development across the life span

PSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGYAN EXPLORATIONAN EXPLORATION

PSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGYAN EXPLORATIONAN EXPLORATION

CHAPTER

Second EditionSecond Edition

Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White

development across the life span

7


why study human development?Beginning to understand how we come to be the people we are is a critical step in understanding ourselves as we are today and who we may become as we grow older. From the moment of conception, each of us is headed down a pathway of change, influenced by our biology, environment, and social interactions, to a final destination that is the same for all of us. The twists and turns of the pathway are what make each of us unique individuals. In this chapter, we'll look at the influences that help determine our developmental pathway through life.


Learning Objective Menu

• LO 7.1Special research methods used to study development• LO 7.2Relationship between heredity and environmental factors• LO 7.3Chromosomes, genes, DNA and multiple births• LO 7.4Germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods of pregnancy• LO 7.5Physical changes in infancy and childhood• LO 7.6Looking at cognitive development and how language develo

ps• LO 7.7Developing personalities, forming relationships and Erikson’

s first four stages of psychosocial development• LO 7.8How adolescents develop formal operation, moral thinking a

nd adolescent’s search for identity


Learning Objective Menu

• LO 7.9Physical and cognitive changes during adulthood and aging• LO 7.10Theories of why aging occurs and stages of death and dyin

g• LO 7.11How attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder affects adults


Developmental Research Designs

• Human development – Scientific study of the changes in people – Covers aging from conception until

death

• Longitudinal design– Participant or group of participants is

studied over time

LO 7.1 Special research methods used to study development


Developmental Research Designs

• Cross-sectional design – Different age groups of participants are

studied at one particular point in time

• Cross-sequential design– Participants are first studied by cross-

sectional design – Followed and assessed for a period up to

six years

LO 7.1 Special research methods used to study development


Table 7.1 A Comparison of Three Developmental Research Designs


Nature versus Nurture

• Nature – Influence of inherited characteristics on

personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions

• Nurture – Influence of the environment on

personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions

LO 7.2 Relationship between heredity and environmental factors


Nature versus Nurture

• Behavioral genetics– Attempts to assess impact of genetics

and environment

LO 7.2 Relationship between heredity and environmental factors


Genetics and Development

• Genetics – The science of heredity

• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)– Basic building blocks of life– Gene

Instructions Are sections of DNA

LO 7.3 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births



• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)– Dominant

Gene actively controls the expression of a trait

Example: Huntington’s and Marfan’s disorders




• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)– Recessive

Trait is expressed when passed from both parents

Example: Tays-Sachs disorder and Phenylketonuria (PKU)



Figure 7.1 DNA MoleculeIn this model of a DNA molecule, the two strands making up the sides of the “twisted ladder” are composed of sugars and phosphates. The “rungs” of the ladder that link the two strands are amines. Amines contain the genetic codes for building the proteins that make up organic life.


Chromosomes

• Rod-shaped structures found in the nucleus of each cell

• Are tightly wound strands of genes• Egg and sperm carry 23 chromosomes

each• Missing or extra chromosome can cause

mild to severe problems in development



Down syndrome is a form of developmental delay caused by an extra chromosome 21.


Chromosome Disorders

• Down Syndrome– Extra chromosome in twenty-first pair– Symptoms include almond-shaped,

wide-set eyes, intellectual disability




• Klinefelter’s Syndrome– Extra sex chromosome in the twenty-

third pair– XXY– Extra X produces male with reduced

masculine characteristics, enlarged breasts, obesity




• Turner’s Syndrome– Twenty-third pair is missing an X– Very short, infertile, and sexually

underdeveloped



Figure 7.2 Dominant and Recessive Genes and PKUThis figure shows the variation of parents carrying one or two recessive genes and the result of this in their offspring. (a) If only one parent carries the PKU gene, their children might be carriers, but will not have PKU.


Figure 7.2 (continued) Dominant and Recessive Genes and PKUThis figure shows the variation of parents carrying one or two recessive genes and the result of this in their offspring. (b) Only if both parents are carriers of PKU will a child have the 1 in 4 possibility of having PKU.


