialogue

Enforce social norms

Affect attitude lightly held and canalized stronger attitude

31

Help substantially in types of education and training. (13)

For the developing countries, the media serves as not just a means of

disseminating information, but is an instrument through which development can be

propagated and sustained. This is done through media campaigns. Campaigns are

specific coordinated advertising efforts on behalf of a particular product or service

that extends for a specified period. Campaigns generally are aimed at mobilizing

members of a society for educational messages that are likely to lead to development.

It can also be called information campaign.

Information campaign is concerned with providing relevant information aimed

at creating awareness and educating a target to make it knowledgeable about a

developmental issue or programme (Okunna, 2001: 297). Information campaign is a

veritable tool in the process of advocacy which is employed in bringing about

development. There have been media campaigns on exclusive breast-feeding and this

is a good step in the right direction, as Hofmeyer et al (1991) research report puts it,

“there was a significant difference in breast feeding rate between mothers who

receive moral support and those who do not”. These campaigns have been done

through the print and the electronic media and also through the human media which

include the various women meetings, church women group meetings, health centers

and such other meeting where the attendance of these meeting are guaranteed. Yet

there are still the startlingly negative results of the various surveys done. Thus it is

important to review the campaigns currently running on the subject.

32

According to Hector et al. (2005), “a woman’s decision to breast feed is

influenced by a number of factors: demographic, psychological, cultural, and

social. It is often difficult to isolate which factors are most influential” but Bridges

(2010) opines that one factor to be explored is the way the media represents and

reports breast-feeding issues and the role the media can play in this decision

making process.”

Often, messages or campaigns fail because, according to (Onabanjo 2005:

125), the messages have various flaws. Explaining, he opines that “lack of

receivers –oriented messages, patronizing disposition of senders of messages, lack

of synchronizing in the frames of reference of senders and receivers of messages

and the distracting nature of most media used” are some of these flaws. This goes

to show that, a lot of attention needs to be paid when planning a development

campaign if the message of the campaign is to meet its target and thus make the

required impact.

First is the issue of the people for whom the message is made packaged.

(Hofmeyer et al, 1991: 4) note that:

One main challenge in designing health communication programmes

is to make sure the message reach the public effectively, this means

that we need to identify the optimal context, channels, contents and

reasons that will motivate people to pay attention and use health

information.

It is important to research into the people for whom such media campaign is

designed for in terms of their perception on the subject of the campaign, their

perception of the media to be used and also their perception after the campaign has

been designed and test run. According to Onabanjo

33

…little or no inquiry is made into the nature of the audience

before message are constructed, usually to save time or out of

sheer laziness, work is executed on the assumption that the

audience is just like the individuals constructing the message, if

the message makes sense to them it should make sense to the

audience

Alan Smith quoted in (Nnadozie, 2004:29) says that “no single theory or

group of theories can explain how advertisements work because they work in many

different ways. The way ahead therefore lies in a research approach which attempts to

cover all significant dimensions and to explore the relationship between these

dimensions and the performance of a brand on a campaign basis”. Hence there is a

constant need to always inquire into the nature of the audience before the messages

are packaged. This is one the reasons why the people do not participate or imbibe the

process being preached to them. According to (Okenwa, 2002: 3)

A development conscious society must ensure linkage between

the process of development and the people’s perception of the

activities of the media. This close attention should be paid to

various factors such as media available to the people who

require the change. This is because their perception will

determine the importance they attach to what they receive from

the media to eventually how they use it.

Thus, the type of media and the medium utilized in passing across the

message is important and must be paid attention to. The issue of media generally

depends on the people and what they use the media for. (Orewere 1991: 56)

opines that:

Policy makers, planners and administrations desirous to effect

functional economic and social changes must first identify such

community communication modes and channels and utilize

them to provide people with maximum information about such

changes

34

The issue of media is essential because if the campaigns are placed in media

that do not exactly suit the type that the people use and for what they use it for, it may

not meet the target and thereby induce the desired behaviourial change. Media use

can be defined as the application of media message to bring about change in attitude

and behaviour and consequently compel action by allowing these messages to affect

you (Okenwa, 2002: 69). Media use often explains media effects.

Again the message content of the campaign is very essential. It is necessary to

pay attention to this because what the people hear or see invariably affects their

reaction to what they hear. People like to deal with facts and figures, thus a lot on the

behaviourial change will depend on how much information that they are exposed to.

Campaign designers must pay attention to the “what” in their messages, of course

bearing in mind the main purpose for the message.

According to the American journal of preventive medicine, 2004: 54) “One

important aspect of message content involves the theories used to motivate the

desired behaviourial change. The theories may be information based or abstinence or

more behavioural recommendation” The message should be packaged in such a way

that the target can clearly and easily understand the message so as to be able to react

in the ways they are expected. (Okenwa, 2002: 75) summarizes the various factors

that affect how people react to messages thus:

Relevance of the message, Psychological disposition at the time of the

message , level of concentration, pattern of presentation, level of

understanding of the message, existence of other competing stimuli,

noise, nature of the message , source of the message and ability to

recall.

35

Hence since the content is as important as the medium, designers must ensure

that all these factors are critically examined in order to make impact. It is important

and necessary that the message should influence the right kind of feelings and thereby

reactions. Such reaction like feelings of fear, relaxation, peace, or anxiety as the case

may be. However, several authors have cautioned that generating intense anxiety by

emphasizing the severity of a problem and the audience susceptibility to it can cause,

some people to ignore it or discount the campaign message (American journal of

preventive medicine, 2004: 54).

Attention also must be paid to the message delivery. Having packaged the

message, it is necessary to deliver it properly to the audience using the right channels

and with the right strategies. A mass media campaign cannot be effective unless the

target audience is exposed, attend to and comprehends its message. Bandura (1986)

states the mass media can also influence behaviour through direct means (for

example, an article providing information about infant feeding) and indirect modeling

of behaviour and their consequences (for instance, portraying a female character in a

soap opera having breast feeding difficulties. Both of these methods can affect the

audience beliefs about expected outcomes of specific practices and the value they

attach to those outcomes.

Often, these campaigns are packaged as dramas, jingles, outright

announcements, the type in which the personality or celebrity figure which the

people can identify with is used to sell a particular idea or a mixture of all of these

strategies. The effectiveness however lies in the ability of the designers to use the

strategy or series of strategies which will best yield result. Kennedy, O’leary,

36

Beck, Pollard, and Simpson (2004) opines that the “public can be motivated to

seek health information by a dramatic, televised storyline that addresses health

issues under the right circumstances , this approach can be manipulated to educate

and stimulate the public on to seek more information”. This will be identified from

the research done before designing the campaign.

