How slums and their negative connotations can be utilised as a positive agent in

future urbanisation and in creating resilient adaptable, mobile, sustainable cities?

Introduction

This study will investigate the current trends in urbanisation and the resulting

effects on the environment. Weaknesses in the current master planning techniques

will be identified; in addition the informal city structure will be studied to discover

how their structure develops. Architects are intrigued by the complex flexible nature

of the informal city and how it functions. The informal city may hold the potential

to develop stronger social networks which could enhance the lives of the existing

communities and their experience of the city.

Population Growth

Global population growth is measured through the ‘natural population increase’. The

‘natural population increase’ is the difference between the difference between the

death rate and higher birth rate. On the 31st October 2011, United Nations studies

showed that the world population had reached the 7 billion mark. Based on these

figures and fertility rates the United Nations went on to produce six projections of

the potential future populations; the medium (average) scenario would see a

continual growth rate before it is estimated to peak at 9.4 billion in 2070 before

starting to decline. Whereas the high case scenario, based on continued fertility

rates of 2.25 children per woman would create a population of approximately 30

billion people in 2300. It is essential to understand expected growth and the rate of

which it is occurring; as to develop a suitable strategy to cope with expected

growth. An understanding of these predictions is required an acceleration of

population growth could increase the rate of migration, resource depletion and

urbanisation.

Source: United Nations Population Division, 2007

Figure 1 shows the global projected human population growth from 1750 - 2050

As the population continues to increase there is a greater demand on resources

such as energy, water and housing. (Anderson, 2012) The United Nations estimate

that by 2050 food production need to increase by 70% to meet the expected

demands of the expanding populations: this issue needs to be resolved and

strategies need to be developed to stabilise current consumption rates as based on

a study completed by The Guardian (Cavangah, 2012) the global population levels

have never exceeded their level of consumption. The current populations trend of

consumption habits are causing a detrimental effect on the environment and with

an additional 3 billion middle class consumers by 2030: (Anderson, 2012) action

needs to be taken in order to reduce current levels of consumption and to develop

strategies need to be developed so that an equilibrium can be reached as the city

becomes more sustainable.

Immigration trends

Throughout history the human population has survived on a mainly rural lifestyle

dependent on hunting and agriculture. Around 10,000BC some clans began to

abandon hunting; having learnt how to control and rear animals to increase their

numbers, once meat is needed they were killed. Alongside this the clans learnt

how to prepare soil ready for seeding; once they have been planted and matured

they are then harvested. This process has taken many years to perfect with the

aid of technological advancements

(vlibe.ive.it/carrie/reference/worldhistory/sections/03agricu.html) Due to the

agricultural revolution and the increased use of machinery, jobs where lossed and

people began to move in search of work: as the population grew cities developed.

In 1800, the area began to urbanise with 3% of the world’s population lived in the

built environment; by 1900 the population growth had exploded leading to almost

14% of the population living in an urban area. At this time only 12 cities had a

population of 1 million or more. 2008 marked the first time that the amount of

people living in the city and rural environment was equal. (PRB, 2012)

Source: (nordpil, 2012) The worlds map above highlights the distribution of the urban centres and their population

densities in 2005.

The move of population was caused by a variety of ‘push and pull factors’ which

encouraged the move towards the city. A push factor is a force that drives people

from a place such as a lack of employment, whereas a pull factor is what draws

people to city including more employment opportunities, better quality of life.

