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Determinants of Labour Force Participation by Married Women: The Caseof JakartaDiah Widarti aa Department of Manpower, Jakarta

To cite this Article Widarti, Diah(1998) 'Determinants of Labour Force Participation by Married Women: The Case ofJakarta', Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies, 34: 2, 93 120

To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/00074919812331337350URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00074919812331337350

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Bulletin of ndonesian Emnomic Stud& Vol34 No 2,Aumst lpgS,PV.9S1120

DETERMINANTS OF LABOUR FORCEPARTICIPATION BY MARRIED WOMENTHE CASE OF JAKARTA

Diah Widarti'

Dcpnrtnient of Manpower, akarta

Thi s studyseeks to identi fy the determnantsof f emal e l abour forceparti ci pati on (FLFP), by assessing the i nfl uence of a set of socio-demographi c, cconomic and cul tural factors on educati onal cl assdi fferenti al s in the LFP of marri edw o m e n n J akarta A !-shapedpattern of associ at i on between educati on and FLFI' I$ preval ent inmany devel opi ng countri es: ess educatedw-urnenoftenihuw LFPrate, close t u lhose uf well educated women, whereas rnndrratel yeducated womcn havr l o w e r rates. The st udy concl udes thateducati on is a strongdetermnant of women's parti ci pati on in theJ akartalabour force. T h e J - shapedpattern of associati on betweeneducati on andFLFP persisted after standxdi sati on by age, al thoughi t was ess marked than the l i terature suggr,ts F e w ariables wereconsistentl y signi fi cant for all edoi.itiana1 cl asses, wth a Afferentm ~ xf varmbles i nf l uenc i ng FLrP mcach group Childrcn belowfiveliving at home,however , had a sinni fi cant nezati ve associ ati onwth FLFPin all educati onal cl asses.

INTRODUCTIONW o m e n have long participated in formal and informal employment. InIndonesia, as in m a n y other developing countries, they play anincreasingly important role in economic and social life (Benyamln1996).

'Ths paper i s based l argelynn the authur' sPhD di ssertati on,wi tten at FlmdersUni versi ty in South Austral i a. Thr authur w shes to express her grati tude toUSAID whi ch f unded thework, and in particular to D Mary Norns of USAI Dfor her val uabl ecommentsand encouragement.

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94 D ahWidartiI ndonesi an women enj oy hi gher l abour force parti ci pati on t han thei rcounterparts i n many other Musl i mcountri es, al t hough the rates arestill l ower than those in some other parts of Southeast Asi a. Whi l e therehave been a number of studi es of women s empl oyment i n devel opedcountri es, Iittlc research has occurred in devel opi ng countri es, ncl udi ngI ndonesi a, wher e cont i nui ngwork on the extent and determnant s ofFLFPwll r emai n cruci al .Ther e are several convi nci ng r easons to expect a posi t i veassoci ati on bet ween the educat i onal achi evement of wo men and thei rl abour force parti ci pati on.Neverthel ess, the rel ati onshi p bet ween theset wo vari abl es i s not al ways a posi ti ve one.Studi es s how m xed resul ts:research in M ddl e Eastern countri es such as Egypt , Syri a and Tur key,and i n Lati n Amer i can countri es such as Col ombi a,Argent i na, Chi l e andVenezuel a, has demonst ratcd a posi ti ve rel ati onshi p bet ween the t wovari abl es (Farooq 1972; El i zaga 1974; Youssef 1976; Peek 1978; Iecht1978). But countri es such as I ndi a, Paki stan, Sri Lanka and Papua Ne wGui nea have exhi bi ted a ] - shaped curve of associ ati on bet ween t hem(Si nha 1967; Standi ng and Sheehan 1978b; Sheehan 1978). Thi s i s al sothe case for ndonesi a ( J oncb 1994). These m xed f i ndi ngs probabl yrefl ect the i mpact of i nterrel ated soci o- economcand demographi cdi f f erences on women s parti ci pati on in the l abour market Thus, anumber of patterns may ari se in devel opi ng countri es,and a J - pattern sthe most c ommon of these. Fi ndi ngs based on the 1985 I ntercensalPopul at i on Sur vey (Supas) data for J akarta ndi cate that both the agest andardi sed and t he unst andardi sed educat i on-5peci f i cLFP rates ofJ akarta swomen wer e J - shaped, ven i f the data wer e di saggregated bymari t al status (tabl e1).The pr i mary purpose of thi s paper i s to exam ne the suppl y si dedetermnant s of marr i ed women s L FP in J akar tawthin a mul ti vari atef r amewor k, nd to i denti fy the extent to whi ch f emal e educati on has ani ndependent ef fect.The anal ysi s conf i rms the exi stence of the ]-curvephenomenon f ound n many other devel opi ng countri es.A maj or goal ofthe st udy i s to arri ve at a sati sfactory expl anati on of the causes ofl abour f orce part i ci pat i on di f ferenti al s among mar r i ed wo me n ofdi f f erent educat i onal groups i n J akar ta. n order to under st and betterthe f orces that gi ve ri se to the J - cur ve henomenon, he anal ysi s seeks todetermne how the i mpact of cul tural , aml y and other soci o- economcfactors on women s abour f orce parti ci pati on vari es accordi ng to l evelof educat i on J akartawas chosen as the st udy si te for a number ofreasons: as a capi tal ci ty, the centre of gover nment and the most moder ncity i n the archi pel ago, t is a mel t i ngpot of peopl e f r omvari ous ethni c

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Labour ForceParti ci pati onby Marri ed Women: TheCase of akarta 95backgr ounds; and i t is mor e exposed to the wor l d economy t han areother urban centres in I ndonesi a.FRAMEWORK OF ANALYSISSeveral schol ars have i dent i f i ed factors that may i nf l uence women sentry i nto the labour mar ket ( Sobol 1963; Hof f man1963; Cai n 1966;Sweet 1973).Sohol (1963)cl assi f i est hemi nto three groups. Fi rst are theennblirig conditioiis,such as the number and age of chi l dren. t i s oftensuggest ed that the mor e chi l drtnawoman has, and the younger thei r age,the mor e l i kel y i t i s that she wll not be i n the l abour market , owi ng toi ncompat i bi l i t y bet ween the mat er nal rol e and l abour f orce

TABLE 1 Fernalehlwur Force Partrciptml Rates by Education and Marital Statusfor All Womm ged 10 Years and Ouer, akorto, 985

Educati on Singl e Married Divorcedl TotalLevel Widowed

*I I ..No school i ng 53.1 52.7 15.4 14.7 32.0 42.7 24.6 30.5Less than pri mary

school 17.6 28.8 14.0 14.0 53.1 47.6 19.4 21.4Priniaryschool 23.4 28.5 11.4 11.5 35.7 31.8 18.1 18.1Lower secondaryschool 12.9 14.3 13.2 12.9 37.6 31.5 14.0 14.1Upper secondaryand above 42 8 26.2 33.4 46.1 58.5 25.8 38.5 25 1Total 23.4 39.7 16.6 11.9 40.1 44.5 217 21.7N 3,589 4,108 808 8,505 Unstandardi sedStandardi sed accordi ngto theage structureof the respective group.Source: PS,1985Supasdata

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% D ah Wdartipart i ci pati on. Thi s may not appl y, however , f there is a substi tute chi l dcarer. '

A second gr oup of f actors consi dered to i nf l uencewomen' s entryi nto t he l abour market are the ~facilitntiq oriditions',such as educat i onor t rai ni ng, previ ous wor k exprr i ence, and l ocal labour mar ketcondi t i ons One of t he faci l i tati ng condi t i ons that i s likely to i mpactmost strongl y on women' s wor k is cducati oi i . The rel ati onshi p betweeneducati on and econom c acti vi ty has h e m gi ven cl ose attenti on byeconomst s, w h o general l y cont end that there is a posi ti ve associ ati onbet ween these t wo f actors (M ncer 1962; Sohol 1963; Rowen andFi negan 1966, Epstei n 1970; Sweet 1973;Sorki n 1974; Psacharopoul us1975, 1977; M chael 1985, Bl au, Behr man, and Wol f e 1988;Psacharopoul us and Tzannat os 1989).The thi rd gr oup of factor5 i denti f i ed by Sohol are the ' preci pi tati ngcondi ti ons' , i ncl udi ng di ssati sfacti on w th the l evel of househol d i ncomeand personal di ssati sfacti on. Wo me n wh o are di ssati sfi ed w th thei rf aml y i ncome may deci dc to enter the l abour market , hut the deci si onwll al so be af f ected by prevai l i ng soci o-cul tural actors i n parti cul arsoci eti es (Boserup1970,1975)The determnant s of FLFP are of ten separated i nto ' suppl y' and' demand factors. Because of data l i mtati ons, thc anal ysi s i n ths st udyf ocuscs on suppl y si de factors. The expected rel at i onshi p of eachvari abl c to FLFP is di scussed in the f ol l ow ng paragraphs.There are several ways in whi ch one mght exam ne how women' seducati on affects LFP. A woman' s educat i onal l evel may i nf l uence heri nvol vement n econom c acti vi ty through i ntermedi ate vari abl es such asage at first mar r i age (I1AFM) nd futilit!/. Despi t e general f i ndi ngsconf i rmnga usual l y st rong negat i ve rel ati onshi p between the presenceof young chi l dren and FLFP indevel oped countri es ( Nye and Hof f man1963), Lehrer and Ner l ove (1986) r gue that the resul ts over severalstudi es are somewhat nconsi stent. n devel opi ng countri es the f i ndi ngsar e m xed ( J af f e nd Amni i 1960; Gendel l et ai.1970; Gol dstei n 1972;Chaudhur y 1978). t seems that t he rel ati onshi p between ferti l i ty andFLFP vari es accordi ng to soci o- economcand cul tural setti ngs and,

'In devel opi ng countri es such as I ndonesi a,many faml i es are able to obtai nassistance in taking care of chi l dren. ri thcr from a paid domesti c worker or f roma member of thc extended f aml y. Even i o, some educatedmothers who may beabl e to afford chld care prefer tu care for thei r young chi l drenat home ratherthan go out to work (Standi ng1978,p.142).