According to (Adoyo, 2004 : 2) “ in Africa, context sensitive information is

never passed in a straight forward manner but through songs , dances and plays

using proverbs and poems: the mirrors technique. As a result listeners decide to do

something to change the situation they find themselves in”. Bridge (2010) opines

that “in the case of infant feeding, if a mother is exposed to indirect messages such

as women breast feeding with ease on their favourite soap operas, then she may

feel confident in her ability to breast feed in similar situations and thus become

more committed to breast feeding”

There might be the need to use more than one media or a combination of

more than one type of medium especially in such issues where the rural people are

also involved, the traditional media is indispensible. (Okunna 1995 : 618) makes

this point clearer when she opines that in communicating development projects to

the target audience, both media, (i.e. the traditional and modern media) can be

used. Ugboajah (1986) states that “sympathizers of development have called for a

combination of modern and traditional media for the dissemination of development

information”.

The traditional media for communication include all the indigenous forms

of communication which the people are accustomed to and thus use in

37

communicating to each other. (Ndolo, 1998: 12), sees traditional communication as

a source of media indigenous, credible and acceptable channels of communication

utilized by rural dwellers for various societal functions including dissemination of

messages. It is important to do this as it is essential for the developmental

processes to also reach the rural people. As (Orewere ,1991: 54) puts it

Every human society has developed its indigenous and

traditional modes and channels of communication which

characterize its existence, organization and development.

These communication modes and channels form the basis upon

which the communities, especially the rural community,

progress.

The traditional media has proven to be useful in situations in Nigeria. Azeez

and Jimo (2003) examined the traditional media use in Forest Conservation

Support Communication (FCS) among local residents in protected areas in south

western Nigeria and observed that most (88.75%) of the respondent perceived

trado- communication as complementing other information sources and all

respondents agreed that trado -communication was useful.

In Benue State the use of fertilizer and tractor was promoted through

traditional songs and kwagh-hir puppet theatre in Tiv land. The Ochahuhu dance

was also used in Otukpo Local Government Area to promote herbicide usage

(Benue State Government 2002). This goes to say that researching the target

audience for any media campaign is as important as designing it in order to ensure

that the campaign is effective. Finding the right type of media for communication

which best suits the target will certainly aid the effectiveness of the campaign.

These campaigns also must also be planned and designed to run on these

media for a considerable period in order to ensure its effectiveness. Nnadozie

38

(2004: 22) opines that “given a good product, it is safe to say that in majority of

situations, the volume and visibility of advertisements are more important than the

message. It is not so much the message that counts, it is the noise, you have to

shout to be heard”. There has to be a continuous exposure of the target audience to

the media campaign and a time lag to allow the message to make impact on the

target, this is given the subtle nature in which the campaign may be packaged such

as a drama, a song or an announcement. The people must be given time to get used

to the message. (Grenier, 2004: 2) opines that “continuing efforts to protect and

support and promote breast feeding may be required at least, until it becomes the

social norm”

This is usually not the approach for the exclusive breast feeding campaigns

in Nigeria and in Abia state where the media campaigns are given sensitization

only on the day of the year, earmarked as “World Day” after which the issue is left

in the hands of medical practitioners who have constant close contacts with these

mothers only during pregnancy and within first 3 months of the child in which

most immunization for the child is done, after these period, there ought to be a

constant reminder of the essence of exclusive breast feeding which is the role of

the campaigns.

Though the baby friendly initiative hospitals encourage exclusive breast-

feeding for the child and prohibit the use of all other type of food for the specified

period, these hospitals cannot serve all the mothers and thus a large part are left to

going about taking care of their new born the way they dim fit. Another important

aspect is the actual participation of the people in the process. As (Onabanjo 2005:

39

124) opines “only through a participatory approach that results in commitment, can

sustainable development which survives and remains after the development

organization withdraws be generated”. Explaining he points that,

“A development process requires participatory communication in

order for change to take place. It is a two way dynamic interaction

which through dialogue transform grassroots people and enables

them to become fully engaged in the process of development which

bring about self reliance”

Participatory kind of communication creates a give and take relationship in

which the sender and the receiver interact over a period and at the long run arrive at

shared meanings. “It is not just enough for a government group or community to plan

and wish to implement a rural development programme. There must be a reciprocal

acceptance and gestures from the beneficiaries of such effort” (Nwosu, 2005: 95)

It is a situation in which the senders of the message must get beyond just

sending the message to getting feedback from the receivers, assessing their

disposition toward the subject and eventually reaching a common ground with the

target audience. This often times will require educating the target in order to

thoroughly inform them of the issues at hand. This has proved useful a lot of times.

As quoted in (Grenier, 2004: p.4) a research study by Pugin et al found out that “

adding to several other interventions prenatal group educational session

emphasizing the skills necessary to initiate and maintain breast feeding past

neonatal period led to a significantly higher number of women still breast feeding

at six months. This strategy will be especially effective in the rural areas where the

modern media may not readily available.

Okunna (1995) buttresses this point when she states that

40

To elicit the participation of the target audience in any

development communication project; the right channels must

be utilized. Emphasis on communication effectiveness has led

to the preference for face to face channels, over mass media

channels even though there is evidence that larger audience can

be reached through the mass media.

Hence as (Udoakah, 1998: 27) opines, development information must be

organized to aid understanding of, thinking about and participation in. Where the

people are not involved, to the extent that there is the assumption by them that the

development process requires their input in order to work, the people especially in

this side of the world tend to view such processes with suspicion and as such try to

avoid taking part in it. In this case of health care which require a lot of teaching and

guidance the women ought to be continuously made to participate in the

communication process and feedback constantly drawn from them in order to allay

the fears and the myths attached to issues regarding breast-feeding.

Thus constant monitoring is imperative is required for these campaigns such

that the message will become audience oriented than sender oriented. As Onabanjo

puts it “campaigns must be reviewed from time to time. Attitudes are not constant

across time and issues. Different issues at different time may elicit different attitude

in a people”.

Given our nature and culture as Africans and given the level of development

of our society, most of our dealings and sources of information are still largely

dependent on group relationship and the opinion leaders as sources of information

to people within the group. As Orewere puts it,

41

….. They are made norms, given values and mystified by the

indigenous and traditional channels of interpersonal and group

communication, mostly based on age, kinship, gender,

inheritance and marital status and with authority patterns

embedded in the social structure and organization of the

society. Face-to-face, interpersonal and group communication

channels function both vertically and horizontally and are

natural, real and inevitable in a community's planned and

unplanned advancement they have also proved very useful in

the tasks of solving problems. This has been documented in

field work experiences in the dissemination of attitudinal

change directed information, especially of new farm practices

in the rural areas.

According to Brembeck and Howell (1976) “many individuals are persuaded

through group influence that would not have been influenced through other means.

Women often constitute themselves into groups in Nigeria for promoting their

interests and thus most of them often are motivated into changing their pattern of life

because of the influences from these groups. Thus campaigns could also be effective

when channeled through these groups or even targeted to groups using the mass

media.

As Kanu (1996) opines “other functions of the mass media include motivation

and mobilization. The mass media encourage and ginger people up to achieve the

aims and goals of the society. These goals are prioritized by the media which then

stimulate and foster the aspiration and activities of individuals and communities to

achieve such goals.(117) thus the media can in collaboration with this group in this

case, the group women meeting in various communities and churches, market

women group and all other such enlighten the women to imbibe the values

propagated by the exclusive breast feeding campaigns and at such bring about a rapid

change in the behaviour of the women thus fostering the desired social change.