(geography.about.com/od/geographyglossary/g/ggpushpull.html) The continual

appeal of the city has continued to encourage migration and by 2015, at least 50

megacities will exist worldwide with at least 23 cities having an estimated population

of more than 10 million. (www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2088/12/081219745.htm)

Urbanisation

“Urbanisation is the process by which urban areas increase in size and

population density” (six sense. 2005) It is the process of a population density

concentrating in an urban centre, the process of urbanisation is usually developed

with social and economic growth. But the speed at which it is occurring at present

is straining the capacity of local and national governments resources as they

struggle to provide basic services like water, electricity and sewage; as a result

slums are formed. Urbanisation was first present in the More Economically

Developed Countries (MEDCs) during the industrial revolution as it was the source of

many pull factors that accelerated the shift in population from the rural to urban

areas in search of work. Technology aided the growth of the city through the

development and improvement of the transport system as it increased accessibility

into the city distances, in 1990 the urban surface area increased by 20%,

exceeding the population growth which was just 6%.

(www.unanpopulaplante.org/en/the-human-footprint/urbanisation-and-

transportation.html) suggesting a sprawl like development with the city comprising of

low density housing models that cover a greater distance.

Source: (Radberg, 1988) in Gren,2006, 18.Figure 3: Density of different urban blocks in Sweden,

highlighting the potential of different built forms

In comparison to the slums this suburban development leads to many housing being

constructed on the fringe of the city a greater distance from its centre. Continued

growth in this way leads to greater social fragmentation and the reduction of

natural areas and productive farmland. 95km2 of productive farmland is lost to soil

erosion and other forms of land degradation, weekly the area lost is equivalent to

the size of New York every week, or a standard football pitch every 7 seconds.

(Land Commodities, 2009) Due to the ‘horizontal’ approach has been adopted for

city growth distances between city and the home resulting in a large proportion of

this destruction is due to the amount of transport infrastructure required to

maintain high accessibility to all areas of the city. Increased use of transport will

accelerate the rate that natural resources are depleted for example in India more

than 50,000 hectares of croplands are lost each year due to urbanisation. (Davis,

2006) and also the fact that current transport systems are 98% dependent on oil

(figure 4) (www.unanpopulaplante.org/en/the-human-footprint/urbanisation-and-

transportation.html)

Fuel Reserves Years until depletion

Oil 1,386 billion barrels 46.2

Gas 187.1 trillion cubic metres 58.6

Coal 860,938 million tonnes 118

Source: BP with reserves calculated at current prices and technologies

The Informal City

Urbanisation is occurring at a faster rate in Less Economically Developed

Countries (LEDCs) with more people migrating to urban areas. The International

Development Committee noted that Africa is one of the fastest urbanising regions

and that by the middle of the century it is expected that Africa will be home to

around quarter of the world’s urban population. (Social Structure and Cultural

Practices in Slum: A Study of Slums in Dhaka City by Tulshi Kumar Das) In many

LEDCs such as Africa urban population growth is rapidly increasing so much so that

it has outpaced the ability of the cities authorities to cater to their needs resulting

in a lack of the necessary housing and the environmental health infrastructure. A

large proportion of the migrating population in LEDCs had a low income so they

could not afford traditional housing.

Thus creating the concept that poverty is urbanising and as a result shanty

towns/ informal cities are developed. This resulted in the rural migrants to build

their own houses in close proximately to the city on land that is free and could be

built on. (Davis, 2006) A negative aspect of this is that the migrants swap safety

and health for a small area of land that often is no more than a few square

metres with some security from eviction, leading to the migrants becoming “pioneer

settlers of swamps, mountains, chemical dumps, railroad sidings and desert fringes,”

(Davis, 2006 p. 121)

Source: (Sultana, 2007) These images show the poor living conditions that the migrants settle for, just

to get a space within the city.

Continued migration of the rural poor to city consists of a mainly young

demographic of adults between the ages of 20 – 30 year olds who are employed in

some short term employment with little job prospects or expectations the workforce

is willing to do any form of work. (Social Structure and Cultural Practices in Slum:

A Study of Slums in Dhaka City by Tulshi Kumar Das) As the majority of migrants

are young, they use their expertise to construct their own homes using scrap

materials including scrap wood and metal sheeting.

