development and validation of a safety and health
TRANSCRIPT
DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF A SAFETY AND HEALTH
PERFORMANCE MODEL FOR LOW COST HOUSING
AZUIN BINTI RAMLI
A thesis submitted in
fulfilment of the requirement for the award of
the Doctor of Philosophy
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM)
DISEMBER 2014
ABSTRACT
Sustainable building and construction practices in Malaysia are primarily
aimed at improving the safety and health performance of buildings while minimizing
its impact on resources and the natural environment. Thus, a comprehensive
understanding of the factors that contribute to safety and health performance of our
built environment is essential. The aim of this study is to develop a building safety
and health performance (BSHP) model, focusing on the safety and health
performance factors of low cost housing in Malaysia. These factors include the
architecture, building services, external environment, operation and maintenance,
and management approaches. The influence of these factors on perceived personal
responsibility towards adopting a BSHP model for low-cost housing in Malaysia was
also studied. This study was undertaken in two stages. Firstly, literature on existing
safety and health practices related to low-cost housing and facilities were reviewed to
identify factors that influence health and safety performance. Quantitative data were
gathered to assess the suitability of the factors based on experts judgement and
survey. Data obtained were statistically examined using the exploratory factor
analysis (EFA) and the proposed model was identified. Secondly, quantitative data
were gathered through a main survey involving 308 respondents to test the research
model validity and the proposed hypothesis using the Partial Least Squares (PLS)
tool. Results reveal that the five identified constructs have a direct positive effect on
safety and health performance, as well as perceived personal responsibility.
Furthermore, perceived personal responsibility (β = 0.563) towards safety and health
performance has the highest beta value, followed by building services (β = 0.212),
architecture (β = 0.155), operation and maintenance (β = 0.128), management
approaches (β = 0.124), and external environment (β = 0.117). In testing the validity
of models, results found BSHP model had a good model fit with R2 of 0.342 and in
line with experts validation results. The BSHP model can inform the public of the
relative risks regarding the safety and health of low cost housing. It can also help
building owners, developers, and government bodies to develop more informed and
socially responsible decisions to improve building safety and health performance.
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ABSTRAK
Rekabentuk dan amalan pembinaan yang mampan di Malaysia adalah
bertujuan untuk meningkatkan prestasi keselamatan dan kesihatan bangunan di
samping meminimumkan kesannya terhadap sumber dan alam semula jadi. Oleh itu,
pemahaman yang menyeluruh terhadap faktor-faktor yang menyumbang kepada
keselamatan dan prestasi kesihatan bangunan adalah penting. Kajian ini bermatlamat
untuk membangunkan model prestasi keselamatan dan kesihatan bangunan (BSHP),
di mana memberi tumpuan kepada faktor yang menyumbang kepada prestasi
keselamatan dan kesihatan khusus bagi perumahan kos rendah di Malaysia. Faktor-
faktor ini termasuk seni bina, perkhidmatan bangunan, persekitaran luar, operasi dan
penyelenggaraan, dan pendekatan pengurusan. Pengaruh faktor tanggungjawab
peribadi ke arah mengamalkan model BSHP khusus bagi perumahan kos rendah di
Malaysia juga dikaji. Kajian dijalankan dalam dua fasa. Pertama, kajian terdahulu
mengenai amalan keselamatan dan kesihatan yang sedia ada berkaitan dengan
perumahan kos rendah dan kemudahannya telah dikaji untuk mengenal pasti faktor-
faktor yang mempengaruhi kesihatan dan prestasi keselamatan bangunan. Data
kuantitatif dikumpul untuk menilai kesesuaian faktor berdasarkan penghakiman dari
pakar dan soal selidik. Data soal selidik telah dianalisis menggunakan exploratory
factor analysis (EFA) dan cadangan model telah dikenalpasti. Kedua, data kuantitatif
dijalankan melalui kajian soal selidik utama yang melibatkan 308 responden untuk
menguji model kajian dan hipotesis yang dicadangkan menggunakan alat kajian
Partial Least Squares (PLS). Keputusan mendapati lima faktor telah dikenal pasti
mempunyai kesan positif secara langsung kepada keselamatan dan prestasi kesihatan
bangunan, serta faktor kesedaran tanggungjawab individu. Tambahan pula,
kesedaran tanggungjawab individu (β=0.563) terhadap prestasi keselamatan dan
kesihatan mempunyai nilai beta yang tertinggi, diikuti perkhidmatan bangunan
(β=0.212), senibina (β=0.155), operasi dan penyelenggaraan (β=0.128), pendekatan
pengurusan (β=0.124) dan persekitaran luaran (β=0.117). Dalam ujian relevan
ramalan model, model BSHP mempunyai nilai model patut baik R2 dengan angkali
0.342 dan selari dengan pengesahan daripada pakar. Model BSHP akan memberi
maklumat kepada orang ramai mengenai risiko keselamatan dan kesihatan
perumahan kos rendah. Ia juga membantu pemilik bangunan, pemaju, dan badan-
badan kerajaan untuk membuat keputusan yang lebih tepat dan bertanggungjawab
untuk meningkatkan prestasi keselamatan dan kesihatan bangunan.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE i
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF FIGURES xiv
LIST OF APPENDICES xvi
CHAPTER 1 1
INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Research Background 1
1.2 Problem Statement 3
1.3 Research Questions and Hypotheses 5
1.4 Research Objectives 8
1.5 Research Scope 8
1.6 Structure of Thesis 10
CHAPTER 2 12
LITERATURE REVIEW 12
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2.1 Introduction 12
2.2 The Concept of Safety and Health Performance 13
2.3 Low-Cost Housing in Malaysia 15
2.4 Issues of Building Safety and Health Performance in
Malaysia 17
2.5 Assessment of Building Performance 27
2.6 Safety and Health Performance Metrics Literature 36
2.7 Building Safety and Health Performance Modelling
Framework 43
2.8 Model Validation 47
2.8.1 Exploratory Factor Analysis 49
2.8.2 Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) 50
2.9 Research Gap in the Building Safety and Health
Performance Modelling Framework 54
2.10 Research Gap in Structural Equation Modelling 56
2.11 Summary 57
CHAPTER 3 58
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 58
3.1 Introduction 58
3.2 Research Design 59
3.3 Questionnaire Design 63
3.4 Sample Design 64
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3.4.1 Defining the Population 65