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Labour Force Parti cipation byMarriedWomen: TheCaseof Jakarta 97i mportant l y, accordi ng to the nature of j ob opportuni t i es avai l abl e towomen.

A hypothesi s of th s study is that among l ess educated women therel ati onshi p bet ween mari tal status and number of young chl dr eninthehousehol d on the one hand and FLFP on the other may be rather weak.The reason for thi s is that many uneducat edwomen ar e f orced to wor ki n l ow status, less secure j obs and i n i nf ormal sector acti vi ti es that donot have ri gi d wor ki ng hours. Mnteriinl role incompntibility i s l i kel y tobe rel ati vel y uni mportant . Even i f a woman has to l eave the chi l dren athome, she can f requentl y make use of unpai d surrogate chi l d carers suchas nei ghbours or extended faml y member s. Among moderatel y educatedwomen, however , the associati on mght be expected to be much st ronger.These wome n usual l y f eel rel uctant to wor k i n l ow status l obs. Thei ncome of the husband i s suffi ci ent to fu fi l basi c needs, but the f aml ymay not be abl e to af ford chi l d care servi ces (servants). Thi s assumesthat wome n are general l y marr i ed to men w t h somewhat hi ghereducati onal l evel s t han t hemsel ves. Therefore moderatel y educatedmarr i ed women may be rel uctant to enter the l abour market . Amonghi ghl y educated women, on the other hand, the opportuni ty cost of bei ngeconom cal l y i nact i ve may be substant i al : they are l i kel y to bedi ssati sfi ed i f they do not empl oy theskills they have gai ned, and fearfulof those ski l l s bei ng lost t hrough l ack of use. There is less reason foreducated women to be obl i ged to r emai n at home w th chi l dren,becausethey can general l y af f ord o hi re servants.The i ncl usi on of ethnic bnck,gruiind as a vari abl e in thi s st udy isbased on the ar gument that the i nvol vement of women i n the l abourmar ket is i nf l uenced by soci al val ues der i ved f r omthei r cul turalbackgr ounds (Youssef 1976; Anker and Knowl es 1978; J ones1986, p. 9).I t i s argued, for exampl e, that the l owl evel of i nvol vement n economcacti vi ty by i ndi genous J akarta wo me n is due in part to the mor etradi ti onal l y I sl amc val ues among thi s gr oup ( J ones1977). The hi ghf emal e l abour f orce parti ci pati on l evel s in Central J ava, on the otherhand, are attri buted to the nor m of wor k as a w.ay of life f or theJ avanese(Geertr 1962;Hul l 197hb). Among hi ghl y educated women, t i sl i kel y that cul tural restri cti ons on women' s wor k are less pervasi veand al l owwomen f r omcertai n r egons in I ndonesi a w th tradi ti onal l ylow FLFPs, such as Sout h Sul awesi ( home of t he Bugi s peopl e), to bemor e acti vein the l abour market . The opportuni ty cost of bei ng i nacti veforeducated women appears to outwei gh the i nf l uence of ethni c factorsi n governi ng econom c acti vi ty. As al most hal f of J akarta' s popul at i onar e mgrants, i t is consi dered necessary i n thi s st udy to i ncl udemgrat i on asa factor in f emal e economc acti vi ty.

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98 Diah WdartiA f urther hypot hesi s is that family economic status, whi ch may beref l ected in husbands educat i on, husbands occupat i on, f aml y

expendi ture, or house owner shi p and condi t i on,wll i nf l uence women seconom c acti vi ty, and that women whose husbands earn hi gh i ncomesare l ess l i kel y to be acti ve i n the l abour market ( M ncer 1993, p. 5). Thi sis parti cul arl y so f a woman s educat i onal l evel is l ow, maki ng theopportuni t y cost of econom c i nacti vi ty rel ati vel y smal l , and i f there arest rong soci al and cul tural pressures agai nst women wor ki ng outsi de thehome. n thi s case the i ncome effect of the husbands hi gh economc statusis l i kel y to restrai n a wo ma n f r omenteri ng the l abour market . Forwomen w th rel ati vel y hi gh educat i on, the opportuni ty cost o economci nacti vi ty wll be substant i al , and they w i l l tend to be in the l abourforce despi te the i ncome effect deri vi ng f romhi gh faml y i ncome status.Labour market condi t i ons are l i kel y to i nf l uence women s entry i ntothe workf orce. Such condi t i ons can be ref l ected i n the empl oymentbehavi our of househol ds. The rel at i onshi p bet ween l abour marketcondi t i ons and f emal e abour f orce parti ci pati on can be summar i sedasthe bal ance of di scouraged and addi t i onal wor ker effects. Si nceunempl oyment and under empl oyment rate5 are rel evant to gr oup rathert han i ndi vi dual behavi our , we use husbands employment a ndI,nd~,reniplo!,nie,it tntos ai a proxy for the i mpact of househol d l abourmarket parti ci pati on on FLFI. Househol ds w t h husbands who areunempl oyed wll recei ve less f aml y i ncome, nduci ng the w ves to seekwor k in order to mai ntai n househol d consumpt i on evel s.The study focuses on the extent and causes of LFP of marr i ed womenin Daer ah Khusus I bnkota (DKI ) akarta in 1985, and on the pattern ofdi f ferenti al samong gr oups of women strati fi ed by l evel of compl et edschool i ng.METHODOLOGYI n thi s st udy, a mul t i vari ate anal ysi s is conduct ed in whi ch FLFP istreated as the dependent vari abl e. The anal ysi s i nvesti gates the effectsof certai n soci o- cul tural and econom c factors on the LFP of marr i edwomen i n three educat i onal gr oups. We therefore conduct ed f ourseparate sets of regressi ons. Fi rst, hypothesi sed rel at i onshi ps wer etested f or t he aggregate data sampl e. Then the sampl ed women wer esegment ed i nto three g o u p s accordi ng to thei r educat i onal l evel s.Usingthe s ame vari abl es as n the anal ysi s of the aggregate data sampl e, wethen carri ed out separate regressi on anal yses for each segment ed dataset.

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Labour ForceParti cipationby Mamed Women: TheCaseof Jakarta 99The anal ysi s is based mai nl y on secondary data obtai ned from the

1985 Supas for J akarta. her e are weaknesses in usi ng data suchas theSupas, but at the t i me thi s st udy was undert aken there was no otheravai l abl e sour ce gi vi ng cross-secti onal dat a on all the vari abl es.Cl earl y, usi ng cross-secti onaldata for thi s dependent vari abl e woul dnot al l ow one to detect entri es i nto and exi ts out of the l abour f orcewhi ch m ght rel ate to stages of the l i fe cycl e. Measur ement of theeconomcal l y acti ve popul at i on i n the 1985 Supas and other datasources in I ndonesi a i s i nf l uenced by the concept of the l abour f orceused The 1985 Supas def i ned member s of he I ndonesi an l abour f orceas those over 10years ol d who had wor ked at l east one hour dur i ng theprevi ous week.For the mul t i vari ate anal ysi s of a di chot omous dependent vari abl e,we appl y the l ogi t met hod in the anal ysi s. The model assumes that awoman may sel ect one of two mut ual l y excl usi ve al ternati ves: to bei nvol ved in the l abour force or not to be i nvol ved in the l abour force.The probabi l i ty of her choosi ng the fi rst or the second depends on bothher i ndi vi dual and her f aml y characteri sti cs, whi ch i n this st udy areclassi fi ed as (1) soci o- demogr aphi c ari abl es such as t he woman' s age,age at f i r s t marr i age, educat i on, ethni ci ty, mgrat i on status, and t hepresence of chi l dren; and (2) econom c status vari abl es i ncl udi nghusbands educat i on, husbands occupat i on, househol d expendi ture,ahousi ng i ndex, and husbands empl oyment status.The excl usi onof wageas an i nf l uenti al factor i n th s st udy is due merel y to the unavai l abi l i tyof suchavari abl e i n the Supas data.Some expl anatory vari abl es used i n the st udy, part i cul arl ydemographi c ones such as age, mari tal status, educat i on, and durat i on ofmgrat i on, are readi l y taken f r omthe i nf ormat i on avai l abl e in the 1985Supas. Ot hers have no di rect measure, and for these proxi es are used.Age at fi rst marr i age ( AAFM) s used for age of entry i nto sexual uni on,ethni ci ty is proxi ed by pl ace of bi rth, and faml y econom c status isproxi ed by husbands educat i on and occupat i on, aml y expendi ture anda housi ng i ndex. The use of f am l y expendi t ur e i s due to theunavai l abi l i ty of i ncome data in the Supas.For each vari abl e a ref erence gr oup is arbi trari l y sel ected, usual l yrepresent i ng the respondent s whose rel at i onshi p to LFP s not the f ocus

21n each data source, l abour force status is defi ned in t erms of a ref erenceperi od and a minimum number of worki ng hours, bath det ermned by t heresearch body conducti ngthr survey.