These informal self-built cities continue to attract new migrants because they

remain cheap, thus being the only affordable means of accommodation, unlike

traditional city planning, slums are still produced, modify and expanded by the

inhabitants which has led to its organic form, slums continue to have negative

connotations and according to UN-Habitat a slum is defined as a run-down area

that is characterised by substandard housing. However slums are considered to be

one of the most efficient urban settlements due to their high density as often the

population density within the slums is often a minimum of 16 times higher than an

average city density, yet the average of size of a slum cluster is approximately

0.37acres suggesting a very compact form of living. (WHERE, 2009) The

compactness of the city has led to little need for motorised transport as everything

can be accessed on foot, which has lessened there reliance on oil and as a result

of pestrianisation the informal city consists of multiple communities with a strong

social network. (Social Structure and Cultural Practices in Slum: A Study of Slums in

Dhaka City by Tulshi Kumar Das)

Life in a Slum

Life within the slums is very sustainable as the high population ensures low costs

per capita as everything is provided for the mass on site which enables the

creation of more jobs within the informal sector, including casual or unskilled labour

or in some case it can be unregistered and illegal work. (Internet Geography, 2010)

This can be expressed in the Case Study of Dharvai which is one of India’s largest

slums and it is found in Mumbai. Almost 20 percent of India’s GDP comes from

Mumbai where at least half of the city’s 12 million residents live in slums. 85% of

the local slum dwellers have found employment within the informal sector which

amounts to approximately one million dollars in turnover per year. (Kevin McCloud,

Slumming It) Even though the income is generated within the informal economy the

residents are now able to afford more ‘luxury’ goods and services located outside

of their informal neighbourhoods boosting the surrounding economy. (CNN, 2008)

The Informal city generates more employment opportunities with cities in LEDCs

which makes the informal city a major asset to the country’s GDP.

In sub Saharan Africa 78% per cent of the countries non – agricultural

employment is in the slum which makes up 42 per cent of the country’s GDP. As

the informal sector continues to develop new small scale enterprises will be

created; thus increasing employment opportunities, which in total account for a

minimum of 90% of the jobs generated in the next

decade.(www.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/Press_SG-visit_Kibera07/SG%2013.pdf)

Lack of funds for expensive equipment in the informal city results in more jobs as

all aspects of the production process are labour intensive, unlike in the planned city

where most aspects are now mechanised. The disadvantages to this are that the

informal city has widespread diseases which are a result of a lack of health and

safety laws within the work matters.

The organic compactness of the informal city creates a balance between the

needs of the individual in compact yet well-equipped individual spaces and the

needs of the community with multi – functional public spaces (African Perspectives

Conference 2011, The African Metropolis, Sarah Laisney and Sustainable

Development of the Informal City, pg 4)

Source: (Sultana, 2007) Images highlight the different uses of space with image one showing washing

hanging in a narrow walkway whereas the other shows a small market stall also along a footpath.

However life in the informal sector is hard as represented in the name

penned for these sectors: ‘slum’ is always used as a shorthand term for blighted,

dirty, dysfunctional and unacceptable, all are true except for dysfunctional as slums

may appear highly chaotic and disorganised but they are highly organised and

flexible system that forms a highly defined organic structure.

(www.iascblog.com/maa2011-2012-theoryconcepts/2012/01/slums-as-a-model-for-

future-projects) The organic form of the slum network has led to the creation of a

maze of alleys and narrow courtyards with a mosaic of different colour and

material buildings that are divided into small blocks (www.iaacblog.com/maa2011-

2012-theoryconcepts/2012/01/slums-as-a-model-for-future-projects) suggesting a

complex network of forms which are extremely difficult to navigate; impossible by

motorised transport leading to all informal cities being pedestrianized. Due to the

whole area being pedestrianized there is a strong sense of community as everyone

knows each other leading to the creation of a strong social structure that is

constantly evolving as traditions are inherited , which creates a sense of a respect

and belonging to the area. (Kevin McCloud,Slumming IT)

A Model for Change

Designers and architects have come to respect the slum phenomenon as

architecture in its own right as a creative, dynamic model that is flexible and can

be maintained by community initiatives. The informal city is seen as a prime

example of Vernacular Architecture. (African Perspectives Conference 2011, The

African Metropolis, Sarah Laisney, Design and Sustainable Development of the

Informal City, pg 4)

Rio de Janerio in Brazil is a case study example of how the government is

trying to improve living conditions within the slums. Rio de Janerio is one of

Brazil’s largest urban settlements with a population of approximately 11.7million

people; 67 per cent of the population growth is a result of migration.