Prenatal Development

• Ovum – Female sex cell or egg

• Fertilization – Union of the ovum and sperm



Prenatal Development

• Zygote – Cell resulting from the uniting of ovum

and sperm

• Mitosis– Separation of chromosomes, DNA

duplication



Conception and Twins

• Monozygotic twins – Identical twins – Zygote splits into two separate masses

of cells – Each cell develops into separate embryo



Conception and Twins

• Dizygotic twins – Fraternal twins– Two eggs fertilized by two different

sperm– Two zygotes in the uterus at the same

time



Figure 7.3 Monozygotic and Dizygotic TwinsBecause identical twins come from one fertilized egg (zygote), they are called monozygotic. Fraternal twins, who come from two different fertilized eggs, are called dizygotic.


Abby and Brittany Hensel

• Conjoined twins• Each have own heart, stomach and pair

of lungs• Each controls one arm and one leg on

one side of the body• Every action they undertake is a

miracle of coordination



Abby and Brittany Hensel are conjoined twins who share one body from the waist down but are two distinctly different individuals.


Periods of Pregnancy

• Germinal period – First two weeks after fertilization– Zygote implants in the lining of the

uterus– Stem cells

Stay in immature state until needed to produce more cells

LO 7.4 Germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods of pregnancy


The three periods of pregnancy are the germinal period, lasting about two weeks, the embryonic period, from about two to eight weeks, and fetal period, which lasts from eight weeks until the end of pregnancy.



• Embryonic period – Two to eight weeks after fertilization– Major organs and structures of organism

develop– Critical periods

Environmental influences can impact development

– Teratogen Any factor that can cause a birth defect




• Embryonic period – Physical / structural problems can occur

with the central nervous system, eyes, teeth and roof of the mouth



Table 7.2 Common Teratogens



• Fetal period – Eight weeks after conception until the

birth of the child– Organs continue to develop and become

functional– Baby is born after 38 weeks



Miscarriage

• Usually occurs in the first three months– Organs are forming, becoming

functional

• 15 to 20 percent of all pregnancies end in miscarriage

• Most likely caused by a genetic defect



This pregnant woman is getting a sonogram. Sonograms allow doctors to see any physical deformities and make accurate measurements of gestational age without risk to the mother or the fetus.


Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood

• Reflexes – Innate (existing from birth) involuntary

behavior patterns– Include sucking, rooting, Moro (startle),

grasping, Babinski.

• Taste and touch are well developed at birth

LO 7.5 Physical changes in infancy and childhood


Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood

• Vision– Rods are fairly well developed at birth– Cones take another six months

• Gross and fine motor skills develop at a fast pace during infancy and early childhood

• By age one, infant has tripled in weight

LO 7.5 Physical changes in infancy and childhood


Figure 7.4 Five Infant ReflexesShown here are (a) grasping reflex; (b) startle reflex (also known as the Moro reflex); (c) rooting reflex (when you touch a baby's cheek it will turn toward your hand, open its mouth, and search for the nipple);


Figure 7.4 (continued) Five Infant Reflexes(d) stepping reflex; and (e) sucking reflex. These infant reflexes can be used to check the health of an infant's nervous system. If a reflex is absent or abnormal, it may indicate brain damage or some other neurological problem.


Figure 7.5 Six Motor MilestonesShown here are (a) raising head and chest—2 to 4 months, (b) rolling over—2 to 5 months, (c) sitting up with support—4 to 6 months.


Figure 7.5 (continued) Six Motor MilestonesShown here are (d) sitting up without support—6 to 7 months, (e) crawling—7 to 8 months, and (f) walking—8 to 18 months. The motor milestones develop as the infant gains greater voluntary control over the muscles in its body, typically from the top of the body downward. This pattern is seen in the early control of the neck muscles and the much later development of control of the legs and feet.


Cognitive Development

• Development of thinking, problem- solving, and memory

• Scheme– Mental concept formed through

experiences with objects and events

LO 7.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops


Piaget’s Stage Theory

• Children process new experiences through two processes

• Assimilation– Children first try to understand new

things in terms of schemes they already possess

• Accommodation– Altering or adjusting old schemes to fit

new information and experiences




• Sensorimotor stage – Piaget’s first stage of cognitive

development – Infant uses senses and motor abilities to

interact with objects in the environment– Object permanence

The knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight




• Preoperational stage – Second stage of cognitive development– Child uses language as a means of