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1W D ah Wdartiof the st udy. The notat i ons of the i ndependent vari abl es used i n thest udy are as fol l ows.Soci o- Demogr aphi c Var i abl esAge of Wijc

* AGEBBl* AGEBBZAGEBB3

Educntioii* W E D U l

* W E D U 2* W E D U 3

referencegroup;du mmy categori es: 1ifageofwomani s 15-24; 0 otherw se;d u mmy categori es: 1 i f age of wo ma n is 2539;0otherw se;d u mmy categori es: 1 if age groupof woman s 40andabove; 0otherw se.

reference gr oup; d u mmy categori es: 1 i f woman seducat i on i5 none or some years at pr i mary schooll evel ; 0 otherw se;d u mmy categori es: 1 f woman has compl eted pr i maryschool or l ower secondary school ; 0 otherw se;d u mmy categori es:1 f woman has compl eted uppersecondary school or above; 0 otherw se.

Age at First Marriqc- AFMl d u mmy categori es: 1 i f a woman s age at f i r s tmarr i age is younger than19years ol d; 0 othrew se;* A F M 2 ref erence group; d u mmy categori es: 1 i f a woman s

age at fi rst marr i age is ol der t han 19 years ol d; 0otherw se.Ethnicity

- ETNBl* ETNB2- ETNB3* ETNB4

d u mmy categori es: 1 i f woman s pl ace of bi rth i sJ akarta; 0 otherw se;d u mmy categori es: 1 i f woman s pl ace of bi rth isWest ava,0 otherw se;d u mmy categori es: 1 i f woman s pl ace of bi rth isel sewhereinJ ava;0 therw se;ref erence gr oup, d u mmy categori es: 1 i f woman spl ace of bi rth i s el sewhere i n I ndonesi a; 0otherw se.

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hbonr Force Parti doati on by Marri ed Women: heCase of J akarta 101Duration of Mpnt Rcsi dence

* RESYD* RESYDZ

d u mmy categori es: 1 i f woman s a mgrant and hasbeen l i vi ng i n J akarta l ess than 5years;0 otherw se;d u mmy categori es: 1 i f woman s a mgrant and hasbeen l i vi ng in J akarta5years or mor e, but l ess t han15years; 0otherw se;reference gr oup; d u mmy categori es:I f woman hasbeen l i vi ng in J akarta15years or mor e; 0 therw se.RESYD3

Presence of Children at Home* KIDDO- KI DD

d u mmy categori es: 1 i f there is at l east one chi l dunder 5years ol d in the househol d;0otherw se;d u mmy categori es:1 f there arenochi l dren aged lesst han 5 years, but at l east one chi l d aged 5-15years;0 therw se;referencegroup;d u mmy categori es: 1 f there are nochi l dren aged less than 15 years l i vi ng at home(i ncl udi ng no chi l dren), but at l east one chi l d over 15years; 0otherw se.

* KI DD2

Economc Var i abl esHusbands Educati oi i

- HEDUl ref erence group; d u mmy categori es: 1 i f husbandseducat i on is none or s ome years at pr i mary schooll evel ;0otherw se;d u mmy categori es: 1 i f husband has compl et edpr i mar y school or l ower secondary school ; 0otherw se;d u mmy categori es: 1 f husband has compl eted uppersecondary school or above; 0otherw se.

* HEDU2HEDU3

Husbands Occupat i on* HOCCAl d u mmy categori es: 1 i f husband is empl oyed as a

prof essi onal , admni st rator , manager or cl erk; 0otherw se;d u mmy categori es: 1 i f husband is empl oyed as asal es or servi ce worker ; 0otherw se;* HOCCAZ

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102 D ahWidartiref erence group; d u mmy categori es: 1 i f husband isempl oyed as a product i on or rel ated worker ; 0otherw se.

* HOCCA3

Family Expenditure per Capita- CAPITA1 dummy categori es:1 f f aml y expendi ture per capi ta(def i ned as househol d expendi t ure di vi ded byhousehol d si ze) is i n the range Rp 0- 15, 000 permont h; 0otherw se;d u mmy categori es:1 f faml y expendi tureper capi tais in the r ange Rp 15, 001- 25, 000 per mont h; 0otherw se;

* CAPITA3 dummy categori es:1 f f aml y expendi ture per capi tai s i n the range Rp 25, 001- 35. 000 per mont h; 0otherw se;* CAPITA4 ref erence group; d u mmy categori es: 1 i f famlyexpendi t ure per capi ta i s mor e t han Rp 35, 000 permont h; 0otherw se.

* CAPITA2

Housing IndexThi s i ndi cator i s establ i shed by combi ni ng house owner shi p status w thseveral other vari abl es that i ndi cate house qual i ty. For thi s pur poseweset up a composi t e i ndex that i ncl udes such vari abl es as roof i ngmateri al , wal l materi al s, f l oor materi al s, housi ng si ze, l and- bl ocksi ze,source of hght i ng, cooki ng fuel ,source of dri nki ngwater, bat hroomtypeand l avatory type. t shoul d be underst ood, hnwever , hat an el ement ofsubj ecti ve udgment s i nvol ved in reachi ng a reasonabl y j usti f i ed i ndex.* HOUSE1HOUSE2

dummy categori es.1 i f the househol d does not own ahouse of ei ther poor or fai r condi ti on; 0otherw se;d u mmy categori es: 1 i f the househol d onl y partl yowns a house of poor to fair qual i ty, or i f the f aml yowns a house of poor qual i ty;0otherw se;ref erencep u p ; ummy categori es: 1 i t the househol dei ther owns a fai r or hi gh qual i ty house, parti al l yowns a hi gh qual i ty house, or does not o wn a hi ghqual i ty house; 0otherw se.

* HOUSE3

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LabourForceParti cipati on by Married Women: TheCaseof J akarta 10JHusbniids Employm~iit tntus

HOUR1 dummy categori es: 1 i f husband is ei ther not worki ngor wor ki ng l ess than 35 hour s per week, but isl ooki ng for a ob; 0otherw se,ref erence group, d u mmy categori es: 1 i f husband isworki ng 35hours per week or mor e and not l ooki ngfor wor k, or is wor ki ng l ess t han 35 hour s but notl ooki ng for wor k; 0otherw se.

HOUIU.

RESULTS DETERM NANTSOF LABOUR MARKET ENTRYFOR MARRI EDWOMEN INJ AKARTAThe resul ts of the logi t regressi on usi ng the max i mum l i kel i hoodest i mat i on model for al l marr i ed wome n ( aged 15-54 years) arepresented i n tabl e 2.Separate equati ons are set up for each of thrcr agegroups, usi ng the l abour force status of marri ed women as the dependentvari abl e. Thei r resul ts are gi ven In tabl e3.In general , tabl e 2 shows that FLFP i s posi ti vel y rel ated to awoman s educat i on, toher husband bei ng a sal esor servi ce worker , andto parti al home ownershi p (HOUSE2j .wher eas vari abl es such as t hepresence of chi l dren, husband s educat i on, and ethni ci ty s how anegat i ve rel ati onshi p to FLFP. Age was posi ti vel y rel ated onl y amongwomen of 25-39 years, w t h the coeff i ci ent si gni f i cant at 10%. Thus,marr i ed women aged 25-39 wer e mor e l i kely to be i n the l abour f orcethan women aged 40-54.The di si ncl i nati on of the latter group to enterthe l abour force was very apparent , w t h the coeff i ci ent si gni f i cant at1%. The most l i kel y expl anat i on for thi s is ei ther: (a) that the hus bandsi ncome is suf f i ci ent to suppor t the f aml y, or (b) that there are otheradul t f aml y member s who parti ci pate in the l abour market and thus theeconomc necessi ty i s not great, or al ternati vel y (cj that atti tudes to pai dwork may si mpl y be di f ferent for ol der women and for the youngergenerati on.Educat i onHi gh educati on has a s t mng mpact onthe probabi l i tyof marri ed womenenteri ng the l abour f orce. The coef f i ci ents f or upper secondary schooleducat i on or above wer e posi ti vel y si gni f i cantat the 1% l evel (tabl e2).Even when the equat i on was tested f or di f ferent age gr oups, uppersecondary and terti ary l evel s of school i ngwer e posi ti vel y related to the