(www.geography.learnontheinternet.co.uk/topics/urbanprobsledus.html) This rapid

influx in population has led to millions of people having to construct their own

home on the fringe of the city, Rocinha is the largest favela (slum) in Brazil and it

is located on the southern hillside that overlooks the city and is just one kilometre

from the beach. This favela is home to between 60,00 and 150,000 migrants

(www.unanpourlaplanete.org/en/the-human-foorprint/urbanisation-and-

transportation.html) Due to these housing shortages and the need for the migrants

to build their own homes, the authorities have produced a series of self-help

schemes where the authority provides the local residents with the materials required

to construct permanent accommodation including breeze block and cement. As the

residents provide the labour and the money saved is used to improve basic

amenities like electricity and clean water.

Source: http://www.travel-images.com/photo-

brazil150.html Image shows brick slums in

Rochina.

Source: http://www.architecture-

student.com/sustainable-design/slums-in-cities-

providing-low-cost-housing-to-end-slums/ Images

showing traditionally constructed slums in

Mumbai.

In comparison to a traditional slum, Rochina currently has a better and more

developed infrastructure with most of the housing built from concrete and brick that

vary from a few to four stories tall with basic sanitation, plumbing and electricity.

Rio de Janeiro is an example of how simple changes can improve living conditions

for existing favela residents, which could aid the development of vernacular

architecture.

Planned Urban Development

In the next 40 years a large proportion of population growth will be absorbed by

the city, the lack of planning results in the concentrate of poverty.

(http://www.7billionactions.org/uploads/browser/files/7b_factsheets_urbanization_v5.p

df) Planned Urban Development (PUD) has a critical role in limiting the effects of

poverty within the city as it can improve the population’s quality of life through the

provision of clean water and sanitation. Currently PUD is used to develop a

classification for an area of land that can be zoned and eventually developed into

a mixture of residential, non – residential and open land. (Business Dictionary,

2012) Spatial planning is key in creating a sustainable development plan at the

local level as, if it is utilised correctly the impact of settlements on the environment

can be reduced whilst living conditions are improved

(www.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/10691-1-59420.pdf) The aim of a Planned

Urban Development strategy is to create efficient and flexible infrastructure services

and strategies that are realistic and attainable through consultation between the

government and the key stakeholders.

Previously issues have arisen at all levels of planning (orientation, master and

detailed area) as they are developed by experts who have a clear vision of what

their city could become with unlimited resources, yet they possess limited

knowledge of the practicalities in how things function within a slum and what is

actually attainable.

(siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEAPINFRASTRUCT/Resources/Urban.pdf)

CASE STUDY: Vietnam

The spatial planning of the towns and cities in Vietnam were designed with

the intention; that all construction of the master plan was to be carried out by

state. The limitations of this are highlighted in the fact that before 2004, 80 per

cent of the housing units where constructed by the owner, most of which have little

living space with an area of less than 3 metres squared.

(siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEAPINFRASTRUCT/Resources/Urban.pdf) As a result

it has been widely acknowledged that the master plans created for Vietnam where

highly ineffective.

(siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEAPINFRASTRUCT/Resources/Urban.pdf) The

increase in self built housing may be a result of the baby boom which occurred

after the Vietnam war; resulting in an increase in people that the government was

not prepared for.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, International Data Base

The 2005 population pyramid shows that the life expectancy is increasing due to an

increase in economy and profits, which has allowed investment in health-care.