exploring the world Egocentrism

– Inability to see the world through anyone else’s eyes




• Preoperational stage – Child uses language as a means of

exploring the world Centration

– Child to focus only on one feature of object – Ignores other features

Conservation – Changing the appearance of an object

does not change the object’s nature




• Preoperational stage – Child uses language as a means of

exploring the world Irreversibility

– Inability to mentally reverse an action



Figure 7.6 Conservation ExperimentA typical conservation task consists of pouring equal amounts of water into two glasses of the same size and shape. When the water from one of these glasses is poured into a taller, narrower glass, children who cannot yet conserve tend to focus (centrate) on the height of the water in the second glass, assuming that the second glass now has more water than the first one. In the second example, pennies are laid out in two equal lines. When the pennies in the top line are spaced out, the child who cannot yet conserve will centrate on the top line and assume that there are actually more pennies in that line.



• Concrete operations – Ages 7-12– Capable of conservation and reversible

thinking– Begins to think more logically about

beliefs – Concrete concepts

Are about objects, written rules, and real things




• Formal operations – Ages 12-adult– Adolescent becomes capable of abstract

thinking– Only 35 percent of all college students

reach formal operations



Table 7.3 Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development


Vygotsky’s Theory

• Scaffolding – Skilled learner gives help to a less

skilled learner– Reducing the amount of help as the less

skilled learner becomes more capable

• Zone of proximal development (ZPD) – Difference between what a child can do

alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher



This boy is helping his younger sister learn to read a book. Vygotsky's view of cognitive development states that the help of skilled others aids in making cognitive advances such as this one.


Language Development

• Chomsky– LAD (language acquisition device)

Innate “program” that contained a schema for human language

Child matches language heard against this schema

• Child-directed speech– Higher pitched, repetitious, sing-song

speech patterns



Stages of Language Development

• Cooing• Babbling• One-word speech (holophrases)• Telegraphic speech• Whole sentences



This infant has already learned some of the basics of language, including the use of gestures to indicate meaning and enhance communication.


Autism Spectrum Disorder

• Causes problems in thinking, feeling, language, social skills used to relate to others

• Studies consistently fail to show link between MMR vaccine and autism



One of the most important things parents can do for the continued health and safety of their infant is to have the baby immunized, following an approved schedule for each type of vaccine. Immunizations today are safe and effective and prevent dangerous and often deadly childhood diseases, such as rubella.


Temperament

• Behavioral characteristics that are fairly well established at birth– Easy

Regular, adaptable, and happy

– Difficult Irregular in schedule, unhappy with

change, loud

– Slow-to-warm up Quieter, need to adjust gradually to

change

LO 7.7 Developing personalities, forming relationships and Erikson’s first four stages of psychosocial development


Attachment

• An emotional bond between an infant and caregiver– Secure

Willing to explore, upset when mother departs but easily soothed upon her return

– Avoidant Unattached; explore without “touching

base”



Attachment

• An emotional bond between an infant and caregiver– Ambivalent

Insecurely attached; upset when mother leaves, angry upon her return

– Disorganized-disoriented Insecure attachment, fearful, dazed,

depressed



This toddler shows reluctance to explore her environment, instead clinging to her father's leg. Such clinging behavior, if common, can be a sign of an ambivalent attachment.


Harlow and Contact Comfort

• Regardless of which surrogate was feeding, monkeys spent more time with soft, cloth-covered surrogate

• Demonstrated importance of contact comfort in attachment



The wire surrogate “mother” provides the food for this infant Rhesus monkey. But the infant spends all its time with the soft, cloth-covered surrogate. According to Harlow, this demonstrates the importance of contact comfort in attachment.


Erikson’s Theory

• Trained as a Freudian psychoanalyst • Felt social interactions were more

important in development • Dismissed Freud’s emphasis on sexual

development• Focused infant and child’s relationship

to significant others in the immediate surroundings—parents and then later teachers and even peers



Table 7.4 Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development


Table 7.4 (continued) Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development


Gender Role Development

• Gender – Behavior associated with being male or

female

• Gender roles – Culture’s expectations for behavior

associated with a particular gender



Gender Role Development

• Gender identity – Perception of one’s gender – Behavior that is associated with that

gender



Theories of Gender Role Development

• Social learning theory – Attributes gender role development to

observation and imitation of models

• Gender schema theory – Combines social learning with cognitive

development



Puberty and Adolescence

• Adolescence – The period of life from about age 13 to

the early twenties– Person is no longer physically a child – Not yet an independent, self-supporting

adult

LO 7.8 How adolescents develop formal operation, moral thinking andadolescent’s search for identity