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104 Dish Widarti

Expl anatory Vari abl esI nterceptAGERRlAGEBE?.AGERR3M EDU1M EDU2WEDU3AFMlAFM2KIDDOKlDDlKI DD2Er NBlETNBZETNB3ETNB4RESYDIRESYD2RESYD3HEDUlHEDU2HEDU3HOCCAlHOCC. 42HOCCA3CAPI TA1CAPI TA2CAPI TA3CAPI TA4HOUSE1HOUSE2HOUSE3HOUR1HOUR2NCic

Coef f i ci ent T- Val ueb~_ _ _ _ _4.57

0.094. 210.070.784. 064.464.w4 94. 244. 014. 074. 02

4. 234. 370.204. 040.074. 044. 030. 340.22

0.05

~

3172"'Reference group 129-230"'Reference group 0.98

-1.054.76".-2.68"'4.13"'-351"'4. 94

4. 874. 30

n . ~ *Reterence groupReference group

Reference groupReference groupReference group -303"'-372"0. 68335"'

4. 454. 424. 532. 47"

262"

Reference group0.84

Reference groupReference groupReference group3, 236

" Maxi muml ikel ihood esti mati on(logit method).C@c = acceptedcases.Sourct? 1985 Supasdata tape.br IS I** sign ficant at 10% 5%and 1% level respecti vel y

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14/29

Labour Force Participation by Married Women: TheCase of akarta 105TABLE 3 TheProhbrlity of Married Women Aged 15-54Entering the Lnbour Force,

by Axe Group, lakorti, 1985"

Explanatory 15-24 2S39 40-54Coefficient T Coefficient T Coefficient TValueb Val"& ValuebVariables

InterceptWEDUlWEDU2WEDU3AFMAFMZKIDDOKI DDKI DD2ETNBlETNB2ETNB3ETNB4RESYDRFSYD2RFSYD3HEDUlHEDU2HEDU3HOCCAlHOCCAZHOCCA3CAPI TA1CAPI TA2CAPI TA3CAPI TA4HOUSE1HOUSE2HOUSE3HOUR1HOUNN@

~

4.270.321.194. m

4. 520.200.200.29

4. 274. 17

11. 03

4. 324. 550.260.314.001-0.290.130.490.21750

0.05

1014"' 4.64 2635"'Reference group200" 0.07 0.76

5.39- 11.69 544".-147 4 1 1 5 4. 70Reference group-378". 448 4.92"'0.90 030 -271"'Reference group069 4 9 -326"'0.11 4. 23 -242"'1.18 4 0 1 4 , Y lReference group

-128 4 0 2 4. 2n4. 79 0.02 11.20Reference groupReference group

-2.02" 4. 17 -158-2.50"' 41 -153i .411* 004 11.43227" 0 16 2.07-'Reference g o u p

4. 01 4. 01 4. 11711.21 0.05 0.511-1.12 004 0.29Reference group11.92 416 -2.00"1.6T 0.12 0.611.18 0.22 2.02-

Reference groupReference group

1,787 699

4.534. 240.91001

4. 264. 074. 264. 31-0.010.1134.17

4. 114. 754. 110.1174.340.024. 130.300.920.21

1954*'-1424.02-1354. 53

3. 5T"

-1.911--2.20**4. 24

0.12-1.11

4. 71-2 64**'4. 700.50-178.n 12-0 632.17-2.96.-1.09

aSee table2,note a.bSee table2, note b.


15/29

106 DiahWidartiprobabi l i ty of wo men enteri ng the l abour force (tabl e3).On the otherhand, l ower l evel s of school i ng (compl et i on of pr i mary and l owersecondary school ) among ol der w ves (40-54)had a negati ve i mpact onLFP. The reverse, however , was the case among younger w ves, i nparti cul ar those aged 1524.Once agai n, the most probabl e cxpl anat i onf or the negat i ve rel ati onshi p among ol der w ves is a di f ference i n theval ue attached to pai d wor k for younger and ol der w ves.Age at Fi rst Marr i ageThe negat i ve i mpact of earl y age at fi rst marr i age on LFP was onl ynoti ceabl e among women aged 15224 (tabl e3). Those who mar r y before19 years of age are l ess l i kel y to be i n the l abour force t han others inthi s age group. Thi s is underst andabl e,si nce they probabl y have smal lchi l dren and arenot l i kel y to have been wor ki ng before chi l dbi rth.Chi l dr enThe presence of chi l dren, parti cul arl y those under f i ve years, has asi gni f i cant negat i ve i mpact on mar r i ed women s LFP (tabl e 2). Thesi gni f i canceof thi s vari abl e di ffers accordi ng to the woman s age gr oup,and was hi gh for marr i ed women aged 15-24and 2 M9 . The presenceof chi l dren aged 5 1 5 years appear ed to i nhi bi t the LFP of mar r i edwomen aged 2539,but not that of other groups (tabl e 3.Ethni ci tyWo me n born inJ akartaor West J ava t ended not to be inthe l abour force(the coeff i ci ents wer e both si gni f i cantat 1%). Those born el sewhere inJ ava wer e al so l ess l i kel y to be in the l abour force t han the referencegr oup, al t hough the T- val uewas not si gni f i cant (tabl e2).The resul tsvari ed among di fferent age groups, however Surpri si ngl y,among youngmarr i ed coupl es(1524). ei ng bor n i n J akarta,West J ava or el sewherein J avawas posi ti vel y rel ated to LJP, hough t he coef f i ci entwas notsigni f i cant (tabl e 3). I t seems that the val ue attached to women wor ki ngoutsi de the home has changed among young peopl e, especi al l y amongthose bor n in J akarta and We s t l ava. LFP among women born i n theseareas may have been i nhi bi ted by soci al and possi hl y strongl y Musl i mval ues r egardi ng outsi de wor k by ol der women. Thus for women aged25- 39 and 4-54 the coeff i ci ents for West J ava and J akartawer e bot hnegat i ve and signi f i cant, whereas they wer e posi ti ve but i nsi gni f i cantfor women aged 1524.

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Labour Force Parti cipati on by Mamed Women: TheCase of akarta 107I t i s l i kel y that, i ncreasi ngl y, pl ace of bi rth is not a good i ndi cator ofethni ci ty. Peopl e bor n i n J akar t a are not necessari l y ethni cal l y

Betawenese: many ar e J avaneseor Sundanese. 3Thei r val ues may still hevery cl ose to those of thei r r egi on of ori gi n. For exampl e, when aJ avanese coupl e gi ve bi rth i n J akarta, he chi l d i s recorded as akarta-born, but her l hi s ethni ci ty is J avanese,and many val ues ( i ncl udi ngthose regardi ng wor k) are l i kel y to be i nf l uenced by the J avanesesocialsyst emand bel i efs. Thi s is rel evant part i cul arl y f or mgrant s whoarri ved in J akar tain the 1950s and 1960s and whos e chi l dren woul dhave entered the l abour force by 1985.Dur at i on of M gr ant Resi denceRecent arr i val s i n J akarta and those w t h 5-15 years resi dence wer esomewhat ess li kely than the reference gr oup tobe i n thelabourmarket(tabl e2). Thi s w a s especi al l y true ofmarr i ed women aged 15-24whower e recent mgrant s. The T- val uesfor other age groups wer e notsi gni f i cant bel ow 10% (tabl e 3). I t shoul d be r emember ed that manymar r i ed women, regardl ess of thei r durat i on of resi dence, may be' passi ve' mgrants, especi al l y the w ves of civi l servants, and for thi sgroup the urgency o worki ng may not be great.Fam l y Econom c StatusHusbarrd's Education. As a proxy f or f aml y economc status, husbandseducat i on pr oved a st rong det erm nant of FLFP i n the regressi onanal ysi s. The l i kel i hood of wome n enteri ng the l abour f orce wasnegati vel y associ ated w t h both moder at e and hi gh l evel s of husbandeducati on, w th the coef f i ci entsigni f i cant at the 1% l evel (tabl e2). Thenegat i ve i mpact of a husbands educat i on on the wfe' s parti ci pati onwas parti cul arl y si gni f i cant i f the husband had upper secondary schoolor hi gher educat i on, and wasmost apparent for w ves i n t he age groups15-24 and 40-54 (tabl e 3) I t w a s also si gni f i cant at thi s l evel ofeducat i on a mong wo me n aged 25-39, al t hough at a l ower l evel .Si ml arl y, a negat i ve i mpact of husbands educati on at amoder at e l evelwas si gni f i cant among younger w ves aged 15-24and 2S39,at 5%and10%respecti vel y (tabl e3).The data suggest that a husbands potenti alearni ngs at hi gher l evel s of educat i on may al l oww ves the opt i on of notparti cipati ng in the l abour market .

?he term' Betawenese' efers to peopl e whose ancestors are nati ve to J akarta.' J avanese' efers to peopl e ori ginal ly from Central J ava, Yogyakarta and EastJava; hoseoriginally imm Wes t J avaar e referred to as 'Sundanese'.