42

Conclusively the effectiveness of the exclusive breast feeding campaign can

only be seen if these campaigns are properly planned and sustained using the right

media, and strategies. Sustained increase in the rate of exclusive breast fed children

and the desired social change requires combined efforts of all stake holders involved

in the provision of quality health care. There has to be joint application of a holistic

solution to the menace of child malnutrition and mortality. As Grenier points out, “the

approach used may also be used to collaborate other efforts rather than single handed

advertising”. The need for serious, adequate and continuous information cannot be

over emphasized. According to the WABA mother support task force, “there is need

for good communication and sharing of knowledge is crucial to gain support for

breast feeding mothers from the public, government and organization” (WABA link,

2003, issue 13).

2.3 Theoretical Framework

The innovation diffusion theory was adopted for this research work. The

innovation diffusion theory, according to Baran and Davis (2005) was developed by

Rogers and Shoemaker in 1971. This theory explains the process of spreading any

kind of new technical device, idea, or useful information (McQuail, 2005:.553). As

defined by Rogers and Shoemaker (1971:19) “the concept of innovation is an idea,

practice or object perceived as by an individual”. The innovation or idea in this

context is not entirely new to members of a social group. Nwodu defines diffusion

of innovation as meaning strategic exposure of change targets to new ideas, object or

43

practice i.e. innovation in a manner that they pay attention to, understand, internalize

and adopt the new idea or object which is diffusion, further for their own benefit

(2006: 102)

(Nwodu 2006: 101) opines that “though the members of the target group may

be aware of the idea, practice or object, they do not have particular disposition towards

the idea prior to the launching of the campaign for social change”. Katz defines

diffusion as the “process of spreading of a given new idea or practice over time, via

specifiable channels through social structure such as neighbourhood, factory or tribe”.

Nwodu interpreting Katz, opines that

Diffusion is a process, an on-going phenomenon that is sustained

The phenomenon to be diffused must revolve around an idea, an object or

practice that is a new remarkable departure from the old way of doing things

Diffusion comes over time through an identifiable medium,

Diffusion occurs in identifiable social structure.

This theory supports the conscious exposure to adoption and performance of new

idea, practice or object and sharing it to others by the adoption. However one cannot

say that a campaign is fully diffused among the target if their normal disposition

towards the innovation remains the same. This theory is relevant to this study because

it conceptualizes the process and relevance of using campaigns to stimulate

behavioural change which will in turn bring about the development and social change

44

that is desired. It also describes the process of how it is transmitted and adopted by the

change target group.

Thus a programme or campaign such as the exclusive breast-feeding can be

empirically planned and well packaged, and used to reduce the menace of child

malnutrition and mortality as the process in which this campaign is transmitted to

people and it can be adopted as laid down by the theory. It allows for proper planning

and takes into cognizance the various levels of acceptance, making allowance for

the campaign designers to proper allocate time and other resource in designing the

campaign in order to achieve the desired goal.

45

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O. Nwuneli (Ed.) Mass communication in Nigeria: a book of reading.

Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers

Orewere, .B. (1991). Possible implication of modern mass media for traditional

communication in Nigeria rural setting. In Africa media review 5(3)

Major causes of death in new born and children, world (2008). Retrieved June 4,

2010 from http//www.who.org

Exclusive breast feeding benefits adulthood. Retrieved February 15, 2010 from

www.daily trust

Rogers,E.M and Shoemakers,F.F (1971). Communication of innovation: A cross-

cultural approach. New York: The free press.

Udoakah, N. (1998). Development communication. Oyo: String-Horden publishers.

Ugboaja, .F.(1986). Communication and technology in Africa rural development.

In Africa media review. 1(1)

Uvan-moberg, K.(1998).Oxytocin may mediate the benefits of positive social

interaction and emotions. In Psychoneurodocrinlogy .23

Walter, R. (1976). How Europe under developed Africa. Abuja: Panax Publishing,

Inc.

48

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research design

This study used the survey methodology. Survey according to Ohaja (2003:11)

is a study of the characteristics of a sample through questioning that enables a

researcher to make generalizations concerning his population of interest. Nworgu

(1991: 55) states that a survey research is one in which a group of people or items is

studied by collecting and analyzing data from a few items considered to be

representative of the entire group. The use of survey research design was relevant in

this research work because the methodology was suitable for the questioning of the

researcher’s sample size which included people who may not be as educated as the

others and so required to guided in other to provide the information that helped the

researcher to draw conclusions from a sampled population, the researcher was able to

do this, with the help of a research assistant. The questionnaire which is the

instrument for data collection also contained questions relevant to the researcher’s

study, and thus helped the researcher to get the exact data required to make

conclusions.

3.2 Population of Study

This research was carried out in Abia State, Nigeria. Abia State is delineated

into three senatorial districts, namely, Abia South, Abia North and Abia central. There

are seventeen local government areas in Abia State which include the following: Aba

49

south, Aba north, Arochukwu, Bende, Isiala Ngwa, Obingwa, Ohafia, Osisioma ,

Ugwanagbo, Ukwa East, Ukwa West, Umuahia north, Umuahaia South, Umu-neochi,

Ikwuano, Umunagbo, Isiala Ngwa South.

According to the 2006 census figures, Abia state has a land mass of about 5834

square kilometers and a population of about 2,845,380(1,430,298 males and 1,415,082

females).The population figure for the research work was drawn from three villages,

in three different local government areas representing the three senatorial districts in

the state. These villages include:

Ntigha in Isiala Ngwa North Local Government Area in Abia south senatorial

district.

Ahia-eke Ibeku, Umuahia in Umuahia North Local Government Area in Abia

central senatorial district.

And Amuvi, Agbawu, Arochukwu Local Government Area in Abia north

senatorial district.

According to Nwana as quoted in (Okoro 2001: 73). “if the population is a few

hundreds, a 40% or more sample will do; if many hundreds, 20% sample will do, if a

few thousands, a 10% sample will do; and if several thousands, a 5% or less sample

will do”. Based on Nwanna’s assertion, the researcher purposefully chose to study

3000 elements from these three Local Government Areas whose population figures run

in several thousands. The reason being that this population was readily assessable and

manageable to the researcher as against the 1,415082 which is the total population of

50

women in Abia State. Also, the researcher chose the villages to be used for the study

based on the researcher’s knowledge of these villages to suit the topic of study. The

population for this study is therefore 3000 women.

The research population included all women drawn from three villages from

three local governments within the three senatorial districts.

3.3 Sample size

For this study, a sample size of 300 respondents was used. 100 respondents

each from the three villages that the researcher used. The sampling size was based on

10 percent of the 3000 population figure purposefully chosen by the researcher of the

women in Abia state. The population size was drawn from three villages in three local

governments each from the three senatorial districts. These villages include:

Ngitgha in Isiala Ngwa North Local Government Area, Abia south senatorial

district.

