Detailed Contents

Special Features xiv

Preface xvii

Acknowledgments xxi

1. Special Education in Context: People, Concepts, and Perspectives 3Definitions and Terminology 4Categories and �abels 10Prevalence of Children and Young Adults with Disabilities 13A Brief History of the Development of Special Education 16Professionals Who Work with Individuals with Exceptionalities 20Cooperative Teaching 26Universal Design for �earning 30Exceptionality across the �ife Span 33

2. Policies, Practices, and Programs 43�itigation and �egislation Affecting Special Education 43Civil Rights �egislation 53Educational Reform: Standards-Based Education 55Identification and Assessment of Individual Differences 60Referral and Assessment for Special Education 61Designing Individualized Instructional Programs 67Service Delivery Options: Where a Special Education Is Provided 71

3. Cultural and Linguistic Diversity and Exceptionality 85Cultural Diversity: The Changing Face of a Nation 85Multicultural Education, Bilingual Education, and Student Diversity 91Disproportional Representation of Minority Students in Special Education Programs 96Issues in Assessing Students from Culturally and �inguistically Diverse Groups 101Educational Programming for Students with Exceptionalities

Who Are Culturally and �inguistically Diverse 105

PART I. Foundations of Special Education

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PART II. A Study of Individuals with Special Needs

4. Parents, Families, and Exceptionality 113Parent–Professional Relationships: Changing Roles 113A Family Systems Approach 117The Effects of a Child's Disability on Parents and the Family 120Stages of Parental Reaction to Disability 121Disability and the Family 124Working with Families Who Are Culturally and �inguistically Diverse 128Cultural Reactions to Disability 131Suggestions for Facilitating Family and Professional Partnerships 132

5. Individuals with Mental Retardation or Intellectual Disabilities 141Defining Mental Retardation or Intellectual Disabilities:

An Evolving Process 143Assessing Intellectual Ability and Adaptive Behavior 148Classification of Individuals with Mental Retardation or

Intellectual Disabilities 150A Brief History of the Field 154Prevalence of Mental Retardation or Intellectual Disabilities 156Etiology of Mental Retardation or Intellectual Disabilities 158Prevention of Mental Retardation or Intellectual Disabilities 164Characteristics of Individuals with Mental Retardation or

Intellectual Disabilities 166Educational Considerations 169Services for Young Children with Mental Retardation

or Intellectual Disabilities 180Transition into Adulthood 182Adults with Mental Retardation or Intellectual Disabilities 184Family Issues 186Issues of Diversity 186Technology and Individuals with Mental Retardation or

Intellectual Disabilities 188Trends, Issues, and Controversies 189

6. Individuals with Learning Disabilities 195Defining �earning Disabilities 197A Brief History of the Field 201Prevalence of �earning Disabilities 204Etiology of �earning Disabilities 205Characteristics of Individuals with �earning Disabilities 207Assessment of �earning Disabilities 214Educational Considerations 219

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Services for Young Children with Learning Disabilities 225Transition into Adulthood 229Adults with Learning Disabilities 230Family Issues 232Issues of Diversity 232Technology and Individuals with Learning Disabilities 234Trends, Issues, and Controversies 235

7. Individuals with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 243Defining Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 245A Brief History of the Field 246Prevalence of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 247Etiology of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 249Characteristics of Individuals with Attention Deficit

Hyperactivity Disorder 251Assessment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 254Educational Considerations 256Adolescents and Adults with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 268Issues of Diversity 270

8. Individuals with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 275Defining Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 277Classification of Individuals with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 281A Brief History of the Field 283Prevalence of Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 285Etiology of Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 287Prevention of Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 290Characteristics of Children and Youth with Emotional or

Behavioral Disorders 292Assessing Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 294Educational Considerations 298Services for Young Children with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 311Transition into Adulthood 312Adults with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 313Family-Centered Interventions 315Issues of Diversity 315Technology and Individuals with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 317Trends, Issues, and Controversies 317

9. Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders 325Defining Autism Spectrum Disorders: An Evolving Process 328Classification of Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders 329A Brief History of the Field 333Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorders 334

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Etiology of Autism Spectrum Disorders 335Characteristics of Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders 335Assessment of Autism Spectrum Disorders 340Educational Considerations 342Services for Young Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders 348Transition into Adulthood 349Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorders 351Family Issues 353Issues of Diversity 354Technology and Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders 354Trends, Issues, and Controversies 356

10. Individuals with Speech and Language Impairments 361The Nature of Speech, �anguage, and Communication 363Defining Speech and �anguage Impairments 367Classifying Speech and �anguage Impairments 367Historical Perspectives 375Prevalence of Speech and �anguage Impairments 376Etiology of Speech and �anguage Impairments 376Prevention of Speech and �anguage Impairments 377Characteristics of Speech and �anguage Impairments 379Assessing Speech and �anguage Impairments 380Educational Considerations 383Services for Young Children with Speech and �anguage Impairments 383Adolescents and Adults with Speech and �anguage Impairments 386Family Issues 387Issues of Diversity 387Technology and Individuals with Speech and �anguage Impairments 388Trends, Issues, and Controversies 389

11. Individuals with Hearing Impairments 395Definitions and Concepts in the Field of Hearing Impairment 397A Brief History of the Field 404Prevalence of Hearing Impairment 406Etiology of Hearing Impairment 407Characteristics of Individuals with Hearing Impairments 410Assessment of Individuals with Hearing Impairments 412Educational Considerations 414Services for Young Children with Hearing Impairments 424Transition and Individuals with Hearing Impairments 428Services for Adults with Hearing Impairments 429Family Issues 430Issues of Diversity 431Technology and Individuals with Hearing Impairments 432Trends, Issues, and Controversies 439

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12. Individuals with Visual Impairments 44�Defining Visual Impairments 449The Eye and How It Works 450Classification of Visual Impairments 451A Brief History of Visual Impairments 452Prevalence of Visual Impairments 454The Vision Process and Etiology of Visual Impairments 455Prevention of Visual Impairments 456Characteristics of Individuals with Visual Impairments 457Assessment of Students with Visual Impairments 461Educational Considerations 467Young Children with Visual Impairments 471Transition into Adulthood 473Adults with Visual Impairments 475Family Issues 475Issues of Diversity 476Technology and Individuals with Visual Impairments 477Trends, Issues, and Controversies 480

13. Individuals with Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence Disabilities 48�

Defining Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related �ow-Incidence Disabilities 490

A Brief History of the Field 492Prevalence of Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related

�ow-Incidence Disabilities 493Etiology of Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related

�ow-Incidence Disabilities 494Characteristics of Individuals with Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities,

and Related �ow-Incidence Disabilities 497Assessment of Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related

�ow-Incidence Disabilities 510Educational Considerations 511Services for Young Children with Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities,

and Related �ow-Incidence Disabilities 525Transition into Adulthood 526Adults with Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related

�ow-Incidence Disabilities 528Family Issues 528Issues of Diversity 529Technology and Individuals with Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities,

and Related �ow-Incidence Disabilities 530Trends, Issues, and Controversies 534

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14. Individuals Who Are Gifted and Talented 541Defining Giftedness: Refining the Meaning 545Assessing Giftedness and Talent 548Differences among Children Who Are Gifted and Talented 551A Brief History of the Field of Gifted and Talented Education 552Prevalence of Giftedness and Talent 556Etiology of Giftedness and Talent 556Characteristics of Individuals Who Are Gifted and Talented 557Educational Considerations 558Services for Young Children Who Are Gifted and Talented 573Adolescents and Adults Who Are Gifted and Talented 575Family Issues 576Issues of Diversity 577Technology and Individuals Who Are Gifted and Talented 582Trends, Issues, and Controversies 583

Postscript 591

Appendix A: Federal Definitions of Disabilities 592

Appendix B: Professional Standards 594

Glossary 612

References 628

Photo Credits 659

Name Index 661

Subject Index 6�5

About the Contributors 695

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