However the population in Vietnam is expected to grow at a exponential rate; which

the government is struggling to cope with. The government continues to fear that

another population explosion will strain health and education services by reducing

economic growth as currently two thirds of 86 million people living in Vietnam are

under the age of 35 the two child policy has been re- introduced. (MacKinnon,

2008) Below is the 2050 population pyramid for Vietnam suggesting that dynamic

interventions need to be developed in order to provide enough resources for the

expected aging population.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, International Data Base.

Vietnam is a large scale example of the negative associations with the informal city;

the cases study of Vietnam allows some of the issues faced by developing cities

when the experience rapid population growth and urbanisation to be identified and

understood so that interventions can be developed and applied.

Statistics highlight some of issues; in 2002 a survey was conducted of all

Vietnam’s water supply companies which was used to determine the existing water

supply coverage, the survey revealed that on average only 50% of the urban

residents had access to clean piped water. Further health issues are present as

none of the cities or towns in Vietnam have wastewater treatment facilities and with

the government classifying fifty urban dump sites as environmental hazards. The

contaminations of water and land resources are expected especially as all Vietnam’s

largest cities are known to flood in the rainy season. (Coulthart, Quang and Sharpe,

n.d.)

Vietnam most fertile soils are found along the river deltas and alluvial plains making

this land the most suitable land for agriculture for food production. This has

resulted in a spatial association of settlements along the Mekong and Red river

Delta; as 75% of Vietnam’s population is known to live in rural settlements (Change

is Vietnam, 2009) the population has moved to these areas due to exploit the

potential of fertile soil to increase food production which should create more

employment opportunities. This trend is clearly highlighted in the map below which

shows density and distribution of the population. Highlighting the uneven spread of

people and how overcrowding may be apparent in the small settlements along the

river.

Source: (Change is Vietnam, 2009)

As a result of this flooding may also be prominent as the largest cities of Hanoi,

HCMC and Haiphong are located river deltas. (Change is Vietnam, 2009) Especially

as they continue to develop along the river bed as Vietnam is known to transform

10,000 hectares of prime agricultural land to urban every year. (Coulthart, Quang

and Sharpe, n.d.) Flooding and continued expansion has the potential to cause

resource depletion. Nevertheless the rivers make up a large proportion of their

economy and due to the close proximity to the river little energy is required to

transport produce as most of the food grown is transported and sold on boats

along the river as shown in the image below.

Source: (Change is Vietnam, 2009) A floating market; selling local produce on the Mekong River.

Issues of Master planning

In order to plan for future growth in a more sustainable manner: master

plans need to become more effective through the incorporation of phased work

stages as it will generate a more flexible structure that can be implemented in co –

ordination with social economic plans. Inflexibility is one of the main weaknesses of

master planning as they lack the ability to accommodate changes to population

growth etc. at the rate required. The plans should be more realistic in terms of

resource availability and how this can impact the implementation of a strategy.

In comparison the spontaneity of slum developments allows them to become

more flexible, modelled on planned cities and towns with all the amenities that are

deemed the ‘norm’ for example paths are widened in selected areas to serve ass

good can be bought or traded. (Woods, 2001) As slum structures are built on a

local level by the individual/community involved; it gives them a more adaptive form

developed through immediate responses to immediate space issues. Resulting in

spaces being altered as required which creates a complex spatial cityscape woven

together with a labyrinth off footpaths.

Vietnam has begun a process of decentralisation with the aim of creating

more local strategies to generate more flexible plans that can be adapted for the

community involved. Currently planning issues within Vietnam are dealt with through

the four levels of government which maintain its 64 provinces that have populations

ranging from 6 million to 0.3 million. The size and scale of some of places in

Vietnam is emphasised by the fact that five of the country’s largest cities Hanoi, Ho

Chi Minch City, Hai Phong, Danang and Can Tho where awarded provincial status.