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108 Diah WidartiHusbnr i d s Occi i pnf i on. Thi s is also used as a proxy for famlyeconomc status. Cont rary to our hypothesi s, the data i n general s how

that husbands empl oyment as a whi t e col l ar wor ker (professi onal ,admni st rator , manager or cl erk) was not negat i vel y rel ated to thel i kel i hood of w ves enteri ng the l abour force. The rel ati onshi p bet weenhusbands occupat i on and LFP of w ves was posi ti ve and promnent i fhusbands wer e sal es or servi ce workers, w t h the coeffi ci ent si gni fi cantat 1% (tabl e2. However , when one l ooks at the resul ts accordi ng to agegr oup, some i nteresti ng featuresemer ge (tabl e3).The expected negat i vesi gn for husbands occupat i onas a whi t e col l ar wor ker occur red onl yfor marr i ed women aged40-54, al though agai n the associ ati on was notsigni f i cant.The posi ti ve coeffi ci ent for husbands occupat i onas sal es orservi ce worker was si gni f i cant at 5% f or women aged 15-24and 2 5 3 9 .The data suggest that the i ncomeeffect as a potenti al di scouragement toFLFP does not wor k nearl y as strongl y t hrough occupat i on as t doesthrough educat i on. One possi bl e expl anat i on i s that the i ncomes of manywhi t e col l ar worker s in I ndonesi a are qui te l ow: teachers and cl eri calempl oyees in thc civi l servi ce are t wo exampl es. Another is that qui teahi gh propor t i on of whi t e col l ar husbands are terti ary ( rather t hansecondary) educated, and mar r y terti ary educated w ves, wh o ar e mor el i kel y to work for opportuni ty cost reasons.Fani i i y Expendi ture. Mont hl y per capi ta expendi ture of Rp 15,001-25,000( CAPI TA2) ppears to have onl y a sl i ght posi ti ve i nf l uenceonthe probabi l i ty of woi nen enteri ng the l abour market . Thus for no groupwas househol d expendi ture si gni fi cantl y posi ti vel y rel ated to FLFP, andi t w a s negati vel y rel ated wher e per capi ta f aml y expendi ture was Rp15,000 or l ess ( CAPI TAI ) , or bet ween Rp 25,001 and Rp 35,000( CAPI TA3) . When we consi dered women s age groups separatel y, hei mpact of mont hl y per capi ta f aml y expendi tureof Rp 15,000 or l esswas si gni f i cant onl y among ol der w ves ( aged 4-54), at the 5% l evel(tabl e3.Housi ng. Onl y parti al l y owni nga ow qual i ty house (est i mated byHOUSEZ) , as expected, has a hi ghl y signi f i cant posi ti ve i mpact on theLFP of w ves ( tabl e2).The evi dence was parti cul arl y si gni fi cant amongmar r i ed women aged 15-24 and 40-54. Younger w ves aged 15-24years wer e mor e l i kel y to be in the l abour force ei ther i f they di d noto wn a house ( HOUSEI ) , or i f they still had to pay of f thei r house orowned a poor house (IIOtiSE2);he coeffi cient was signi f i cant onl y f orthe l atter, at the 5% l evel . For w ves aged 25-39, the i mpact of havi ngstill to pay of f he house was posi ti ve but not signi f i cant. However , twas strongl y negat i ve among those w ves who di d not o wn a house ofei ther poor or fai r qual i ty (HOUSEI )Among ol der women, aged 40-54,

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Labour Force Parti cipati onby Married Women: he Caseof J akarta 109a st rong posi ti ve associ ati on bet ween ei ther HOUSE1 or HOUSE2andLFP was si gni f i cantat the5% and 1% l evel s respecti vel y (tabl e3).Hus bands Empl oyment StatusI n l i ne w t h our hypothesi s, the regressi on coeffi ci ent shows that l abourunderuti l i sat i on of husbands in general was l i kel y to i nduce w ves toenter the l abour market, and was signi f i cant at 1% (tabl e2).However ,when the data wer e di saggregated by age, a si gni f i cant posi ti ve effectwas evi dent onl y among w ves aged 25-39, at the 5% l evel (tabl e3).

RESULTS: DETERM NANTSOF LABOURMARKET ENTRYFOR MARRI EDJ AKARTAWOMENOF DI FFERENTEDUCATI ONAL CLASSESWe ave noted the i mpact of a number of the suppl y si de factorson theLFP of marr i ed women in general . Al t hough some vari abl es yi el ded theexpected resul ts, others di d not s howa cl ear pattern, and some resul tswer e the reverse of our hypotheses. We now turn to the anal ysi s of dataon marr i ed women i n J akarta segment ed accordi ng to thei r l evel s ofeducat i on.AgeThe resul ts intabl e4s how that age has a si gni f i cant posi ti ve i mpact onthe l i kel i hood of l abour f orce parti ci pati on by l ess educated mar r i edwomen. The regressi on coef f i ci entssuggest an i nverted J pattern, w t hpeak parti ci pati on at the age of 25-39 years; thi s accords w t h thepattern s hown in tabl e 2. Chi l d beari ng and chi l d reari ng, i n parti cul aramong l ow i ncome faml i es, s l i kel y to i ncrease the need for addi t i onali ncome. Thi s is suggest ed by the absence of a negat i ve rel ati onshi pbet ween the LFP of l ess educat ed wo me n and ol der age. I n themoderatel y and hi ghl y educated groups, ol der women are less l i kely tobe i n the l abour market , parti cul arl y those aged 40years and above(signi f i cant at l%), whi l e the i nf l uence of age on the LFP of women of25-39years di d not seemto he si gni f i cant.One possi bl e expl anat i onwas that many women in thi s group may onl y be i nvol ved in sem- stabl eor sem- f ormal empl oyment , wher e materni ty l eave is not provi ded andyounger and si ngl e women are preferred. Theref ore, f ol der women qui tthei r l obs, t is rather di ffi cul t for t hemto re-enter the l abour force.

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110 D ahWidartiTABLE4 The Piobobility of Married Women Aged 15-54 Entering the h b o u r Force,

by Educati onal Group, lakarta, 198PExpl anatory WEDUl WEDU2 WEDU3Variables Coeff i cient T Coeffi cient T Coeffi cient TValueb VaIueb Val ueb

~I nterceptAGEBBlAGEBB2AGEBB3AFMlAFM2KIDDOKI DDlKIDDZETNBlETNB2ETNB3ETNB4RESYD1RESYD2RESYD3HEDUlHEDU2HEDU3HOCCAlHOCCA2HOCCA3CAPI TA1CAPI TA2CAPI TA3CAPI TA4HOUSE1HOUSE2HOUSE3HOUR1HOUR2N@

4. 000270230.10

4. 484. 154 0 44. 010.324 i4. 03-0on14. 334 40.184. 284. 014. 120.100.350.13

1.048

_ _1116**191"141'0.89

3.60"'-1.15-0.184. 031344. 08464. 001-1.03-1.211.86"-1.244. 034. 470.901.87"0. 90

1,560

4.80 1970''Reference group0.05 0.404. 45 -285"4 0 5 4 5 7Reference group448 4.34"'4 2 0 -1.70"Reference group4. 29 -252"'4. 14 -131'- 001 - 029Reference p u p4. 03 41240.01 0.04Reference groupReference group-0. 47 -3.n9***4 4 6 -3.21***009 0. 780. 29 317"Reference group0. 10 0.554. 09 4. 450. 02 0.11Reference group-0.17 -1 83"(1.51 2.19"Reference group

Reference group0.26 1 nz**628

5.984. 064. 444. 35-0.374. 204. 294 74. 014. 184. 084. 424. 770.03-0.034. 204 00. 041.010.26

0n8

~ 1622"'-0. 44-2.39-291"- 2 . W-145-233"'-263".4. 86-1294. 73-1.28-232"0.29-0.18-1.170.71-0.750.311541.61.