Ahia-eke Ibeku, Umuahia in Umuahia North Local Government Area in Abia

central senatorial district.

And Amuvi, Agbawu, Arochukwu Local Government Area in Abia north

senatorial district.

3.4 Sample and Sampling Techniques

Two sampling techniques were adopted for this study. The purposive sampling

and accidental sampling. Purposive sampling is used when the researcher is looking

51

out for certain characteristics in his sampling elements and based on his initiative

ensures that those chosen have those characteristics. Accidental sampling entails that

the researcher includes any available person in the sample size. Thus, only the

elements which the researcher can reach were sampled.

3.5 measuring Instrument

The instrument for data collection for this research study was the structured

questionnaire. The questionnaire served as a guide for the respondents in the selection

of answers from options provided. The questionnaire was accompanied by an

introductory letter which explained to the respondents, the purpose of the

questionnaire and the research work. The questionnaire was divided into two sections;

section A and section B, Section A contained questions about their demographic

information and section B contained questions regarding the research questions.

The questionnaire was administered personally by the researcher with the help

of a research assistant, this was to limit the rate of loss and thus retrieve back the same

number of questionnaire copies administered.

3.6 Validation/Reliability

In order to validate the research instrument, the researcher conducted a test of

the questionnaire, on 20 pregnant women at the general hospital in Aba; in order to

ensure that the questionnaire was suitable and useful in the main research work.

The reliability of the instrument was tested by the questions being vetted by the

supervisor who ascertained that they were appropriate for the proposed study.

52

Also the research work involved scholarly works by McQuail (1997) and

Rogers and Shoemaker (1971). Based on these works and others, the researcher

ensured that the work could be relied upon to make valid conclusions.

3.7 Method of Analysis

The data collected was analyzed using simple percentage and tables.

3.8 Delimitation of the study

This study was limited to media campaigns on exclusive breast-feeding in Abia

State and not the whole of Nigeria or the whole media campaigns running on media

channels. Only three villages, one each from the three senatorial districts were used

instead of the whole villages in Abia state. The study was also carried out with focus

on adult women from the age group of 18 years and above and not all citizens of Abia

state. The study itself was focused on the media campaigns on exclusive breast-

feeding and not necessarily everything that has to do with exclusive breast-feeding.

53

REFERENCES

Ohaja, E.U (2003). Mass communication research and project report writing. Lagos.

John Letterman ltd.

Nworgu.B.G (1991). Educational research: basic issues and methodology. Ibadan.

Wisdom Publisher Ltd.

Okoro. N (2001). Mass communication research issues and methodology. Nsukka.

Express Publishers

54

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION

4.1 Description of the Sample

The sample for this research work consists of women of childbearing age

resident in Abia state.

4.2 Data Presentation and Analysis

Demograghic Data

Questions under this heading deal with the respondents age group, occupation,

educational qualification, marital status, and whether the respondents are pregnant,

breast feeding or not.

Table 1. Respondents’ age group

S/n Age group Name of village Total

(N)

Percentage

(%)

Ntigha,Isiala

Ngwa North

Ahiaeke

Ibeku

Umuahia

Amuvie-

Agbawu

Arochukwu

1 18- 25 27 17 24 68 23

2 26- 33 42 52 39 133 44

3 34 – 40 22 19 34 75 25

4 41 – above 9 12 3 24 8

5 Total 100 100 100 300 100

55

The above indicates that 68 of the respondents representing 23 percent of the

total population belong to the age group of 18 – 25 years, 133 of the respondents

representing 44 percent, belong to the age group of 26 – 33 years, 75 representing 25

percent belong to the age group of 34 – 40 and 24 representing 8 percent belong to the

age group of 41 and above.

Table 2. Respondents’ occupation

S/n Options Name of villages

Ntigha,Isiala

Ngwa North

Ahiaeke

Ibeku

Umuahia

Amuvie-Agbawu

Arochukwu

Total

(N)

Percentage

(%)

1 Farmer 10 8 13 31 11

2 Trader 24 19 23 66 22

3 Teacher 25 28 26 79 26

4 Civil servant 29 42 31 102 34

5 Others 12 3 7 22 7

6 Total 100 100 100 300

Data collected in this table indicates that 31 respondents representing 11

percent of the total sample size are farmers. 66 respondents representing 22 percent are

traders, 79 respondents representing 26 percent are teachers, 102 representing 34

56

percent are civil servants and 22 of the respondents representing 7 percent of the total

sample size are into other occupations.

Table 3. Respondents’ educational status

S/n Options Name of village Total

(N)

Percentage

(%)

Ntigha(Isiala

Ngwa

North)

Ahia-eke,

Ibeku

(Umuahia)

Amuvie

Agawu

1 Literate 73 87 66 226 75

2 Illiterate 27 13 34 74 25

3 Total 100 100 100 300 100

The data collected in the above table indicates that 226 of the respondents

representing 75 percent of the total sample size are literate while 74 representing 25

percent of the respondents are illiterate.

57

Table 4. Respondents’ marital status

S/n Options Name of village

Ntigha,Isiala

Ngwa

North

Ahiaeke-

Ibeku,

Umuahia

Amuvie-

Agbawu

Total

(N)

Percentages

(%)

1 Married 59 48 62 169 57

2 Divorced 4 7 5 16 5

3 Widow 9 5 12 26 8

4 Single mother 10 12 5 27 9

5 Single 18 28 16 62 21

6 Total 100 100 100 300 100

Data collected in the table above indicates that 169 of the respondents

representing 57 percent are married, while 16 of the respondents representing 5

percent are divorced, 26 representing 8 percent are widows, 27 representing 9 percent

are single mothers while 62 of the respondents representing 21 percents are single

women

58

Table 5. Respondents’ status on pregnancy, breast feeding mothers or none of the two.

S/n Options Name of village Total

(N)

Percentage

(%)

Ntigha,Isiala

Ngwa

North

Ahiaeke-

Ibeku,

Umuahia

Amuvie-

Agbawu

Arochukwu

1 Pregnant 29 32 25 86 21

2 Breast feeding 33 41 26 100 33

3 None 38 27 49 114 38

4 Total 100 100 100 300 100

Data collected in the table above indicates that 86 of the respondents

representing 21 percent of the total sample size are pregnant, 100 representing 33

percent are breast feeding mothers while 114 representing 38 percent of the

respondents are neither pregnant nor breast feeding,

The implications of the fore going demographic characteristics of the

respondents is that the opinion of the women within the age group of 26- 33 are

predominant in this study being that they comprise 44 percent of the total population

of the sample size.

The data on educational status also show that 226 of the respondents (75%) are

literate and thus can easily understand the information on exclusive breast-feeding,

what is expected of them to do, and thus should average easily imbibe whatever is

required of them. Their opinion regarding the campaign as it concerns this study is

also predominant.