3.4.2 Specify the Sampling Frame 66
3.4.3 Select a Sampling Procedure 66
3.4.4 Determining the Sample Size 67
3.5 Method of Data Collection 70
3.5.1 Literature Search 70
3.5.2 Experts judgment 71
3.5.3 Survey 73
3.6 Method of Data Analysis 76
3.6.1 Descriptive statistics 76
3.6.2 Exploratory Factor Analysis 77
3.6.3 Partial Least Squares – Structural Equation
Modelling 79
3.6.4 Rationale using PLS-SEM 84
3.7 Summary 86
CHAPTER 4 87
IDENTIFICATION SURVEY 87
4.0 Introduction 87
4.1 Scale Purification by Expert Judgement 88
4.2 Scale Simplification 90
4.2.1 Sample Characteristics 90
4.2.2 Exploratory Factor Analysis 94
4.2.3 Descriptive and Reliability Assessment 108
4.3 Specifying Models and Hypotheses 113
4.4 Summary 116
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CHAPTER 5 117
MODEL VALIDATION 117
5.0 Introduction 117
5.1 Sample Characteristics 118
5.1.1 Type of Organization 119
5.1.2 Category of Organization 120
5.1.3 Type of Project 120
5.1.4 Years in Service 121
5.2 Initial Data Examination and Data Preparation 122
5.3 Assessment of Measurement Model (PLS-SEM) 126
5.3.1 Convergent Validity 127
5.3.2 Discriminant Validity 130
5.4 Assessment of Structural Model 132
5.4.1 Coefficient of Determination 132
5.4.2 Path coefficients and hypothesis testing 133
5.4.3 Predictive Relevance 136
5.5 Expert Judgment Validation 138
5.6 Discussion on The Findings Under Each Specific Research
Question 139
5.7 Building Safety and Health Performance Model (BSHP) 145
5.8 Summary 150
CHAPTER 6 150
CONCLUSION 151
6.1 Introduction 151
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6.2 Limitations and Further Research 152
6.3 Contribution of Research 153
6.4 Summary 157
REFERENCES 158
APPENDICES 167
LIST OF TABLES
2. 1 Development of building/facility maintenance aspects 19
2. 2 Development of building/facility maintenance aspects 20
2. 3 Fire in Malaysia, 2010-2011 21
2. 4 Performance failure of low-cost housing reported from 2008 to 2013 22
2.5 Performance failure of low-cost housing reported from
2008 to 2013 23
2. 6 Large scale failures from 2004 to 2011 26
2. 7 Comparison of the features of different schemes 29
2. 8 Focus of papers on safety and health 37
2. 9 Building safety and health performance factors 44
2. 10 Building safety and health performance factors 45
2.11 The use of PLS-SEM approach in construction research 56
3.1 Variables used in the present research 63
3.2 Group of target population 67
3.3 Sample size table 68
3.4 Required sample sizes for structural model fitting in SEM 69
3.5 Demographic information of the respondents involved
content validation process 72
3.6 Demographic information of the respondents involved in
validation process of the model results 73
3.7 Methods and results of data collection 76
3.8 Groups as defined for exploratory factor analysis (EFA) 77
3.9 Indicators and threshold values for EFA 79
3.10 Measures and threshold values for assessment of outer model 82
3.11 Measures and threshold values for assessment of inner model 84
4.1 Number of items before and after expert judgement 89
4.2 Presence of substantial correlations 95
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4.3 Sampling adequacy of individual variables 96
4.4 KMO and Bartlett’s test for architecture constructs 96
4.5 The rotated component matrix for architecture constructs 97
4.6 Communality satisfactory for all variables 98
4.7 Presence of substantial correlations 98
4.8 Sampling adequacy of individual variables 99
4.9 KMO and Bartlett’s test for building services (BS) constructs 99
4.10 The rotated component matrix for building services variables 100
4.11 Communality satisfactory for all variables 101
4.12 Presence of substantial correlations 101
4.13 KMO and Bartlett’s test for external environment (EX) and
operation and maintenance (OM) constructs 102
4.14 Sampling adequacy of individual variables 102
4.15 The rotated component matrix for external environment (EX)
and operation & maintenance (OM) constructs 103
4.16 Communality satisfactory for all variables 104
4.17 Presence of substantial correlations 105
4.18 KMO and Bartlett’s test for management approaches (MA),
perceived personal responsibility (PR) and
performance (PF) constructs 105
4.19 Sampling adequacy of individual variables 106
4.20 The rotated component matrix for management
approaches (MA), perceived personal responsibility (PR)
and performance (PF) constructs 107
4.21 Communality satisfactory for all variables 107
4.22 Items dropped based on exploratory factor analysis (EFA) 108
4.23 Results of descriptive analysis of building design items 110
4.24 Results of descriptive analysis of building management items 111
4.25 Results of descriptive analysis of perceived personal
responsibility items 111
4.26 Results of descriptive analysis of performance items 111
4.27 Results of internal consistency reliability values 112
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5.1 Sample distribution by gender 119
5.2 Sample distribution by type of organization 119
5.3 Descriptions for type of organization ‘Other’ 119
5.4 Sample distribution by category of organization 120
5.5 Sample distribution by type of project 121
5.6 Project description under ‘Others’ 121
5.7 Sample distribution by years in service 122
5.8 Descriptions under ‘Others’ 122
5.9 Missing data by case 124
5.10 Means and 5% trimmed means for outliers 125
5.11 Results of convergent validity 129
5.12 Discriminant validity of constructs 130
5.13 Discriminant validity of indicators 131
5.14 Variance accounted for R2 of dependent variables 132
5.15 Results of path coefficients 134
5.16 Hypotheses confirmation results 135
5.17 Predictive relevance values 137
5.18 Results of validation process of the model results 138
LIST OF FIGURES
1.1 Scope of research 9
2.1 Framework for health and comfort 14
2.2 PPRS Sri Pantai Kuala Lumpur 16
2.3 Plan of 18 storey flats under PHP programmes 17
2.4 Buildings fire in Malaysia 21
2.5 Landslide cases based on land use 25
2.6 The hierarchy of quality features in the BQA modelling framework 30
2.7 The SHP assessment modelling framework 31
2.8 HPEM hierarchy 33
2.9 The structure of HK-BEAM 34
2.10 Contributing factors to a safe building 35
2.11 Contributing factors to a healthy building 36
2.12 Building safety and health modelling framework 46
2.13 Types of validity 47
2.14 Formative and reflective indicator of outer model 51
2.15 Path diagram 54
3.1 Research design 60
3.2 Procedure for Developing Measurement Scales 61
3.3 Procedure for drawing a sample 65
3.4 Method of data collection 70
3.5 Questionnaire delivery process 74