~

aSee tabe 2, notea.bsee table2, note b.CSee tabl e 3, notec.Source As far tabe 2

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20/29

Labour Porn Parti cipation by Marri ed Women: TheCaseof J akarta 111Age at Fi rst Mar r i ageEarl i er age at f i rst mar r i age, accordi ng to our hypothesi s, wlldi scourage women f r omenteri ng the l abour force. However , he st udyf ound a sl i ghtl y posi ti ve associ ati on bet ween earl y age at fi rst marr i ageand LFP among l ess educated w ves. A possi bl e expl anat i on f or thi s isthat the maj ori ty of these women wer e f romowi ncome faml i es.Thei ri nvol vement n the l abour market was i kel y to be due to the need foraddi t i onal i ncome. n contrast, a negat i ve associ ati on between age atfi rst marr i age and empl oyment was f ound among hi ghl y educat edwomen, w t h the coef f i ci ent si gni f i cant at 1% (tabl e4). Thi s suggest sthat earl y age at fi rst marr i age di scourages educated wi ves f r omenteri ng the l abour f orce. Si nce better educated women are l i kel y tomar r y hi ghl y educated husbands, t is possi bl e that member s of thi sgr oup hol d a m ddl e cl ass vi ew of ' i dl eness' as a status symbol .Moreover , many women who marr y young are l i kel y to have chi l drenearl y, and i n the absence of econom c hardshi p thi s probabl y inhi bi tsthei r entry i nto the l abour market .Chi l dr enOur hypothesi s that the normal negat i ve rel ati onshi pbet ween FLFPandferti l i ty among l ess educated women woul d be unl i kel y to hol d was notconf i rmed by the resul ts. The presence of chi l dren, parti cul arl y thoseunder f i ve years, was strongl y negati vel y associated w th the l i kel i hoodof parti ci pati on by l ess educated marr i ed women, w t h the coef f i ci entsigni f i cant at the 1% l evel . The regressi on coeff i ci ent was smal l er andi nsi gni f i cant i f the age of chi l dren was 5-15 years. Such a negat i vei mpact was al so evi dent for moderatel y and hi ghl y educated wi ves(tabl e4).The presence of chi l dren under f i ve was strongl y negati vel yassoci ated w t h the l i kel i hood of parti ci pati on by thi s gr oup of women,at a 1% si gni f i cance l evel . The presence of ol der chi l dren(5-15 years)was l ess si gni f i cant,al t hough a negat i ve ef fectwas shown Si nce theavai l abi l i ty of surrogate mot hers in urban areas such as J akarta iscl osel y rel ated to the faml y' s econom c status, better educated womenare mor e l i kel y to have access to chi l d care. Neverthel ess thi s does notal ways ensure a marr i ed woman' s entry i nto the l abour f orce.Thus, thenegat i ve associ ati on bet ween ferti l i ty and FLFP may sti l l exi st even ifsurrogate mothers and home workers canbe obtai ned.

Inbri ef, the resul ts suggest that maternal rol e i ncompati bi l i ty is apr obl emfor uneducated as wel as for educat ed w ves. The expl anat i onmay be that whi l e the t ypeof empl oyment many less educated womenenter is of a non- f ormal nature, ina l arge ci ty like J akarta the l ocati onof wor k may requi re t hemto be away f r omhome. The types of

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112 D ah Wdartiempl oyment that are compati bl e w th a maternal rol e, as di scussed byJ af fe and Ar um (1960), re those i n househol d i ndustri es i n rural areas.Such wor k i s usual l y carri ed out at home, and can be combi ned w thchi l d care. Moreover , the soci al setti ng in J akartamakesi t mor e di ffi cul tthan i nrural areas for l ess educated women to f i nd mot her surrogates.Ethni ci tyThe posi t i ve i mpact of bei ng J avanese- hornon the probabi l i ty ofenter i ng the l abour f orce was cl earl y shown among l ess educatedwomen, w th the coef f i ci ent si gni f i cant at 10%(tabl e4). Thi s di fferssl i ghtl y f r omthe resul t shown for all marr i ed women (tabl eZ), al thoughi t i s si ml ar to that for young marr i ed women aged 15-24years (tabl e3).Such a resul t may be a mani f estat i on of nor ms about worki ng amongpoorer J avanese- bornw ves. The hi gher rate of LFP among less educatedJ avanese women s al so consi stent w th the survi val strategi es of poorermgrant s, who of ten cannot rel y on an extended faml y net work forf i nanci al suppor t . f we accept that the J avanese-bornare mai nl y ethni cJ avanese, hen the pattern i s consi stent w th Hul l ' s (1976) r gument thatlower cl ass J avanese vi ew pai d work as a nor mal part of a woman' sli fe. I n rural J ava thi s vi ew appl i es onl y to wo men in l ow i ncomefaml ies! Hul l (1976) ur thermore mai ntai ns, al t hough her expl anat i onm ght be mor e val i d i n rural areas as her st udy was based on J avanesevi l l age li fe, that in a J avanese marr i age, husbands and wi ves aresupposed to wor k together as a eamto mai ntai n f aml y weal th.Among moderatel y educated women the resul ts show that J akartaand West J ava- bor nmarr i ed women are not l i kel y to be i n the l abourf orce,w th the coef f i ci ent si gni f i cant at 1% and 10% respecti vel y. f weaccept the ar gument that thi s negati ve resul t is due partl y to cul turalfactors,why wer e the coeffi ci ents f or associ ati on w th bi rth in J akartaand West J ava i nsi gni f i cant among less educated wives (tabl e 4)? I tappears that bei ngawoma n born inJ akarta (Betawenese) or West J avai s not a di si ncenti ve to FLFP.The di f ference bet ween less educated andmoderatel y educat ed women may be that many J akar t a- born mong thef or mer can gai n ni ches in the i nf ormal sector (e. g. rade stal ls) whereas

4M ddl e and upper class J avanese n the l ate 19th and early 20th century(Knrti ni ' s r a) prcfcrred thei r daughters to stay at home even i f they wer e weleducated (Geertz 1985). Havi ng a hi gh educati on was seen as a 3ymbol ofprestige rather than an economc asset. Wvmen were not encouraged tv workf ar profi t or money, because thswas consi deEdto degradet hei r nob l i ty.

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Labour Force Parti ci pati onby Marri ed Women: The Caseof J akarta 113moderatel y educated wome n are di scouraged by soci al val ues fromtaki ng up such obs5

The resul ts al so suggest that mor e hi ghl y educated w ves born i nJ akartaor West J ava wer e l ess l i kel y to enter the l abour market thanthose bor n el sewhere i n J ava, w th both resul ts si gni f i cant at the 1%l evel . Thi s puzzl i ng resul t i mpl i es that ethni ci ty still has a st rong i mpacton the LFP of educat ed mar r i ed women, and confl i cts w th J ones s(1977) roposi t i on that educat i on may weaken the cul tural constrai ntson women s entry i nto the l abour market , because the mor e educatedawoman s, the mor e choi ces she i s likelytohave. We an argue, however ,bear i ng i n m nd that J ones s(1977) t udy was based on the 1971Popul at i on Census, that upper secondary school graduates wer e l i kel yto have mor e j ob opportuni t i esopen to t hemat that t i me,espeual l y in thef ormal sector, han i n the 1980s It is l i kel y that a negat i ve coeffi ci ent forthese t wo ethni c groups i s rel ated mai nl y to the behavi our of thosewhos e educat i on was onl y to upper secondar y rather t han terti aryl evel . h Thus the behavi our of these women m ght be expected to bes imla r to that of the moderatel y educated group. Onl y a smal l number ofhi ghl y educated wome n in the st udy wer e uni versi ty graduates. t i smuch l ess l i kel y that the deci si on to wor k among uni versi ty educatedwomen woul d be heavi l y i nf l uenced by ethni ci ty (pl ace of brth).Dur at i on of M gr ant Resi denceI t was a hypothesi s of the st udy that persons who had stayed i nJ akartal onger woul d probabl y he mor e f aml i ar w t h l abour market net works,and t hus mor e l i kel y to be in the l abour f orce. However , n the anal ysi sf or mar r i ed women as a whol e, durat i on of resi dence appears to havehad rel ati vel y little effect on FLFI (tabl e2).The resul ts f or recent l esseducated mgrant s and t hose of 5 1 5 years st andi ng di d not f ol l owacl ear pat tern (tabl e 4). Thi s i s i nconsi stent w th studi es that haves hown hi gher FLFP among m grant s of l onger standi ng. Per haps the

5A hi gh proporti on of l ess educated J akarta-barnmay be ethni c J avanese(andnot i ndi gennus Betawenese) and hence havework patterns simlar to J avanese-bornbThose wth Onl y a secondary school educati on today can at best f i nd wor k asclerks or in other admni i trati ve j obs. In fact, unempl oyment rates ar e hi ghestamong upper secondaryschool graduates.7This s borne out by the hi gh correl ati on shown in the bi vari ate anal ysisbet ween ethni ci ty and LFP of marri ed women w th hi gh educati onalbackgound.