59

Again, although the number of those who are neither pregnant nor breast

feeding are 114, out-numbering the number of those who are pregnant (86)and those

breast feeding (100), however, the pregnant and breast feeding mothers together

making up to 180 of the respondents, thus they are in position to be constantly exposed

to information regarding exclusive breast feeding.

4.2.1 Description of Data Relevant to Research Questions

Research Question One

Research question one states: what is the perception of the women on various

media used for exclusive breast-feeding campaign?

Data collected in tables 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 answers this question.

Table 6.Respondents views on media access

S/n Options Names of village Total

(N)

Percentages

(%)

Access to media Ntigha,Isiala

Ngwa

North

Ahiaeke

Ibeku,

Umuahia

Amuvie

Agbawu

Arochukwu

1 Yes 92 96 89 277 92

2 No 8 4 11 23 8

3 Total 100 100 100 300 100

The data collected in the above table indicates that 277 of the respondents

representing 92 percent of the total sample size have access to media while 23 of the

respondents representing 8 percent do not have access to media.

Table 7. Respondents views particular media they have access to

60

S/n Options Name of village Total

(N)

Percentages

(%)

Ntigha,Isiala

Ngwa

North

Ahiaeke

Ibeku,

Umuahia

Amuvie

Agbawu

Arochkwu

1 Radio 40 28 35 103

2 Television 52 66 55 173

3 Newspaper 12 22 8 42

4 Magazine 6 15 4 25

The data collected above show that 103 of the respondents have access to

radio, 173 have access to television, 42 have access to newspapers and 25 have access

to magazines.( the respondents could enter more one option)

Table 8. Respondents views on which media is preferred.

S/n Options Name of village Total

(N)

Percentages

(%)

Ntigha,Isiala

Ngwa

North

Ahiaeke-

Ibeku,

Umuahia

Amuvie

Agbawu

Arochukwu

1 Radio 30 18 39 77 25

2 Television 62 65 67 194 65

3 Newspaper 7 12 4 24 8

4 Magazine 1 5 0 6 2

5 Total 100 100 300 100

The data collected in the above table indicates that 72 respondents representing

25 percent of the total sample size prefer the radio, while 194 representing 65 percent

61

prefer the television, 24 representing 8 percent prefer the newspaper while 6

representing 2 percent prefer the magazine.

Table 9. Respondents views on what appeals to them most about the channel through

which they access information on exclusive breast feeding

S/n Options Name of village Total

(N)

Percentages

(%)

Ntigha,

Isiala Ngwa

North

Ahiaeke-

Ibeku,

Umuahia

Amuvie

Agbawu

1 I easily under-

Stand the mess

Age

35

30

38

103

35

2 They

Demonstrate

with examples

25

13

20

58

19

3 I can ask

Questions and

Get answers

Directly

25

35

30

90

30

4 The channel

creates room

for group

discussion

15

22

12

49

16

5 Total 100 100 100 300 100

The data collected in the above table indicates that 103 of the respondents representing

35 percent of the sample size indicate that what appeals to them about the media they

62

prefer for exclusive breast feeding campaign is that they easily understand their

message, 58 representing 19 percent prefer they media they use because they

demonstrate with example. 90 representing 30 percent because they can ask questions

and get answers directly and 49 representing 16 percent because the channel creates

room for group discussion.

Table 10. Respondents views on their reaction to mass media messages

S/n Options Name of village Total

(N)

Percentages

(%)

Ntigha,

Isiala Ngwa

North

Ahiaeke-

Ibeku,

Umuahia

Amuvie

Agbawu

Arochukwu

1 I do what they say 15 34 12 61 20

2 I do not do what

they say

32 25 32 89 30

3 I am indifferent 18 18 12 48 16

4 I wait to hear

what other people

or leaders will say

before doing what

they say

35 23 44 102 34

5 Total 100 100 100 300 100

The data collected in the above table indicates that 61 of the respondents

representing 20 percent of the total sample size react to the media message by doing

what the media says, 89 representing 30 percent do not do what the media says, 48

representing 16 percent dare indifferent, while 102 representing 34 percent wait to

hear from leaders or others before doing what the media says.

63

Research Question Two

Research question two reads: what are the volume of these campaigns in the various

media and the time frame of each of these campaigns run to ensure influence and

subsequent change in behaviour?

Data collected in table 11, 12, 13 and 14 answered this question.

Table 11. Respondents views on having heard of the campaign on exclusive breast

feeding

S/n Options Name of village Total

(N)

Percentages

(%)

Ntigha,

Isiala Ngwa

North

Ahiaeke-

Ibeku,

Umuahia

Amuvie-

Agbawu

Arochukwu

1 Yes 69 88 72 229 76

2 No 31 12 28 71 24

3 Total 100 100 100 300 100

The data collected in the table above indicates that 229 of the respondents

representing 76 percent have heard of the campaign on exclusive breast-feeding while

71 of the respondents representing 24 percent have not heard of the campaign.

64

Table 12. Respondents views on how often they get information about exclusive breast

feeding

S/n Options Name of village

Ntigha,Isiala

Ngwa North

Ahiaeke

Ibeku

Umuahia

Amuvie

Agbawu

Arochukwu

Total

(N)

Percentage

(%)

1 Often 30 46 25 101 34

2 Very often 24 24 15 63 21

3 Not very often 20 13 34 67 22

4 Rarely 14 10 13 37 12

5 None of the

Above

12 7 13 32 11

6 Total 100 100 100 300 100

The data collected in the table above indicates that 101 of the respondents

representing 34 percent get information on exclusive breast-feeding often, 63

representing 21 percent get information very often, 67 representing 22 do not get

information often, 37 representing 12 percent rarely get information, and 32

representing 11 percent do not have any of the option

65

Table 13. Respondents views on the last time they saw or heard a campaign on

exclusive breast-feeding

S/n Options Name of village

Ntigha,

Isiala

Ngwa North

Ahiaeke

Ibeku

Umuahia

Amuvie

Agbawu

Arochukwu

Total

(N)

Percentage

(%)

1 Very recently 21 29 13 63 21

2 Recently 25 34 22 81 27

3 Not recently 23 25 42 90 30

4 Not at all 31 12 23 66 22

6 Total 100 100 100 300 100

The data collected in the table above shows that 68 of the respondents

representing 23 percent saw or heard campaign on exclusive breast feeding very

recently, 81 of the respondents representing 27 percent saw or heard a campaign

recently, 85 of the respondents representing 28 percent heard or saw the campaign not

recently, while 66 representing 22 percent had not seen or heard the campaign at all

66

Table 14. Respondents views on how else they hear about exclusive breast feeding

S/n Options Name of village

Ntigha,

Isiala- Ngwa

North

Ahiaeke-

Ibeku

Umuahia

Amuvie-Agbawu

Arochukwu

Total Percentage

(%)

1 Church 6 10 4 20 9

2 Health care

Center

45 52 39 136 59

3 Market 2 8 5 15 7

4 From friends 12 18 19 49 21

5 women

meeting

4 0 5 9 4

6 Total 69 88 77 229 100

The data in the table above indicates that of 229 out of the 300 respondents who

have heard of exclusive breast feeding campaign, 20 representing 9 percent also heard

about the campaign from the church, 136 representing 59 percent also heard from

health centers, 15 representing 7 percent heard from the market, 49 representing 21

percent heard from friends and 9 representing 4 percent heard from women meeting.