3.6 Questionnaire equipped with stamp 75
3.7 Data analysis design 80
4.1 The structure of Chapter 4 88
4.2 Respondent gender 90
4.3 Composition of the respondents by profession 91
4.4 Organization category 92
4.5 Type of project undertaken among respondents 93
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4.6 Distribution of the number of years of services among respondents 94
4.7 Scree plot for architecture constructs 97
4.8 Scree plot for building services constructs 100
4.9 Scree plot for external environment (EX) and operation
& maintenance (OM) constructs 103
4.10 Scree plot for management approaches (MA),
perceived personal responsibility (PR) and performance (PF) 106
4.11 Initial research model 113
5.1 The structure of Chapter 5 118
5.2 Measurement model results 126
5.3 Results of the structural analysis 133
5.4 Objectives and research questions 139
5.5 Building Safety and Health Performance Model (BSHP) 149
6.1 Research contribution of this study 156
LIST OF APPENDICES
A Expert Survey Instrument In Model Development 174
B Questionnaire For Identification Survey 177
C Questionnaire For Main Survey 182
D Cover Letter For Data Collection By Mail 188
E Cover Letter For Data Collection By Email 189
F Web Survey Instrument 190
G Expert Survey Instrument In Model Validation 198
H Input Data Used in Identification Survey 200
I Input Data Used In PLS-SEM Analysis 207
J Journal and Conference Publications 238
K Vita 240
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Research Background
Sustainable development is fast emerging as one of the main priorities of the
construction industry in Malaysia. It has a complex relationship with the quality of
housing – quality of housing has huge impacts on the economic, social and
environmental dimensions of sustainable development (Said et al., 2009). There is a
need for a sustainable strategy for housing development in Malaysia, especially in
the National Housing Policy (NHP), as the country aspires to become a developed
nation by the year 2020. Under this policy, Malaysians of all income levels,
particularly the low-income group, would have accessibility to adequate, affordable
and quality shelter (Idrus & Siong, 2008; Sufian & Mohamad, 2009; Ubale, Martin,
& Wee, 2012)
The government’s commitment towards the provision of low-cost housing is
evident from the announcements made by its leaders and from the government’s
annual budgets and development plans since the First Malaysia Plan (1966–1970).
The involvement of the private sector began during the Second Malaysia Plan (1971–
1975) when the government realized the importance of the role of the private sector
in ensuring an adequate supply of low cost housing for the country (Ubale et al.,
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2012). Under the Seventh (1996-2000) and Eighth Malaysia Plan (2001-2005), the
Malaysian government was even more committed to providing adequate, affordable
and quality housing for all Malaysians, particularly the low income group (Shuid
2009, 2010). Consequently, a total of RM4.2 billion was allocated for low-cost
public housing during the Eighth Malaysia Plan (2001-2005) and RM9.4 billion
during the Ninth Malaysia Plan (2006-2010). This effort continued in the Tenth
Malaysia Plan (2011-2015) when the Government pledged to provide 78,000 units of
affordable housing specially for the low income group. A fund of RM500 million
was also allocated for the repair and maintenance works of public and private low-
cost housing (Shuid, 2010).
During the period of rapid economic growth in the 1990s, the public and
private sectors actively built low-cost houses and almost achieved the total number
of unit targeted. Programmes such as the Public Low-Cost Housing Project (PLCHP)
and the Public Housing Program (PHP) were implemented in order to meet the needs
of a rapidly growing population in the urban areas (Ministry Of Housing and Local
Government of Malaysia, 2009). In this regard, Ubale et al., (2012) suggested that
affordable housing for the low income group must be viewed as an integral part of an
integrated housing and community development, and its provision must take into
account various elements such as the government’s role as the facilitator; building
design and construction methods; physical environmental elements and comfort
levels; health, safety and security measures; long term maintenance requirements;
replaceability of structural components; statement layout and infrastructure; and
appropriate materials.
However, as low-cost housing remains to be seen primarily as a
government’s responsibility and a loss-making venture, it is unlikely for developers
to consider quality and performance in their low-cost housing projects (Zaid &
Graham, 2011; Bajunid & Ghazali, 2012). Indeed, studies like Abidin (2009) have
recognized factors that impede the implementation of sustainable practices. They are
a lack of legislation and enforcement; a lack of knowledge and awareness; and a
passive industry culture. These factors in turn lead to other problems such as
dilapidation, poor provision of services, bad location and others (Omar, 2008; Zainal
et al., 2012; Karim, 2012; Zain, 2012).
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In response to a growing awareness of building safety and health, a simple
and practical modelling framework to understanding of the factors that contribute to
safety and health performance of low cost housing has been proposed. Due to this
reason, the main purpose of this research is to define safety and health performance,
identify its dimensions and to inform the development of safety and health
measurement. Furthermore, the aim of such modelling framework is to provide an
objective indicator on building performance so that the indicator can be used as a
reference for construction practitioners and community building management.
1.2 Problem Statement
It is well known that the construction sector contributes enormously towards
Malaysia’s economic activity, employment and growth (Ministry of Housing and
Local Government of Malaysia, 2009). As population density increases, so does
demand for residential homes, especially for low-cost housing. The rate of
urbanisation in Malaysia has increased rapidly from 25% in 1960 to 72% in 2010
(Zainal et al., 2012). An assessment by the Administrative Districts, Malaysia (2010)
showed that population density in Kuala Lumpur in 2010 was 7,089 per unit of land
area (Administrative Districts, Malaysia, 2010). As a result, demand for affordable
housing in the cities has increased, causing an acute shortage of affordable housing.