All 64 provinces have been subdivided into 643 districts which are made up of a

total 10,602 communities. (Coulthart, Quang and Sharpe, n.d.) Each layer of

decentralisation process has been allocated an individual government allowing all

decisions to be made at the relevant scale; this has created the opportunities for a

large variety of tasks to be performed at the local scale including the use and

allocation of resources. Decentralisation of Vietnam will provide immediate benefits

to communities as decisions will be made immediately allowing the governments to

respond faster to change. The District People Committee brings the decision

making to those who will be affected by the change; allowing appropriate resources

to be delivered, which in turn will delivers a more sustainable solution. Due to the

success of decentralisation; the total expenditure of local governments has almost

doubled in ten years. Vietnam has become one of the decentralised countries

(Coulthart, Quang and Sharpe, n.d.)

Urban Sprawl

Sprawl is defined as the slow decentralisation of human occupancy (Cornell

University, 2006) through the development of low density housing developments that

spread out from the town centres; this type of development is known as suburbia.

(International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, 2008) In comparison to the

informal city these types of developments lack local facilities which have social,

economic, political and environmental repocushions due to the dependency on

motorised transport and the consumption of fossil fuels and the fragmentation of

the cityscape which eats up valuable agricultural land and habitats whilst destroying

any sense of community identity. (International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences,

2008)

Until the nineteenth century the growth of the city was generally limited with more

localised amenities and employment opportunities. As the transport system

developed it gave people the option of escaping the city as they could now live

further away from the workplace. Suburban growth has accelerated by the mass

production of motorcars and residential homes and the availability of cheap fuel

and mortgages fuelled the cultural desire to own a home of their own which led to

households to abandon the city and move up and out to greener pastures.

(International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, 2008) This effect is shown in

the image below:

Source: (GeogOnline, 2009)

Quebec is a prime case study of urban sprawl as between the period of 1971 and

2001 the urban area grew by 248% whereas the population grew by a mere 42& in

comparison. (sagacitymovie.org/category/planned-urbanization/) Horizontalisation of

the city has continued at the expense of the environment and agriculture as in an

eight year period 7594 hectares of agricultural land was urbanised. Yet thousands

of hectares of non – agricultural land sat empty available for urbanisation.

(sagacitymovie.org/category/planned-urbanization/) Suggesting if future

developments where planned more carefully spaces within the city may be used

more efficiently and land can be zoned and developed depending on suitability for

either agriculture or settlement. This may limit the environmental impacts of

sprawling urbanisation including fragmentation of land and its communities.

Slum dwellers have a strong social structure as all communities have a

strong neighbourhood identity because their city is walkable, not only does it cut

down on emissions but allows residents to become familiar with their neighbours by

chance encounters, some cities especially in South America have little opportunities

for such encounters. Due to how some housing estates are designed with no

footpaths or pavements along roads, which makes it impossible for people to travel

around on foot. (International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, 2008) Dubai has

a reputation for being extremely difficult to navigate on foot, with only eleven

footbridges a simple journey across the road can result in “a ten minute car ride

down six – lane motorways, complete with frequently lethal U-turns, simply to get

across the street.” (Global Culture, 2008) Increased transport infrastructure and the

dependency on motorised transport is a symptom of current urban development, as

the urban perimeter continues to expand from the city centre; travelling distances

are increased alongside congestion, air pollution and respiratory diseases.

The Slum Phenomenon

Slums are a result of rapid urban growth, they are generally located on the

fringe of the city, they are constructed as a result of rapid population growth and

they are often located close to employment opportunities. (Davis, 2006) Due to the

limited space available the individual self-constructed structures are small and

compact yet as multiple structures and the tight knit communities within them

evolve; which enables the growth of shanty towns to continue, eventually merging

into continued belts of shanty towns, forming what is known as “Mega slums”.