Research Question Three.

Research question three read: What influence does the exclusive campaign have on the

women in Abia state?

67

Data collected in tables 15 and 16 answered this question

Table 15. Respondents’ views on what influence exclusive breast-feeding has on

women in Abia state

S/n Options Name of village Total

(N)

Percentage

(%)

Ntigha,

Isiala Ngwa

North

Ahiaeke

Ibeku,

Umuahia

Amuvie

Agbawu

1 It is very good and

Should be

Compulsory

25

22

18

65

22

2 It is good but

should not be

compulsory

34

48

29

111

37

3 I know about but

do not do it

25

10

19

54

18

4 I do not know

about and I want

to know

10

12

23

45

15

5 I am indifferent 6 8 11 25 8

6. Total 100 100 100 300 100

The data collected in the table above indicates that 65 representing 22 percent

of the respondents think that exclusive breast feeding is good and should be

compulsory, 111 representing 37 percent think it is good but should not be made

compulsory, 54 representing 18 percent know about it but do not believe they should

68

do it, 45 do not know about it but would want to know what it is about while

25 representing 8 percent are indifferent.

Table 16. Respondents views on if the information they receive affect their perception

about exclusive breast feeding

S/n Option Name of village Total

(N)

Percentage

(%)

Access to media Ntigha,

Isiala Ngwa

North

Ahiaeke

Ibeku,

Umuahia

Amuvie-

Agbawu

1 Yes 51 69 44 164 55

2 No 49 31 56 136 45

3 Total 100 100 100 300 100

The data collected in the table above indicates that 164 representing 55 percent

of the respondents’ perceptions are affected by the information they receive about

exclusive breast-feeding, while 136 representing 45 percent of the respondents’

perception are not affected by the information they receive on exclusive breast

feeding.

69

Table 17. Respondents who do exclusive breast-feeding and those who do not

S/n Option Name of village Total

(N)

Percentage

(%)

Do you do

Exclusive breast

Feeding?

Ntigha,

Isiala Ngwa

North

Ahiaeke

Ibeku,

Umuahia

Amuvie-

Agbawu

Arochukwu

1 Yes 26 25 33 84 28

2 No 74 75 67 216 72

3 Total 100 100 100 300 100

The data collected in the table above indicates that 84 of the respondents

representing 28 percent of the total sample size do exclusive breast-feeding while 216

representing 72 percent of the respondents do not do exclusive breast-feeding.

Research Question Four

Research question four read: what are the various constraints in the use of media for

exclusive breast-feeding campaign?

Data collected in table 17 answer this question.

70

Table 18. Respondents views on if they have challenges using any of the media to

access information on exclusive breast feeding

S/n Options Name of village Total

(N)

Percentages

(%)

Do you have

Challenges using

The media

Ntigha,

Isiala Ngwa

North

Ahiaeke

Ibeku,

Umuahia

Amuvie-

Agbawu

1 Yes 76 55 82 213 71

2 No 24 45 18 87 29

3 Total 100 100 100 300 100

The data collected in the table above indicates that 213 of the respondents

representing 71 percent have challenges using the media to access information on

exclusive breast feeding, while 87 representing 29 percent do not have challenges

using the media to access information on exclusive breast feeding.

4.3 Discussion of Findings

This study is on the analysis of media campaigns on exclusive breast-feeding in

Abia state. The various findings were quite revealing as the respondents bare their

minds on the questions raised in the questionnaire. The study did not only give insight

into the perception of the women regarding the media used for the campaigns on

exclusive breast feeding, the volumes of these campaigns and how they feel about the

71

subject of exclusive breast feeding, it also provide a basis for further research into this

subject, which is to find out the reasons for their perception and disposition towards

exclusive breast feeding.

The study indicated that the majority of the respondents used for the study had

access to the media, although the respondents could choose more than one media

which they have access to, the number of those who had access to the broadcast media

and preferred same were higher in number indicating that media could effectively be

used in affecting the lives and attitudes of people towards developmental change such

the issue of exclusive breast feeding. The study also indicated that a great number of

the respondents have heard of the campaigns and a greater part of the these people

who have heard about it, heard through the broadcast media (i.e. the television and the

radio). This supports Nwosu (1990: 5) opinion that

The high degree of audience penetration by radio and television

especially radio gives the broadcast media a great advantage ……in

communicating developmental programmes to the masses.

Furthermore, broadcasting can be done in both national and local

languages and therefore, is capable of carrying messages to both the

literates and illiterates of the population

Aniebona (1990: 160) also opines that the world has recognized the fact that

broadcasting is a powerful and effective tool for the spread of education for both

children and adult in order to achieve certain prescribed goals. The above findings

support these views

This study also indicated that the respondents although they have heard about

exclusive breast-feeding and the campaigns on it through the media, seem to prefer the

interpersonal communication channel for the information on exclusive breast feeding.

This is indicated by what appeals most to the respondents in the various channels

72

through which they access information on exclusive breast-feeding. The ability to ask

questions and get answers directly and that, they can easily understand the language

appeals most to them, thus this indicates that these campaigns may be more effective,

meet their target and effect the changes in behaviour if these campaigns are tailored

via interpersonal channels. The other channels can serve as support to the interpersonal

channels. This supports Orewere’s opinion that “policy makers, planners and … to

effect such functional economic and social changes must first identify such community

communication modes and channels and utilize them to provide people with maximum

information about such changes” (1991: 56).

The data collected also indicated that a great number of the respondents do not

do what the media says while a large part of the respondents agree that they wait to

hear the opinion of others especially leaders before doing what they hear on the media.

It can be said that there is lack of believability of the media contents which affects the

response of the people to the message they hear, however the reasons for this can be

because of many other factors which can be deduced from further studies. As Okenwa

(2004:59) opines “the attitude that people hold can be strong barriers to change”

however, Grenier’s views is that “continuing efforts to protect, support and promote

breast feeding may be required until it become the social norm” (2004 :2)

The study indicated that the campaign do not run in the right volumes that it

should, to effect the desired behaviourial change expected of these women. The data

collected in the study indicates that most of the respondents heard of the campaign on

exclusive breast-feeding, through the mass media ,but most of the respondents feel that

73

the information on exclusive breast feeding do not get to them very often, this might

be the reason the women may not be doing exclusive breast feeding as the study

indicates. Nnadozie opines that given a good product, it is safe to say that in majority

of situations, the volume and visibility of advertisements are more important than the

message. (2004: 22)

Again higher number of the respondents in the village located in the urban

i.e. those in Ahiaeke- Ibeku, in Umuahia local government heard of the campaigns

more than those in the other villages which are not in the urban supporting the

view that most of the campaigns are concentrated on the urban area. This supports

Oruamabo’s views that “It would appear therefore that information packaging on

breast feeding campaign have been very much skewed in favour of urban dwellers”

The study indicated that the majority of the respondents who have heard about

exclusive breast feeding though they believe it is good; do not think it should be done

compulsorily. The study also indicated, that the women who have been exposed to the

exclusive breast feeding campaigns were not affected by the campaigns while it can be

adduced that who those who are affected, could be those who have also be well

informed at the antenatal sessions in the health centers, this is indicated by the number

of those whose other source of hearing about exclusive breast feeding and its

campaigns are more of those from health centers followed by those heard from friends

being higher.