Since the Third Malaysia Plan, the number of completed low-cost housing projects
has not achieved its target (Shuid, 2009; Bajunid & Ghazali, 2012). In fact, during
the Eighth Malaysia Plan, the total number of low-cost housing completed was
197,649 units compared to 230,000 units needed (Ministry of Housing and Local
Government of Malaysia, 2009). Many private developers were engaged to meet the
housing need. However, these developers built the low-cost houses purely out of
quota requirements as they are unprofitable ventures. Consequently, occupants of
low-cost housing are constantly faced with many problems such as sub-standard
quality, maintenance, comfort levels, health, safety and security services (Zaid &
Graham, 2011; Bajunid & Ghazali, 2012).
In the context of low-cost housing construction in Malaysia, the Construction
Industry Development Board (CIDB) Industry has introduced Construction Industry
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Standard 1 (CIS 1:1998) and Construction Industry Standard 2 (CIS 2:1998) – these
are standards that specify the minimum design and planning requirements for low-
cost houses in Malaysia (Sufian & Ibrahim, 2011). Despite the enforcement of these
regulatory measures, safety and health problems persist in many low-cost housing
projects. Even public low-cost housing is not excluded from these management
problems. Unsatisfactory housing conditions and the reluctance of property managers
to carry out safety and health inspections are evident from the large number of
complaints and reports (Karim, 2012; Husin et al., 2012; Fire & Rescue Department
Malaysia, 2012). A study conducted by Karim (2012) on low-cost housing quality in
Shah Alam, Malaysia found that the performance of low-cost housing is affected by
various issues such as quality of construction materials and sanitary system,
provision of facilities and maintenance, location, and social problems. Similarly,
Omar (2008) identified that the root causes leading to poor housing quality are
related to housing layout and design, the surrounding environment, the level of
maintenance, location, provision of amenities and the quality of building materials.
Poor housing conditions cause structural deterioration, falling building fragments,
fire and other safety hazards and various health problems (Keall et al., 2010; Wong
et al., 2006).
Urban cities are typically crowded with high-rise buildings, many of which
are residential buildings. Apart from the constructed quality of these buildings and
their surrounding environmental quality, the quality of Facility Management (FM)
services such as repair and maintenance, cleaning, aesthetic value, safety, privacy
and amenities are among the problems and risks affecting their social health and the
environment (Omar, 2008; Isnin et al., 2012; Latfi, Karim, & Zahari, 2012). Another
study conducted by Zainal et al. (2012) also investigated the relationship between
housing conditions and the quality of life in low-cost housing in the Klang Valley.
They found that housing for the urban poor lacks in physical qualities such as design,
size and materials used and in other qualities such as location, landscape and
availability of public amenities and services. The performance of these facilities, in
effect, is influential to the health, safety and enjoyment of the residents.
From the findings of previous studies, it is expected that if enough
information on building safety and health is provided in the market, safer properties
would be highly beneficial for the country’s environment, economy and society. It is
worth investigating further on whether our buildings are sufficiently safe and healthy
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for their occupants and the general public. Therefore, modelling framework must be
developed to determine the safety and health indicators for new and existing building
with the focus on the prevention of safety and health problems (Akasah, Abdul &
Zuraidi, 2011; Akasah & Alias, 2009).
1.3 Research Questions and Hypotheses
In response to the issues highlighted above, in this section, we develop a list of
research questions, which guide the research. All of the proposed hypotheses are
used to evaluate our conceptual propositions with respect to the empirical data
collected. We seek answers to our research questions by analyzing the data by using
systematic and rigorous approaches that are specifically tailored for this study.
Research question 1: What factors are contributing to safety and health performance
of low-cost housing in Malaysia?
A review of the literature suggested that current design and practices of
Malaysia’s low-cost housing are skewed towards minimizing the environmental and
resource impacts and improving the safety, health, and productivity of a building's
occupants. Information on safety and health performance of our buildings are readily
available. For these reasons, this study does not pose the question of how buildings
affect human safety and health, rather it investigates the factors contributing to the
safety and health performance of a building. In order to answer research question 1,
the constructs of building safety and health are conceptualized based on a literature
review and quantitative (expert judgment). This approach is to widen the academic
and construction professionals’ perspective and to develop further knowledge on
building safety and health performance. Furthermore, building safety and health
modelling framework is developed in order to provide better understanding of the
factors that will be operationalised in this study. In addition, this research question
will address the completeness of the building safety and health performance (BSHP)
model by identifying relevant factors to be included in a model, and hence the first
hypothesis has been developed to support this endeavor. To seek answers to these
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questions, we have established and formalized our first hypothesis guided by our
research agenda.
Hypothesis 1: The factors identified in the literature potentially contributing to safety
and health performance of low-cost housing in Malaysia.
The second of research questions intend to operationalise the factors
(building safety and health performance constructs ) of the building safety and health
modelling framework. In addition, it aims to develop reliable and valid measurement
scales in order to develop a BSHP model for Malaysia’s low-cost housing. Content
validity, construct validity and reliability analysis of identification survey were
assessed in order to developed a significant measures in initial BSHP model for
Malaysia’s low-cost housing. Therefore, the initial BSHP model is highly important,
as it will be used for testing the validity of the BSHP model.
Research question 2: Are all existing building safety and health performance
constructs and attributes applicable in the BSHP model?
The second hypothesis relies on the argument that our constructs such as
architecture are related with the identified attributes that are potentially contributing
contributing to safety and health performance of low-cost housing in Malaysia. To
seek answers to these questions, we have established our second hypothesis:
Hypothesis 2: There is an observable relationship among the building safety and
health performance constructs (latent) and our attributes
(indicators) in the BSHP model?
The next group of research questions aim to rigorously validate the model by
examining the relationship between building safety and health performance
constructs. This includes two important research questions:
Research question 3: Are all building safety and health performances measures
significant in the BSHP model?
Research question 4: Is the BSHP model valid for measuring the safety and health
performance for low-cost housing in Malaysia?
This research question refers to the validation process of the BSHP model.
The model will be tested according to the guidelines for reflective construct
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validation in SmartPLS. In detail, a set of hypotheses has been developed from the
literature and based on existing theory, which has been conceptualised in a initial
model that proposes causal relationships of constructs (Please see Figure 4.11 on
page 115) . Furthermore, the structural model representing the hypothesised relations
between building safety and health performance constructs will be empirically tested
based on quantitative data. In addition to statistical analysis, the validity of the BSHP
model was tested by engineers, architects and building surveyor.