(Davis, 2006) Informal settlements are the fastest – growing segment of the urban

population with the expected amount of people living in slums by 2050; estimated

to be in the region of 3 billion, this equates to one in three of the world’s citizens.

(New Towns for the 21st Century, The Planned vs. The Unplanned City, International

Town Institute pg. 13) The slum phenomenon represents a form of proto –

planning that enables the inhabitants the option to modify and expand their own

home as required, due to the lack of restrictions and laws within the informal city

new ideas can be tried and tested which has led to innovative use of space. The

compactness of the city has many advantages through the use of vertical built

forms to maximise space on the ground. The high density and flexible organic

nature of the informal city is an example of the how it has the potential to form a

highly sustainable model for future growth; as each dweller consumes less land, less

water and generates less waste and pollution than areas of lower densities (Brand,

2010)

Vernacular Architecture

The informal city is one of the prime examples of Vernacular Architecture,

which is defined as informal architecture or architecture without architects, the

structures usually characterised by their simple design and use of locally sourced

materials. (Farex, 2012) Similar together architecture it has a distinctive aesthetic

and in the case of the slums each cluster represents local conditions and materials.

Slum developments fill a necessary gap within the architecture field (Maat, 2012) as

the residents have an accurate knowledge of local construction methods, these

skills need to be maintained and perfected as can be used in future development

programs. 90% of the world’s architecture is considered to be vernacular (Arboleda,

2006) suggesting that these skills can become invaluable. Especially since vernacular

architecture is considered to be the future for sensitive development schemes that

provide for the low ethnic minorities (Arboleda, 2006) by using their traditional

architectural skills and materials. These types of architecture are considered to be

more socially and environmentally beneficial. (Arboleda, 2006)

Case Study: Dharavi

Dharavi in India is prime case study of how one piece of land can serve as

a workshop for multiple industries that make a huge contribution to India’s GDP as

with 60,000 structures it is known to generate an annual economic output is

estimated to be between $600 million to $1 billion. (The New York Times, 2011) This

GDP is achieved through efficient use of space; for example in one building it is

known that “carpenters are assembling furniture on the ground floor. One floor up,

men are busily cutting and stitching jeans. Upstairs from them, workers are

crouched over sewing machines making blouses. And at the top still more workers

are fashioning men’s suits and wedding apparel. One crumbling shanty. Four

businesses.” (The New York Times, 2011)

Urban planners could learn from slum dwellers ingenious use of both indoor

and outdoor space to maximise social and economic sustainability; these model

enterprises require investment from the government to improve sanitation and the

necessary equipment to complete tasks without detrimental effects to the

employees’ health. These multi-functional aspects of the slum are one of the

assets to be used in Planned Urban Development; especially in the form of green

infrastructure which currently being developed to improve social and ecological

connectivity with the aim of improving sustainability and improve the populations

wellbeing.

(http://usheffield.academia.edu/IanMell/Papers/997530/GREEN_INFRASTRUCTURE_-

_INNOVATIVE_LANDSCAPE_PLANNING_FOR_MULTI-FUNCTIONAL_ENVIRONMENTS -

Green Infrastructure-Innovative Landscape Planning for Multi-functional Environments?

Ian C. Mell and Maggie Roe, Fabos Landscape Planning and Greenways Symposium,

March 31st 2007, Amherst-Massachusetts) The use of green infrastructure and

multifunctional spaces will increase connectivity within the city through decreasing

landscape fragmentation; as a result more sustainable spaces will develop.

Source: (asla, 2009) The image above highlights how green infrastructure can be integrated into the

urban framework.