Puberty and Adolescence

• Puberty – Physical changes in body – Sexual development reaches its peak– Lasts roughly four years



Egocentric Thinking

• Personal fable – Adolescent believes he/she is unique – Protected from harm

• Imaginary audience – Adolescent believes others are just as

concerned about his/her thoughts and characteristics as much as they, themselves, are



Development of Morality

• Preconventional morality – First level of Kohlberg’s stages – Child’s behavior is governed by the

consequences of the behavior

• Conventional morality – Second level of Kohlberg’s stages – Behavior is governed by conforming to

the society’s norms of behavior



Development of Morality

• Postconventional morality– Third level of Kohlberg’s stages – Behavior is governed by moral principles

decided on by the individual – May be in disagreement with accepted

social norms



Figure 8.8 Example of a Moral DilemmaSource: Kohlberg, 1969, p. 379.


Table 7.5 Kohlberg's Three Levels of Morality


Erikson’s Identity Versus Role Confusion

• Adolescent must choose from among options for values in life and beliefs – Political issues, career options, marriage

• Develops a consistent sense of self



Actresses Lindsay Lohan, Amanda Seyfried, Lacey Chabert, and Rachel McAdams on the set of Mark S. Waters’scomedy movie Mean Girls. This movie portrays the ins and outs of peer pressure and the desire to fit in that many adolescents face.


Adulthood

• Begins in early twenties• Stages include young adulthood, middle

adulthood, and late adulthood– Climacteric

Physical decline in the reproductive system of women

Ends at about age 50

LO 7.9 Physical and cognitive changes during adulthood and aging


Adulthood

• Stages include young adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood– Menopause

Cessation of ovulation and menstrual cycles

End of woman’s reproductive capability

– Andropause Gradual change in sexual hormones,

reproductive system of males



Adulthood

• Increase in health problems, decrease in reaction time for both sexes




• Intellectual abilities do not decline noticeably

• Speed of processing (reaction time) does slow




• Memory– Issues noted in middle age– Difficulty in retrieval

Most likely caused by stress and amount of information middle years adult must try to keep straight

– Mental challenges and social activities reduce the likelihood of decline



This middle-aged woman works on a crossword puzzle. Mental exercises such as this are one way to keep the brain healthy and fit. What might be some other ways to exercise one’s brain?


Psychosocial Development

• Intimacy – Emotional and psychological closeness – Based on ability to trust, share– Still maintain a sense of self

• Generativity – Providing guidance to the next

generation– Contributing through career or volunteer

work



Psychosocial Development

• Integrity – Sense of wholeness – Comes from having lived a full life – Ability to let go of regrets– Final completion of the ego



Parenting Styles

• Authoritarian – Concerned with rules– Stern, rigid, demanding

• Permissive – Few demands on children

Permissive neglectful Permissive indulgent



Parenting Styles

• Authoritative – Firm limits with love, warmth, affection,

respect – Willing to listen to child’s point of view



Table 7.6 Erikson's Psychosocial Adolescent and Adult Stages


Theories of Aging

• Cellular clock theory– Cells only have so many times that they

can reproduce– Limit reached, damaged cells

accumulate

• Wear-and-tear theory – Repeated use and abuse of body’s

tissues – Unable to repair all the damage

LO 7.10 Theories of why aging occurs and stages of death


Theories of Aging

• Free radical theory – Oxygen molecules with an unstable

electron move around the cell– Damages cell structures as they go



Stages of Death and Dying

• Elizabeth Kubler-Ross– Based on interviews conducted with

dying

• Five Stages:– Denial– Anger– Bargaining– Depression– Acceptance



One way to age successfully and maintain psychological health is to remain active and involved in life. This woman is volunteering in a grade school classroom as a teacher's aide. This not only allows her to feel useful but also helps her to stay mentally alert and socially involved.


Cross Cultural Views on Death

• Hinduism – Dead’s soul reincarnated at higher or

lower level of status– Depends on how person lived his or her

life

• Northern Cheyenne tribe– Death considered only the end of the

physical body– Self and one’s Cheyenne nature persist

LO 7.11 How attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder affects adults

development across the life span

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