Hypothesis 3:
H1 = The factors means of escape, means of access, structural and finishes integrity,
building material, amenities, space functionality and fire resistant construction
have a positive influence on safety and health performance with conditions
related to architecture.
H2 = The factors electricity system, lighting, ventilation, air conditioning, plumbing,
sanitary services, fire services and lift services have a positive influence on
safety and health performance with conditions related to building services.
H3= The factors emergency services, external hazards, location, air quality, peaceful
environment and aesthetics have a positive influence on safety and health
performance with conditions related to external environment.
H4 = The factors building peripherals, structural and finishes integrity, building
services conditions, fire compartment integrity and security maintenance have
a positive influence on safety and health performance with conditions related to
operation and maintenance.
H5 =The factors emergency evacuation plan, documentation and evaluation, security
management, occupant safety management and waste and cleaning services
have a positive influence on safety and health performance with conditions
related to management approaches.
H6 = Safety and health performance is positively related to perceived personal
responsibility.
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1.4 Research Objectives
The aim of this research is to develop a BSHP model of low-cost housing in
Malaysia. In addition to these aims, the objectives of this study are:
i) To identify factors contributing to safety and health performance of low-cost
housing in Malaysia.
ii) To assess the significant factors that explain the determinants of the BSHP
model for Malaysia’s low-cost housing.
iii) To develop BSHP model for low-cost housing in Malaysia.
iv) To validate the adequacy of the model that explains determinants of BSHP
model for low-cost housing in Malaysia.
1.5 Research Scope
Housing in Malaysia can be characterized as low-cost, low medium-cost, medium-
cost and high-cost (National Housing Department, 2013). Due to time and resource
constraints, the subject of this study was confined to low-cost housing flats (>5
storey), by measuring the factors that contribute towards safety and health
performance (Figure 1.1). They include low-cost housing flats in small towns and
sub-urban areas, whereby a flat refers to a multi-storey building which houses many
residential units, usually with provision of basic facilities such as lifts and
maintenance services (Institut Bank-bank Malaysia, 2010). In Malaysia, private low-
cost housing flats include 5-storey and more than 5-storey walk-up flats (Bajunid &
Ghazali, 2012). Flats are chosen for two reasons. First, multi-storey residential
blocks are common in Malaysia due to urbanization. As of end of 2012, a total of
467,185 units of low-cost flats have been built by the public and private sectors
(National Property Information Center, 2012). However, minimal research and
development in the field of sustainable low-cost housing has been conducted in
Malaysia, especially for high-rise flats (Zaid & Graham, 2011).
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Second, the specific purpose of low-cost housing in Malaysia is to improve
the living quality of the low-income population. The impact of residential settings on
human safety and health is therefore crucial. A comprehensive and efficient model
based on existing local safety regulations and international safety codes and
standards will be useful in drawing up policies and regulations for safety and health.
Therefore, the research was designed to provide standard safety and health
performance model to a new or existing building conditions, whilst a wider scope of
aspects about building safety and health, including building design, existing
conditions, and management practices, were taken into account in this study.
The scope of samples has been limited to engineers, architects, building
surveyors, quantity surveyors and developers as professionals in building
construction. As the research focuses on design and management aspects of
buildings, gathering research data and inputs from the professionals would be more
appropriate and relevant. The rationale for the selection of the specific industries is
presented in greater detail in Chapter 3.
Figure 1.1: Scope of research
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1.6 Structure of Thesis
This thesis consists of six chapters with references and appendices, as follows:
Chapter 1 – Introduction: The first chapter presents the background and problem
statement of the study. Next, the research questions were presented followed by the
research objectives. The research hypotheses and research scope as well as the
significance of the study are also briefly outlined.
Chapter 2 – Literature Review: The chapter provides a review of prior research on
building safety and health performance. Concepts and related models in the area of
building safety and health are presented in detail. Gaps are identified, and how this
research is positioned to fill in these gaps is discussed.
Chapter 3 – Research Methodology: The chapter begins with a discussion on the
research strategy and the methods used in this research. The rationale for the
methods chosen for data collection is also presented. In addition, this chapter
presents the data analysis techniques and the statistical software packages used in
this study.
Chapter 4 – Identification Survey: This chapter describes the design of the survey
instrument that was used to collect the main data and to explore relevant building
safety and health performance factors in BSHP model. Factorial analysis was
conducted to test the applicability of the 6 constructs and 40 indicators/items of
building safety and health performance in the model development. The chapter
concludes with the development of the research hypotheses and proposed model.
Chapter 5 – Model Validation: This chapter presents the analysis and key findings of
the main survey. It includes data analysis, procedures for model validation as well as
the testing of the process model.
11
Chapter 6 – Discussion and Conclusion: In this final chapter, the outcomes of the
research and the linkage with existing studies in the literature are presented and
discussed in greater detail. It also presents the theoretical and practical contribution
of the study to the literature. Finally, limitations of the study and suggestions for
future research are presented.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter provides an overview of the key concept of safety and health
performance and its related literatures, focusing particularly on measurement of
safety and health performance. Therefore, this chapter has six aims 1) To introduce
the general concept of safety and health performance 2) to explore safety and health
issues in Malaysia 3) to describe the evolution and current literature underlying the
concept of safety and health performance 4) to identify the appropriate and relevant
perspectives in the area of safety and health performance especially in low-cost
housing in Malaysia 5) to identify existing gaps for the positioning of this research
and 6) to explore potential research methodologies that would be relevant in this
study.
,
13
2.2 The Concept of Safety and Health Performance
Building performance relates to a person-environment relationship throughout the
entire building life cycle (Preiser & Vischer, 2005). A systematic approach that
would ensure a continuous incorporation of feedback throughout the process would
ensure building quality during planning and construction and, later, during
occupation and operation. According to Preiser and Vischer (2005), the three levels
of priority in building performance are:
i. health and safety performance;
ii. functional, efficiency and work flow performance;
iii. psychological, social, cultural and aesthetic performance.
Yau (2006) argued that energy efficiency, health, building intelligence, and
sustainability – aspects that affect building performance – are inextricably linked
with the fundamental function of a building, namely to provide a comfortable and
safe place for habitation. In addition, Pati, Park and Augenbroe (2009) said the
prediction of building performance criteria reflects the expectations held by owners
and occupants, and the extent to which these expectations are met by designers and
building operators. Therefore, the measurement and improvement of performance
requires goals that are guided by occupancy requirements and performance criteria
i.e. safety and health to be established at the outset.