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114 DiahWdartiexpl anat i on l ies in the sizeof the J akarta abour mar ket and the greaterpossi bi l i ty of even recent uneducated f emal e mgrant s f i ndi ng a j ob. Asi ml ar pattern was s hown f or moderat el y educat ed w ves. Hi ghl yeducated recent mgrant marr i ed women wer e less l i kel y to be i n thel abour market , w th the coef f i ci ent si gni f i cant at the 10% l evel . Thi sprobabl y reflects the fact that many secondary educated mgrants cometo J akarta to cont i nue thei r school i ng at tertiary l evel .Fam l y Econom c StatusHusbnnds Educat i on. Thi s vari abl e serves as the key i ndi cator of hehusband s per manent i ncome. The resul ts i ndi cate that i t wassigni fi cantl y negati vel y rel ated to LFP for women as a whol e (tabl e2).However , no si gni f i cant effect was reveal ed among l ess educated w ves,even t hough the si gn of the regressi on coeff i ci ent was in the expecteddi recti on f or thi s group. t is possi bl e that women of l ower educat i onwer e less l i kel y to be af fected by soci al val ues regardi ng pai d wor kthan mor e educated women. As predi cted by our hypothesi s, there was asi gni f i cant negat i ve rel ati onshi p bet ween the LFP of moderatel y andhi ghl y educated women and thei r husbands bei ng educated abovepr i mary l evel . Thi s is probabl y due to the effect of the husbandspotenti al i ncome. Such a esul t conf i rms the f i ndi ngs of other studi escarri ed out i n devel oped and devel opi ng countri es (for exampl e, Cai n1966;Bowen and Fi negan1966;Sweet 1973;Peek 1978)

Husbnrrds Occuyntioii. Less educated wi ves whose husbandswor ked as professi onal s or manager s wer e not as likely as other broupsto enter the l abour f orce,al t hough the coeffi ci ent was i nsi pf i cant .Suchoccupat i ons are l i kel y to be rel ati vel y secure, and the i ncome ef fect ofthe husband s occupati on appears to over shadow the (rel ati vel y l ow)opportuni ty cost to the w f e of not worki ng. Less educat ed women arealso l i kel y to have rel ati vel y l ower aspi rati ons, and to be content w ththe i ncome level s of thei r husbands. The f i gures conf i rmthat l esseducat ed wo men whos e husbands wor k as ei ther sal es or servi ceworker s are l i kel y to be in the l abour f orce, w t h the coef f i ci entsi gni f i cant at the 5% l evel . A si ml ar pattern was shown by moderat el yeducated women whose husbands wor ked inthese occupati ons, w th theresul t si gni f i cant at the 1% l evel (tabl e4). Gi ven the soci o- economcbackground of women i n this gr oup and the occupat i ons thei r husbandst ended to be engaged in, thi s f i ndi ng support s the exi stence of theaddi t i onal worker ef fect That s, w ves economc parti ci pati on may bedue to the instabi l i ty, i nsecuri ty and i ntermttence of husbands j obs,especial l y among l ess educat ed groups On the other hand, the LFP of

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Labour Force Parti cipati onby Marri ed Women: he Ca5r of J.ikarta 115-mor e educated w ves does not seemto be af f ected by the hus bandsoccupat i on.

Fnni rl y Exycrrditurc. The resul ts do not s howa clear effect of famlyexpendi ture on marr i ed women' s l abour f orce part i ci pati on. " Al t houghthe coeff i ci ents wer e i nsi gni f i cant, any l evel of f aml y expendi ture percapi ta seemed to i nhi bi t l ess educated women' s econom c parti ci pati on.Fur t hermore, there is no cl ear effect of f aml y expendi ture on the LFP ofw ves w th ei ther moderate or high educati on The most i mport antf i ndi ng i s that there IS a negat i ve rel at i onshi p bet ween f aml yexpendi ture per capi ta of Rp 15, 000or l ess and FLFP I n tabl e 3 weobserved that mont hl y per capi ta expendi tureof Rp 15, 000 or less wasnegat i vel y rel ated to the LFP of marr i ed women aged 40- 54 years.Rel ati ng thi s f i ndi ng to tabl e4, t is possi bl e that among the mor e hi ghl yeducated women, those f ew w th per capi ta f aml y expendi t ure of Rp15,000or l ess who wer e di scouraged f r omenter i ng the l abour marketwer e ol der women

Hoiisiii~ As a n ndi cator of weal th, the housi ng i ndex had a strongi mpact on the LFP of marr i ed women The resul ts s how that moderatel yeducated women whose families rented ei ther a poor or a fai r qual i tyhouse (HOUSEI) er e not l i kely to be in the l abour f orce (tabl e 4). Theyfurther ndi cate that w ves whose housi ng i ndex was HOUSE2 1. e.whoparti al l y owned a house, or owned a poor qual i ty house) wer e mor el i kel y to be in the l abour force (tabl e2).Hus bands Empl oyment StatusOur hypothesi s was that havi ng an unempl oyed or under empl oyedhusband woul d rel ate posi ti vel y to the l i kel i hood of awoman' s enteri ngthe l abour f orce.The i nsigni f i cantresul t for the l ess educated gr oup maybe expl ai ned by the fact that hours wor ked i n the past week are not agood i ndi cator of husband' s potent i al i ncome or wor k i ntensi ty,especi al l y i n the i nf ormal sector wher e hour s wor ked are l i kel y tof l uctuate si gni f i cantl y f r omweek to week. The resul ts conf i r mthatmoderatel y educated women wer e encouraged to enter the l abour force fthei r husbands wer e under empl oyed and l ooki ng f or wor k, w th thecoef f i ci entstati sti cal l y si gni f i cant at the 5% l evel . Thi s was al so thecase for hi ghl y educated w ves, al t houghat a ower si gni f i cance l evel .

*B vari ateanal ysi s of househol d per capi ta expendi t ur eand LFP of marri edw o m e n in general showed a positi ve awxi at mn, yet the pattern was notconsi st ent when the data were di saggregated accordi ng to women'seducati onal l evel s.

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116 DiahWdartiSumma r yA comprehensi ve pi cture of the resul ts of the mul ti vari ate anal ysi s canbe seen by compar i ng tabl es 2and 4.Apart f r omthe presence of chi l drenunder fi ve and a fai r housi ng i ndex (HOUSEZ), one of the vari abl eswas consi stentl y si gni f i cant for al l educat i onal cl asses. Thi s i ndi catesthat a di f f erentm x of vari abl es t ended to i nf l uence the LFP of womenw th di f ferent evel s of school i ng.The most i mport ant consi stent patternrel ates to the presence of chi l dren under f i ve i vi ng at home: hi s had ahi ghl y si gni f i cant negat i ve i nf l uence on FLFP i n the case of l ess,moderatel y and hi ghl y educat ed wo men ( WEDUl ,WEDUZ andWEDU3) , t hough the regressi on coef f i ci entwas l ower among the hi ghl yeducat ed group. Greater access to servants among hi ghl y educat edwomen may have counterbal anced the i nf l uence of a mor e f ormal sectorwor k envi ronment on FLFP.The resul ts f urther i ndi cate that there was a greater number ofsi gni f i cant vari abl es that wer e c ommon to WEDU2 and WE DU 3(moderatel y and hi ghl y educated women) than toWEDUZandWEDUl( moderat el y and l ess educat ed women) . Ni ne vari abl es showedsigni f i cant effects on the LFP of both moderatel y and hi ghl y educatedwomen, but onl y t hree wer e si gni f i cant f or both l ess educated andmoderatel y educated w ves. Bei ng a marri ed woman aged40and above;havi ng at l east one young chi l d at home; bei ng J akarta or Wes t J ava-born; havi nga husband whose educat i on was ei ther moderat e(HEDUZ)or hi gh ( HEDU3) ; havi ng a fa r housi ng i ndex (HOUSEZ);nd havi ng anunempl oyed or under empl oyed husband al l yi el ded si gni f i cantcoeff i ci ents w th the expected si gns for both moderatel y and hi ghl yeducated women.Mor e vari abl es wer e signi f i cant as determnants of the deci si on andcapaci ty to wor k among moderatel y educated women than among theother educat i onal cl asses. Perhaps the wi de r ange of vari abl es thati nf l uenceLFP among thi s group can be rel ated to thei r greater di versi tyof wor k si tuati ons, whi ch i ncl ude both f ormal and i nf ormal sector j obs.Thus, or exampl e,whi l e ol der women and J akar ta- bornwomen i n thi sgr oupwer e l ess l i kely towor k, perhaps because of ack of opportuni t i esin the f ormal sector, a signi f i cant proport i on wer e apparent l y i nducedto work i n sal es and servi ces ( presumabl y many in i nf ormal acti vi ti es) i fthei r husbands wor ked in these sectors.

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Labour ForceParti ci pati onby Married Women:The Caseof J akartaCONCLUSI ONAl t hough present to s ome extent, the preci pi tati ng condi t i ons (e. g.di ssati sfacti on w th househol d i ncome) appear not to be as i mportant asexpected for l ess educated women. Thi s is suggested by the i nsigni fi cantresul ts for faml y expendi ture and husbands empl oyment status.Wthi n the moderatel y educated group, despi te the negati ve effects ofhavi ng a hi gNy educated husband, havi ng chi l dren under f i ve, bei ngJ akar t a- bornor bei ng 40years or ol der, women t ended to be in thel abour f orce ei ther i f thei r f aml i es stil l had to pay off a home l oan, or i fthei r husbands wor ked i n sal es and servi ce occupati ons or wer eunder empl oyed. Among thi s group, we can see that a ange of f orcestends to i nf l uenceFLFP. These i ncl ude some cul tural factors (ethni ci ty),demographi c factors (maternal rol e i ncompati bi l i ty), and sodo- economcfactors (preci pi tnti rq condi ti ons such as i ncome effect).Hi gher educat i on di d not seemto weaken the inhi bi ti ve power oethni ci ty (bei ng J akarta and West J ava- bor n) n entry i nto the l abourforce. Among hi ghl y educated w ves, however, al though the i nf l uenceofopportuni t y cost appears to have been pr omnent , s ome other forcesm ght have come nto pl ay i n determni ng women s entry i nto the l abourmarket . Thi s is suggest ed by the i nsi gni f i cant i mpact of husbandsoccupat i on:women i n thi s gr oup wer e not affected by thei r husbandsi nconi c status because t hey had thei r own earni ng power . Oppor t uni t ycost factors wer e counterbal anced by factors such as val ues about pai dwor k. The i mpact of husbands educat i on, for exampl e, was very strong:this probabl y refl ects soci al val ues among thi s group that di scouragemarr i ed women s nvol vement i n the l abour f orce, rather than i ncomeeffects.