The reasons for these women’s perception being not completely the focus for

this research work can be a basis for further studies, however, the foregoing data

74

indicates that the respondents may not have been effectively informed and hence the

negative perception nor compliance of most of the respondents regarding the

stipulations of the exclusive breast feeding. Thus there is a need to heed Okenwa’s

opinion that “to create a climate of development there is the need for widening the

horizon of the people through greater flow of information of what needs to be done,

and how it is to be” (Okenwa 2002: 23).

The study also indicated that the majority of the respondents have challenges

using the media and the reasons for these range from lack of electricity to watch their

television sets to high cost of batteries for radios, newspapers and magazines.

75

REFERENCES

Aniebona, E (1990). The role of broadcasting in a developing content. In I.E Nwosu

(Eds),Mass communication and national development: perspectives on the

communication environment of development in Nigeria. Aba. Frontier

publishers.

Grenier, T. (2004). Programs to protect support and promote breast feeding.

Encyclopedia on early child hood development.

Nnadozie, N.M. (2004). The cooperate tool of advertising. Enugu. Rex Charles

and Patrick ltd.

Nwosu, I.(1990), Mass communication and national development. Aba, Frontier

publishers ltd.

Okenwa, S.N. (2002). Communication and development processes. Issues and

perspectives in development communication development. Enugu. Magnet

publishing company.

(2002b). Mass communication theories and realities. Enugu. Bismark publication

Orewere, .B. (1991) .Possible implication of modern mass media for traditional

communication in Nigeria rural setting. Africa media review vol .5 No

Oruamabo, R. (2004). Effective promotion of breast feeding in the 2ist century:

Promotion infant and child nutrition: Zaria 35th

Annual conference of the

pediatric Association of Nigeria

76

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary

The study analyzed media campaigns on exclusive breast-feeding in Abia State.

The mass media on daily basis air many campaigns whose main objectives are to

change or to influence the behaviour of members of the society towards certain

developmental goals. It is believed that the media arguably are very effective in

influencing the behaviour of people towards particular life styles through their

messages and campaigns, and thus can be an effective tool in supporting and

sustaining development.

It is important that these media messages and campaigns are packaged and

delivered in such way that they would meet the targets and yield the desired goals of

those who designed them especially where they concern health and quality health care.

One of such campaigns is the exclusive breast-feeding benefits, which are enormous

and would adequately enhance the lives of women and children. However it is feared

that given so many factors, these campaigns and messages might not be effective and

would not meet the purpose for which they were designed which is to influence

positively the disposition of the women towards exclusive breast-feeding. Hence the

need to ensure that the campaigns achieve the desired results.

77

Following the above, this study sought to examine the perception of women

regarding the media used for the campaigns, to check the influence of the campaigns

on the behaviour of the women regarding exclusive breast-feeding and the various

constraints and challenges they have, using the various media where the campaigns

run. The study discussed the essence of packaging these media campaigns to ensure its

effectiveness by ensuring that the people who are the target are well researched, and

the content, timing and the eventual packaging are all well planned and programmed to

suit the target.

The study is significant because it will enhance the effectiveness of media

campaigns. It will help campaign designers to use the right medium for the right target

audience. The study would be useful to media practitioners because it will provide

information on how to effectively mix the various communication media available for

the people. These include the modern mass media and the traditional communication

systems in the disseminations of information and development communication

messages especially to those in the rural areas, thus increasing the desired

behaviourial change geared towards development because the campaigns will be

effective. Most importantly, it examined and evaluated the actual influence of these

campaigns on going in the state and thus provides information on the current results

regarding exclusive breast-feeding campaign.

A suitable theoretical framework was used in order to give the study a sound

foundation, the innovation diffusion theory was used for this study. This theory

explains how a new innovation, object or practice is strategically diffused to the target

audience is the way that they pay attention, understand, internalize and adopt the new

78

idea, practice or use the innovation. Relevant literatures were reviewed, evaluating the

opinion of other scholars who have discussed the essentials of media campaigns and

its relevance in developmental communication.

Survey research design was used, using the structured questionnaire instrument

in collecting the relevant data. A sample size of 300 was selected from the population

size using the purposively and accidental sampling techniques. The data collected

were analyzed in chapter four and the findings discussed alongside the research

questions.

The major findings of the study showed that the most effective channel through

which the people receive information on exclusive breast-feeding is the interpersonal

communication via the health centers. The ability to ask questions and easily

understand the messages of the campaigns are what appeals most to the target about

the channels through they access information on exclusive breast-feeding indicated

thus.

It was found that the people do not depend wholly on the media in order to

respond to certain information that demand actions from them but wait to hear from

leaders, friends and others before responding to the information. Again it was shown

from the study that the campaigns on exclusive breast-feeding in the media are not

adequate and thus may not be effective in bringing about the behaviourial change that

is desired.

79

Finally, the study indicated that majority of the women who have been exposed

to exclusive breast-feeding campaigns were not affected by them as their

predisposition and perception about exclusive breast feeding has not been affected.

5.2 Conclusion

The results obtained from this study of the three villages each from the three

senatorial districts in Abia State. The broadcast media are more effective and would

have more impact on women than the print media. The interpersonal channels which is

the mode of communication during the antenatal clinic session and interactions,

amongst friends, and in the market place are the most effective mode of

communication to reach the women, thus in the packaging these campaigns, these

designers must ensure that interpersonal communication is used.

The study shows that the campaigns on exclusive breast-feeding do not run in

adequate volumes and thus are not able to effect positive behaviourial change on the

women doing exclusive breast-feeding for their children. The predominant opinion

among the respondents is that they do not get information very often on exclusive

breast-feeding. Those who live in the more rural areas such as Ntigha and Amuvie-

Agbawu do not receive information as much as those who are living in the more urban

area of Ahiaeke- Ibeku, Umuahia. Thus the information that is available on exclusive

breast-feeding are designed and concentrated more on the urban than the rural area.

The study also shows that the perception of the women towards the media used

for the campaigns do not have strong influence over the women. The data shows that

although most of the women have heard about the campaigns through the media, they

80

still rely on the opinion leaders, friends and others before they respond to the

information they get from the media either positively or negatively depending on the

opinion of those whose opinions they have sought. Moreover, the information the

women get on exclusive breast-feeding does not affect the majority of them towards

positively changing their perception about exclusively breast-feeding their children.