A variety of performance criteria for buildings are in use around the world,
one of which is the performance in safety and health, which is the focal point of this
study. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as "a state of complete
physical, mental, and social well-being, not merely the absence of disease" (World
Health Organization, 1997). This concept of health is significant in measuring
building health quality, encompassing a complete state of physical, mental, and
social well-being. The definition of a healthy building, based on the relevant
literature, can be summarized as one that protects occupants from hazardous
materials, building-related physical and mental illnesses, physical injury and death
during its entire life cycle (Bluyssen, 2010; Wong et al., 2006). Wong et al. (2006)
developed a tool to measure health and safety of residential buildings and divided
health into seven components - “Indoor Air Quality’”, “Thermal Comfort”, “Lighting
14
Quality”, “Space”, “Water Supply”, “Sanitation Handling” and “Sound and Space”.
His model allows the assessment of health and hygiene performance of residential
buildings.
More comprehensive research and practices have been developed and used to
address health and comfort issues. Bluyssen (2010) developed a framework of health
and comfort with the goal of creating healthy and comfortable conditions for people
to live and work. He proposed a measurement framework that contains four elements
– human being, border indoor-outdoor, control and total life-cycle management
(Figure 2.1). The framework highlights indoor environment factors (i.e., indoor air
quality, thermal comfort, acoustical quality and visual or lighting quality) as the most
important elements.
Human being
Border indoor–
outdoor
Control
Total life-cycle
Management
Performance indices
Integrating (conscious
and unconscious)
health and comfort
aspects
A sustainable
envelope that
guarantees a high
basic level of health
and comfort
Performance on
demand, anticipating
wishes and needs
during different
activities and over
time
End-user focused
system
engineering of the
indoor
environment
Figure 2.1: Framework for health and comfort
(Bluyssen, 2010)
In another study, Yau (2006) defined a safe building as a built environment
that safeguards its occupants and the general public from physical, psychological or
material harms originating from the built environment. Safe buildings aim to reduce
injuries and deaths, and hence, encourage the positive well-being of humanity. He
identified “Structural Failures”, “Falling Objects”, “Fire Hazards”, “Building
Services Failures” and “Special Hazards” as components of safety threats. Smith and
Petley (2008) acknowledged hazard as a potential threat to humans and their welfare
and estimated the probability of a hazard occurring and causing loss. Therefore, an
assessment of housing hazards and a standardisation of measurement approaches are
15
important for significant improvements to the health, safety and sustainability of
housing (Keall et al., 2010). In addition to proposing an assessment to measure the
performance of buildings, he identified structural defects, ineffective waste disposal
and inadequate protection against falls, fire and lightning as components of hazards.
In summary, a safe and healthy building is a built environment that optimises
building performance and satisfies the requirements of performance, namely:
structural integrity, fire resistance, optimum building services, safety in operation
and management, safety from external hazards, air quality, thermal comfort and
acoustical and visual comfort. The later sections of this chapter will explain the
reasons for including these indicators in defining a safe and healthy building.
2.3 Low-Cost Housing in Malaysia
Low-cost housing in Malaysia is a response to the urgent housing needs of the low
income groups, particularly in the large urban centres (Zainal et al., 2012). Low-cost
housing remains to be seen as a government effort to provide adequate and
affordable housing and related facilities for the low-income groups and squatters.
The Ministry of Urban Wellbeing, Housing and Local Government, through the
National Housing Department, plays a vital advisory role through the housing
strategies and programmes that have been outlined. Various public housing projects
have been implemented, such as the Public Low-Cost House Programme (PLHP),
available for sale or as a rent-to-buy scheme, People’s Housing Programme for sale
(PPRM), People’s Housing Programme for rent (PPRS) and Integrated Housing
Programme (PPRB) (Ministry Of Housing and Local Government of Malaysia,
2009).
The overall number of houses built under the low-cost housing category was
encouraging with 200, 513 units completed, or 86.4% of the Ninth Malaysia Plan’s
target (Economic Planning Unit, 2010). Under the Public Low-cost Housing
Programme (PLHP) for the low income group, a total of 27,006 low-cost houses
were constructed in 70 projects concentrated mainly in small towns and sub-urban
areas. This programme was financed by the Federal Government but was
implemented by the State Government since 1976. For cities and larger towns, the
16
People’s Housing Programme (PHP) that includes PPRB, PPRM and PPRS were
implemented for the resettlement of squatters.
During the Ninth Malaysian Plan, 37, 241 low-cost houses under PPRB were
completed and rented out to those eligible. Out of this total, 24, 654 units were built
in Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur while 12, 587 units were built in other major
towns throughout the country. As of December 31, 2011, a total of 88 PPRS projects
(Figure 2.2) consisting of 76,159 units have already been implemented in which 64
projects consisting of 62,716 units have already been completed (Ministry of Urban
Wellbeing, Housing and Local Government, 2013). 24 projects comprising of a total
of 13,443 units were in various stages of construction. Houses built under both
PPRM and PPRS use the specifications of planning and design of low-cost housing
set out in the National Housing Standard for Low-cost Housing Flats (CIS2). As
shown in Figure 2.3, low-cost housing in major cities are 5 to 18-storey residential
buildings with a minimum floor space of 63 m2
per unit of housing. Each unit
consists of 3 bedrooms, a lounge, a dining area, a kitchen area, two bathrooms and
toilet, and a drying area (Ministry of Housing and Local Government of Malaysia,
2009). The houses are sold at a price of RM42,000 and below per unit and the
applicant’s household income is less than RM2,500 per month.
Figure 2.2: PPRS Sri Pantai Kuala Lumpur
(Ministry of Housing and Local Government of Malaysia, 2009)
17
Figure 2.3: Plan of 18 storey flats under PHP programmes
(Ministry of Housing and Local Government of Malaysia, 2009)
2.4 Issues of Building Safety and Health Performance in Malaysia
Today, health and safety issues are becoming areas of concern in construction
industry. According to Salfarina et al., (2010), although the developers are aware of
the rising issues on sustainability, little efforts are generated from them in
implementing it. Therefore, there are buildings with special design characteristic and
with special function, which is normally hard to maintain. The poor maintenance
management systems has resulted in a myriad of building problems like structural
deterioration, deficiencies in fire safety provisions, building structural failures and
slope failures. These problems are highlighted in the following sections.