I n s um the rel ati onshi p bet ween educat i on and LFP among l esseducat ed marr i ed women was rei nf orced by preci pi tnti ngcoridrtions.The LFPof moderatel y educated women, on the other hand, was affectedby enabl i ng condi t i ons such as age of chi l dren, i n addi t i on to thehusbands i ncome ef fect,whi l e parti ci pati onof hi ghl y educated womenwas i nf l uenced by :fncilitatirigcmditions such as rel ati ve empl oymentoppor t umi es and opportuni ty cost effects.The study has sought to ascertai n the extent to whi ch suppl y factors,operat i ng i ndependent l y of the demand for l abour, coul d account forLFP di f ferenti al samong parti cul ar groups of women. On the whol e, suchsuppl y factors do not provi de an enti rel y sati sfactory expl anat i on. Forexampl e, the negat i ve rel ati onshi p bet ween husband s educat i on andw f e s l abour f orce part i ci pati on was not consi stent for the threeeducat i onal groups. The assumpt i on that educat i on wll di mni sh the

117

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118 Ciah'Widartirestri cti ve power of cul ture does not seemtohol d. The fai l ureof suppl ysi de factors to expl ai n fuly the extent and causes of LFP di f ferenti al ssuggest s that s ome f urther answer s mght lie ei ther in the effect ofdemand factors or in the i nteracti on bet ween suppl y and demandfactors.REFERENCESAnker , R., and J . CKnow es (1978). ' A Mcro Anal ysi s of Femal eLabor ForceParti cipati onin Afri ca' , In Standi ng and Sheehan (eds) (1978a), pp. 13744.Benyamn, D. 1996), ' Women and the Labour Market in I ndonesi a duri ng the19XOs', in Susan Horton (ed.), Women a n d Industrialmztion rn Asia,Routl edge,NewYak.Blau, D.M.,. R. ehrman and B L Wol f e (1988), School i ng and Earni ngsDi tri buti ons wth Endogenous Labor Force Parti ci pati on,Mari tal Statusand Faml y Sze' , Econumrca 55, pp 297-316Boseruv. f (1970).Womei z' s Role in Ecoiianiic Deuelavmmt, George Al l en and~ . . -Unwin Ltd. London.- 1975). Emcl ovment of Women in Devel w nr Countri es' , in L Tabah. . . . I(ed.), Pupui atroi i Growth and Economic Drveloprnriit I n the Thi rd Wor l d,IUSSP, el gi umpp 79-107.Bowen, WG, nd 'I A. Fi ncgan (1966), ' Educati onal Attai nment and LaborForce Parti cpi ti on' ,. 4 n a ~ ~ c n ncuiiumic Revim 65 (2). pp 567-82.Cai n, G. G. 196h), hlnrrird W o m e n I,) the lalior Forcc. Ax Economic Anolyso, TheUni wni t g of Chi cago Press,Chtcago.Chaudhury, R.H (197X), 'Female Status and Fertility, Bangladesh DevelopmentEl i zaga, C (1974), 'The Parti cipati on of Women in the Labor Force of LatinAmcr i ca: Ferti lity and Other Factors', I nt emnt i onal Lahr Rpuiew 109 (54).

pp. 519-38.Epstei n, CF (197l1). Wo,nan's Plnre. Opt i ons ond Limits in Professrorial Careers,Universi ty of Cal i forniaPres,Berkel eyCA.Farooq,G M (1972), An Aggregate Model of Labor Force Parti ci pati on inPaki stan' ,TIv DeoeIojm,y cnmniies 96 (3). pp.96749.Geertz, H. 1462), h c Inrlarwsi Family: A Stud!, of Kinship and Socialnation, FreePress of Glenroe,New York.- 1985). Litters ojA Iairiiiese Princesss RA. Knrtini , 1879-1904, translatedfrom he Dutch by A. L.Symmes, Uni versi tyPress of Ameri ca,NewYork.Gendel l .M I N Maravi gl i a and P.C. i ei tner (1970), 'Ferti l ity and EconomcActivi ty of Womcn in Guat emal a Cty, 1964', Demography 7 (X),pp.27386.Gol dstei n,5. (1972), The nfl uence of Labour Force Parti cipati onand Educati onon Fertility inThadand', opulation Studies 26 (Z),pp. 419-36.Hof f man, . W (1963), ' The Deci si on to Wor k, in Nye and Hof f man eds)

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(1963). pp. M ~ .

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Labour ForceParti ci pati onby Marri ed Women: TheCaseof akarta 119Hull,V. (1976), Women in J ava' sRuralM ddl e C ass: Progress or Regress?Paperprepared f or t he Fourth Worl d Congress f or Rural Soci ol ogy,August 1976,

Tarun,Pol and.J af f e, A 1 , and K Azum (1960). ' The Brth Rate and Cottage I ndustry inUnderdevel oped Countri es' . Economc Drurl upni ei i t and Culturnl Change 109(1). p. 62,pp. 5263J ones,G (1977), Factors Affecti ng Femal e Labor Force Parti ci pati on inJakarta' ,Kojinir EkorioniiMainpa 14(Z),pp 71-93.- 1986), ' D f ferenti al s In Femal e Labor Force Parti cipati on Rates inI ndonesi a: Rei l rcti on of Economc Needs and Opportuni ti es, Cul ture orBad Dat a? ~Alo!nlnli Drnropf r I,ido,rrsia 13 (26),pp. 1-28.- 1994), ' Labour Force and Educati on' , ~nHa Hll (ed), ndorirria's NewOr der : The Dynnni i cs o Socio-Ecunomc Transformati oi r,A l en and Unw n,Sydney.Lehrer, E. ,and M . erl ove (1986). Femal e Labour Force Behavi our and Ferti lityin the Uni ted States',AiiiiualReuiew o Sociolom 12. pp. 181-204.Mchael , R.T. (1985), ' Consequences of the Rise in Femal e Labor ForceParti ci pati on Rates:Questi ons and Probes' , loumal uf Lohr Econo,nrcs3(I),part 2, pp. 51174146M ncer, (1962), Labor Force Parti cipati on of Mar r i ed Women' , n HG. ew s(ed.), spects of L o l w Ecmiomics, Nati onal Bureau o Economc Research,Pri nceton Uni versi ty, Pri ncetonNJ.- 1993), Studies i n Lnboour Supply: Col l ected Essays of lacoh Mincer, vol . 2,Edward El gar, London.Nye, F. 1, nd L . W of f man eds)(1963). The Employed Mother in America,RandMcNal l p,Chi cago.Peek, P. (1978), ' Faml y Composi t i on and Marri ed Femal e Empl oyment: TheCase of Chi l e' , n Standi ng and Sherhan (eds)(1978a). pp. 51-74.Pecht,W 1478), ' Partxi pati onof Mar r i ed Women in the Urban Labor Marketin Sel ected Lati n Ameri can Countri es. Chi l e, Costa Ri m Venezuela', inSt andmg and Sheehan (eds) (1978a), pp 27-50.

Psacharopoul us,G (1975), Earnrngs md Educati on ~n OECDCountries,OECD,Pari s- 1977), ' School i ng. Experi ence and Earni ngs. The Case of Devel opi ngCountri es' , lournnl of Devclopmmt Economics4,pp 3948Psacharopoulu,, G I ndZ Trannatos (1989), Femal e Labor Force Parti cipation.An Internati onal Perspecti ve' , World R m k esearch 01,seruer4(2),pp. 187-zu2Sheehan, G. (1978). ' Labor Force Part i ci pati on in Papua Ne w Gui nea' , inStandi ng and Sheehan (eds) (1978a), pp. 23546.Si nha,J . N.1967). ' Dynamcso Femal e Parti ci pati on in Economc Activi ty in aDevel opi ng Economy' , inPracrcdings ofthe Worl d Populatton Conference1965,vol . 4,Uni ted Nati ons, NewYork, pp 33&7.Sobol , M.G.1963), ' Commt ment to Work' , in Nye and Hof f man (eds) (1963),pp. 40-63.




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120 Diah WidartiSorkin, A L.(1974), Edecntion, U?ternploymcnt nd Economic Growth, LexingtonStanding,G. 1978). ibor Force Portripohon and Development, LO, eneva.Standing, G I nd G. heehan (eds) (197%). Lnbor Force Particqiotion in LorStanding,GI nd G. heehan (1978b), Labor orce Participationm Sri Lanka, inSwcet, .A. 1973).Wonrril 1 1 1 tlv Lobor Force,Seminar Press, N e w York.Youssef, N.H (1976). Woiiicri orid Mork in Dewlopiny Societm, PopulationMonngaph Series no. 5,University of California, Instituteof International

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