Even though they think it is a good practice, they still reserve their predisposition

toward exclusive breast-feeding.

The study also indicates that the women have challenges using the media they

prefer for exclusive breast-feeding. These challenges range from lack of electric power

supply to high cost of buying the appliances and others such as the print media. These

challenges affect to what extent the women will use the media and the attendant effects

of developmental campaigns which ought change their behaviour and mobilize the

people towards achieving the said goals.

5.3 Recommendations

Having drawn the above conclusions, based on the major findings of the study, the

researcher offers following recommendations in the hope that these will help the

government, development programme intervention designers, media practitioners,

programme designers and other stakeholders to take steps in ensuring that media

campaigns are strategically planned and designed to suit the people for whom it is

designed.

It is important that the people for whom the campaign will be designed

will be researched into by those whose job it would be to design the

81

campaigns. This is because a thorough research into the people will give

the developers the necessary information that will help to design

campaigns that will be effective. The research will also reveal the

perception of the people towards the particular issues that needs a

behaviourial change and thus provide a veritable basis from where the

campaign can be started rather than throwing darts in the dark or

emphasizing aspects of the issues which do not emphasis.

The campaign designers should adopt communication approaches and

media theories which will most suitably work for the particular target

audience. These will be most effective if the campaign is well-planned

and adequate time given from the time of the design of the campaign to

the time it is placed in the media to ensure that the people are affected by

the messages. This is essential, given the subtle nature of media

campaigns and how they affect the target. Theories such as the

innovation diffusion theory indicates that ample time must be devoted

between the time the people begin to get exposed to the message and

when they eventually accept and adopt the message or innovation being

sold to them. One such communication approach is integrated

communication model approach

It is very essential that media campaigns should be reviewed from time

to time as long as the need to place such campaigns in the media still

exists. The need exist until the particular campaign has become a social

norm. Reviewing the campaigns will enable the designers to measure the

82

effects of the campaigns on the targets. It will expose areas where the

campaign designers will need to enhance and areas to begin to remove

from the campaigns because the targets do not require motivation or

mobilization, information or persuasion in those aspects. Reviewing

these campaigns especially on issues pertaining to development and

health can be cost effective and save cost which can be channeled into

purposive ventures.

There should to be more campaigns on exclusive breast-feeding which

would aggressively persuade and motivate women to do it. The

broadcast media must be used to collaborate the counseling, teachings

and publicity that the hospitals, and health centers are giving. Adopting

subtle strategies such dramas, songs and group grooming session would

over a period of time will the subconscious of these women and cause

them to adopt these media messages rather than the “once upon a time”

approach that has been the way these campaigns are placed in the media.

Posters and banners must also be used to reach corners on the streets and

high ways to ensure that the information about the benefits of exclusive

breast feeding is readily available to the entire society.

83

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APPENDIX

University of Nigeria Nsukka

Department of mass communication

April, 2010

Dear respondent,

I am a post graduate student of the department of Mass Communication of the

University of Nigeria, Nsukka. I am conducting a research on the topic: “Media

campaigns on exclusive breast feeding on women in Abia State”.

This is purely an academic research work; hence all information furnished in

this questionnaire will be treated with utmost confidentiality and will not be divulged

to other people or used against the individual or town in any way.

Therefore, I humbly request for your assistance towards the success of this

research by objectively completing the questionnaire.

Thanks for your cooperation.

Yours sincerely,

Nzete Onyekachi

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Questionnaire

Instruction: Please answer the following questionnaire carefully and correctly by

ticking D good ( ) against the options you have chosen in the spaces provided but

state your views where there are no options provided. Please note that no answer is

wrong, so feel free to express your candid opinion.

SECTION A

1. Age group

(A) 18 – 25 (B) 26 – 33 (C) 34 – 40 (D) 41- Above

2. What is the name of your village? ________________________________

3. What is your local government area? ________________________________

4. Tick correctly your occupation

A) Farmer ( ) B) trader ( ) C) teacher ( ) D) civil servant ( ) E) others ( )

5. What is your educational status? (A)literate (B)illiterate

6. What is your marital status? (A)Married _____ (B)Divorced _____

(C) Widow_______ (D) Single mother_______ (E) Single_______

7. Tick against where you belong

(A)Pregnant_____ (B) Breast feeding mother_____(C) None______

SECTION B

8. Do you have access to the media? Yes ( ) No ( )

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9. If yes, which of these media do you have access to ?(tick as appropriate and as

many as you have access to):

A. Radio ( ) B. Television ( ) C. Newspaper ( ) D. Magazine ( )

10. Which of these media do you prefer? A Radio ( ) B. Television ( )

C. Newspaper ( ) D. Magazine ( ) (Tick as many as you prefer)

11. Have you heard of the campaign on exclusive breast-feeding?

Yes ( ) No ( )

12. If yes, how did you hear of the campaign?

A. Radio ( ) B. Television ( ) C. Newspaper ( ) D. Magazine ( )

E. Others ( )

13. How often do you get information about exclusive breast-feeding?

A. Often ( ) B. Very Often ( ) C. Not Very Often ( ) D. Rarely ( )

E. None of the above ( )

14. When was the last time you heard or saw a media campaign on exclusive breast-

feeding campaign?

A. Very recently ( ) B. Recently ( ) C. Not recently ( ) D. Not at all ( )

15. Apart from the mass media how else did you hear about exclusive breast-feeding?

A. Church ( ) B. Health Centre ( ) C. Market ( ) D. From Friends ( )

E. Women Meeting ( )

16. What appeals to you most about the channel through which you access

information on exclusive breast-feeding?

90

A. I can easily understand the message ( ) B. They demonstrate with Examples ( )

C. I can ask questions and get answers directly ( ) D. The Channel creates room for

group discussion ( )

17. Do you understand the language of the message on the media on exclusive breast-

feeding campaign?

Yes ( ) No ( )

18. If no why? ____________________________________________________

19. What are your personal views about exclusive breast-feeding for the newborn

baby?

A. It is very good and should be compulsory to be done ( ) B. It is good but should

not be compulsory to be done ( ) C.I know about it but do not believe I should do it (

) D.I do not know what it is all about, but would want to know ( ) E. I am indifferent (

)

20. Does the information you receive affect your perception about exclusive breast-

feeding? Yes ( ) No ( )

21. If yes how? ___________________________________________________

22. Do you do exclusive breast-feeding?

Yes ( ) No ( )

23. If yes why? ___________________________________________________

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24. If no why? ___________________________________________________

25. How do you react to messages from the mass media?

A. I do what they say ( ) B. I do not do what they say ( ) C. I am indifferent (

) D. I wait to hear other people or leaders in the village before I do what they Say ( )

26. Do you have any challenges using any of the media to get information on

exclusive breast-feeding campaign?

A. Yes ( ) B. No ( )

27. If yes, why?_________________________________________________