18
2.4.1 Maintenance and Management
Maintenance can be defined as activities required to keep a facility in good condition
and to maintain it in its original productive capacity (Hashim et al., 2012). To ensure
that buildings remain in good conditions and to avoid the risk of accidents caused by
a deteriorated structure, consistent building maintenance in public housing is crucial
to preserve the capital value of the structure (Lateef, 2010; Abdul, Akasah & Zuraidi,
2012). Efforts have been made to achieve a sustainable construction industry by the
year 2020. The history of building maintenance initiatives in Malaysia is summarized
in Table 2.1 and Table 2.2, which indicates the government’s attention towards the
construction industry.
The studies by Hashim et al. (2012) and Mohammed and Hassanain (2010)
discussed the issue of maintenance management in Malaysia’s low-cost housing.
They noted that problems in facility maintenance are often caused by limitations in
design and materials used, a lack of construction knowledge and inadequate
inspection and/or maintenance. They also identified that a lack of cooperation
between the parties, especially between the facility manager and the design
professionals at the design stage, may be a major contributor to maintenance
problems. Based on case studies conducted on the conditions of low-cost housing
buildings in Kuala Lumpur, Petaling Jaya, Shah Alam, and Klang, Zainal et al.
(2012) found that many buildings face maintenance problems that need urgent
attention in order to preserve them from further deterioration and decay. Inherent
maintenance problems in facilities are also found to have a significant relationship
with respondents’ physical health status. This has been highlighted by McDermott,
Haslam and Gibb (2007) who identified that overcrowding and stress can be linked
to adverse physical health conditions.
On the management side, the most challenging issues in managing stratified
buildings are safety and health aspects, which are related to Facility Management
(FM) activities (Yahya, 2011; Ta, 2006). Ta (2006) emphasized that there are no
standard guidelines in property management. Hamid et al. (2011) added that it is
difficult to formulate and develop a template for benchmarking performance
measurement in FM. A framework for benchmarking FM could be developed with
the industry working in close collaboration with relevant government agencies and
19
universities. In this regard, this research seeks to create a platform to develop a
model framework for benchmarking performance measurement especially in safety
and health of buildings and in FM.
Table 2. 1: Development of building/facility maintenance aspects
(Noor et al., 2011 and Government of Malaysia, 2010)
Program / Project
by Government
Initiative/Scope/Practice/Model Fund (RM)
PWD Annual
Report
2000-2001
• PWD planning to widened the scope to all
PWD projects & to set up the department of
Operation & Maintenance (O&P).
• Upgrading internal facilities in Parliament
Building
Budget Cost: RM 2.0 m
National Budget
2003
Clause 142 – Upgrading & Repair of existing
hospital & medical facilities in rural area.
Budget :RM289.7m
(including new buildings)
PWD Annual
Report 2004
• New mission towards maintenance & facility
management
• Refurbishment & upgrading work of
educational buildings
• Scope 1 - Upgrading and additional work of
higher education building
• Scope 2 - Refurbishment work
• Polytechnic building, Cost:
RM64 m
• Hockey Stadium
(KPM), KL – RM2.48m
• Computer Lab - Cost : RM
76,000 -152,000/Nos. of
building
• Malaysia Hall & Student
building, Queensborough
Terrace, London
- Cost : RM 17.3 m
National Budget
2005
• Large fund for Public Facility Maintenance
Program including buildings - hospital, schools,
government quarters
Allocation of fund RM
500m- 4.1b (special
allocation)
PWD Annual
Report 2005
• The formation of Maintenance Regulation
Division
• To regulate the maintenance of federal
buildings and roads
National Budget
2006
• Improve Public Facility Maintenance Program
- with special allocation
Allocation of fund RM
4.3m + RM 1.0 billion
(special allocation)
NAFAM
Conference 2007
Set up the national asset management NAFAM Conference 2007
MoW Annual
Report 2007
• Strengthening the Maintenance Unit of MoW -
divide to 2: Road & Building.
• The role of Building Unit - To regulate and
monitor the terms of agreement of the
management and maintenance of Federal
Common buildings (Gunasama) as well as
ensure that services offered are satisfactory in
terms of safety, comfort and
cost effectiveness.
• Publication of Federal Common Building
Information Book 2007 -2009 – as KPI
MoW Annual Report 2007
20
Table 2. 2 (continue): Development of building/facility maintenance aspects
(Noor et al., 2011 and Government of Malaysia, 2010)
Program / Project
by Government
Initiative/Scope/Practice/Model Fund (RM)
National Budget
2009
Additional expenditure for maintenance
management
RM 615 m for school
and hostel maintenance
NAFAM
Conference 2009
New approach in Government Total Asset
Management
Manual Total Asset
Management
(TAM) 2009
New approach in:-
1) Asset management – operational &
maintenance
2) Facility management
10th Malaysian
Plan: 2011- 2015
• The implementation of Total Asset
• Management (TAM) and PFI (Private
Finance Initiative)
• Workshop to develop sustainable strategies
for facilities management
• Repair and maintenance of building and
road.
• 10 per cent of the allocation
under the Tenth Malaysia
Plan for buildings and roads
maintenance.
• Repair and maintenance
works of public and private
low-cost housing
2.4.2 Fire hazards
Fire safety of buildings has long been a concern in most cities. Fires in buildings are
always due to either human error or human negligence. Even a small fire can cause
significant devastation when human dwellings are involved. The Fire and Rescue
Department Malaysia (FRDM) (2012) reported that the seven-year fire statistics in
Malaysia (Figure 2.4) show 154,987 building fire cases in Malaysia in 2005-2011,
with a gradual increase in the number of cases over the years.
21
Figure 2. 4: Buildings fire in Malaysia
(Fire and Rescue Department of Malaysia, 2012)
By type of building, residential buildings recorded the highest number of fire
cases in 2010 and 2011, followed by shops, plants, stores and offices (Table 2.3).
From the statistic, residential buildings have the highest risk of a fire breakout. These
include high-rise accommodation buildings, such as flats, apartments and
condominiums (Yatim, 2009).
Table 2. 3: Fire in Malaysia, 2010-2011
(Fire and Rescue Department of Malaysia, 2012)
3457
3353 3447 3625
3017
5240 5248
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Year Types of Building
Residential Shop Plant/factory Store Office
2010 2918 657 287 219 143
2011 2761 654 307 217 132
Public Sector
Pri
va
te S
ecto
r
22
2.4.3 Structural, Building Materials and Building Services Failures
The type of materials installed as well as the life cycle of each building component
must also be considered. Users are currently becoming increasingly aware of the
safety and health issues in housing environment. A study by Isnin et al. (2012)
indicated that the residents of low-cost terrace housing in Shah Alam are generally
not satisfied with the materials used in construction. They found that the finishing
materials often cause problems and increase the threat to social health and to the
environment. Therefore, the performance of building materials has become an
important attribute of building quality together with structural and building services
performance, space functionality, amenities, architectural design, finishes and
workmanship (Isnin et al., 2012).
Apart from the findings by the researchers, recent critics of low-cost building
performance are also reported in the media. Problems are caused by technical failures
and safety and quality issues, causing detrimental effects on residents’ health and
safety. Some failures of building performance in low-cost housing are shown in
Table 2.4 and Table 2.5.
Table 2. 4: Performance failure of low-cost housing reported from 2008 to 2013
(Adapted from Husin et al., 2012)
Housing / Location Performance Failure Safety Effects
Low-cost flats at Kondo
Rakyat, Pantai Dalam, Kuala
Lumpur (2008)
Serious cracks on walls,
water seeping out from the
ceilings, malfunctioning
lifts.
Residents are disappointed as there
has been no action taken even
though complaints to DBKL have
been made repeatedly. They are
worried for their safety.
Rumah Mesra Rakyat, Sungai
Rotan, Perak (2009)
Serious cracks on walls
and windows
Occupants are worried for their
safety.
An apartment in Taman Sri
Aman, Petaling Jaya (2009)
Wall cracks causing water
penetration into the units
Residents are disappointed as there
has been no action taken by Majlis
Perbandaran Petaling Jaya (MPPJ)
and the developer to solve the issue.
Rumah Mesra Rakyat, Sik,
Kedah (2009)
Serious wall cracks,
leaking roofs and ceilings
80 families are worried that their
poor house conditions are
threatening their safety.
23
Table 2. 5: (continue): Performance failure of low-cost housing reported from 2008
to 2013 (Adapted from Husin et al., 2012)
Housing / Location Performance Failure Safety Effects
Low-cost flats in Desa Mentari,
Petaling Jaya (2009)
Wall cracks, water seeping into
the units, uneven walkways due
to soil movement, voids
underneath the floor slab
The occupants are worried for
their safety as the situation is
worsening by the day. They
demand a thorough study to be
conducted on the place to
determine whether the place is
safe to live.
Low-cost apartments at the
Commercial Centre, Section7,
Shah Alam (2009)
Serious floor and wall cracks
(Block F), leaking roof causing
flood in the units
More than 1000 residents feel
unsafe and scared at all times.
20 storey low-cost flats at
Kondo Rakyat, Desa Pantai,
Kuala Lumpur (2010)
Incomplete wiring system,
ceiling cracks, serious wall
cracks, deflection of floor slab
The residents are disappointed
that the house condition is not
as promised. Although the
houses cost only RM25,000-
RM28,000, a human being
needs a house in acceptable and
safe conditions.
Low-cost flats in Seri Cempaka,
Kampung Pasir, Pantai Dalam
(2012)
Serious cracks on walls and
windows
Occupants worry for their
safety.
20 storey Low-cost flats in
Larkin Perdana, Johor (2013)
Clogged drains and toilets. The residents are disappointed
that the flat is dirty because the
channel hole is filled with waste
and overflow.
Desa Tun Razak Public
Housing Project (2013)
Lift failure A year-five pupil was killed
while trying to escape from a
malfunctioning elevator.
2.4.4 Provision of Amenities and Facilities
As mentioned earlier, low-cost housing in Malaysia must follow a minimum
specification standard: a built-up area of 550–660 square feet with three bedrooms, a
dining area, a separate bathroom and toilet, and a drying area. Goh and Ahmad
(2011) in studying residential satisfaction of low-cost flats in Kuala Lumpur revealed
that residents are not satisfied with the size of the kitchen. Likewise, Isnin et al.
(2012) found that most low-cost housing areas have limited space and facilities for
community and recreation activities such as educational and health facilities,
multipurpose halls, playground and public transport. House alteration is common due
24
to demand for better and more comfortable dwellings. However, poorly designed and
executed alteration works have caused even more problems and have further
increased the threat to social health and environment.
Apart from the built-up area, location is also an important factor that affects
satisfaction among public housing tenants. Bajunid and Ghazali (2012) identified
three aspects, namely geographical location, physical environment and social
environment. They found that a house is more valuable if it is well connected and if
the residents have a good sense of belonging to the neighbourhood and the
community. Affordable and accessible housing, accessibility to transport, healthcare,
education and training, leisure and recreation facilities, accessibility to other public
amenities and opportunities for social interaction are basic requirements of living,
working, and playing in urban communities (Williams et al., 2007). Issues of
facilities and amenities also influence housing satisfaction among occupants of low-
cost housing. A study by Hashim et al. (2012) on housing satisfaction of the
residents of low-cost, multi-storey public housing in Selangor revealed that the
residents are not satisfied with the building services and facilities in their housing
area. They pointed out that besides facilities in the house, common facilities such as
public transport, educational and health facilities, markets, mailing system,
community hall, playground, and parking lots are important to support the daily life
of the dwellers and to enhance the residents’ quality of life.
2.4.5 External Environment
Many studies have shown that the most problematic situations faced by low-cost
housing occupants are air and noise pollution caused by traffic or the industry and
road congestion (Zain, 2012; Zainal et al., 2012). Bajunid and Ghazali (2012) gave
further evidence of the need to consider the quality of the surrounding environment.
In their review, the surrounding environment plays a prominent role in promoting
physical health, in providing opportunities for developing social relationships as well
as for aesthetic needs. Karim (2012) identified at least four important domains of
housing environment – family, social environment (neighbours and community),
community facilities and neighbourhood’s physical environment.
158
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