Green infrastructure is a concept for a multifunctional cityscape that provides a

framework two levels of change. The first aspect is how they perform on an

ecological level as it has the potential to connect park and wildlife systems and

secondly on a urban level as increased green infrastructure will reduce energy

consumption and water run-off. (asla, 2009)

Slum Upgrading

Education of authorities is required to gain a better understanding of how

informal city works, to allow for the allocation of ‘safe’ land that is suitable for

settlement by the poor migrants, once this is achieved and the population feel

secure in their right to inhabit this land, the residents will start to invest in the area

themselves which will lead to gradual upgrading. (The Cities Alliance, 2012) Slum

upgrading is a movement to improve all basic living conditions for the residents

within the informal city; this generally includes gradual steps to improve existing

economic, social and institutional services including citizenship; everything that is

available to the residents of the planned city. Slum upgrading is essential for future

urban development; as they continue to grow rapidly other issues such like poverty

to continue to exist which slows all city development. (The World Bank Group, 2000)

These services provide the slum dwellers with land tenure, infrastructure, and social

services. More action is required than the obvious need for water and drainage

facilities (The Cities Alliance, 2012) Education and health services are a priority, as

many of these residents will become the future workforce and tax payers.

Upgrading may be more successful then slum clearance and relocation of the

population as it has been noted that some residents were allocated land or a

home elsewhere which they sold and then have moved back to their previous

dwelling within the slums. (Planet of Slums, Mike Davis, First published by Verso,

2006, Verso, London, and Chapter 2: The Prevalence of Slums, pg. 74) This may

be caused through the disruption of the social and economic structure if people

are moved to far from their original dwelling. These reasons need to be fully

understood; in order to discover how slums work and what the best strategy of

relocation could be. Upgrading and the prevention of new slum formation are key

for the development of future sustainable cities because if slum conditions are

allowed to deteriorate or if the population explodes crime and disease may impact

the whole city. (The Cities Alliance, 2012)

Source: http://freepages.family.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~thecohens/feldbergdna.html

The informal cities where built due to rapid growth of population within the city as

people searched for a better way of life. The fact that the population now wish to

remain in the informal city suggests that a greater understanding of why this is,

can be used as a tool to maintain migration rates are sustainable level.

Slum upgrading will improve how these informal cities develop now, which

in the future may become a solution for arising issues in the planned city.

Upgrading will create a new image for the slum and as a result it will release a

whole range of skills that can be utilised within the planned city to further

economic development and enhance local productivity. Careful planning of how

slums are to be upgraded will help the government to understand and address

underlying city issues caused by uncontrolled urbanisation. As a result the quality

of life will be improved through provision of permanent shelter that is safe and

secure. (The Cities Alliance, 2012)

Source: (SLUM LAB, 2008) ‘Expansible Units’ concept is an example of how slums can be upgraded.

In order for the upgrading to be successful and implemented on site, the

strategies must be affordable, flexible and viable it is essential that the population

of the informal city understands why these changes are important and that the

strategies will benefit the community. Community participation is one of the main

aspects of slum upgrading and it can be established in conjunction with other

initiatives such as, the preservation of historic areas, traditions, health, education

and a solution to poverty to become more successful.

Conclusion

Urban Heat Island

Rapid urbanisation has led to many issues including the un planned city layouts like

slums: these developments have consumed prime retail land, thus limiting future

planned growth. (Gultzar, 2011) The continued consumption of land informally has

led to an overdeveloped urban mass with little or no green space. The lack of

green space within the urban mass has created the phenomenon known as the

Urban Heat Island.

Source: (censam, 2008) Image shows the effect of the urban heat island on the night temperature.

The Urban Heat Island is a product of Urbanisation; the effect is enhanced when

large proportions of surfaces like concrete and asphalt are installed. The properties

of dark surfaces have an adverse effect on the surrounding environment, as they

can efficiently absorb heat from the sun which is then reradiated through thermal

infrared radiation which results in the surface being 50 – 70 degrees Fahrenheit

hotter than the surrounding area.

(www.cdc.gov/healthyplaces/articles/urban_sprawl_and_Public_Health_PHR.pdf - Urban

Sprawl and Public Health, Howard Frumkin, MD, Dr, PH, Public Health Reports/ May

–June 2002/Volume 117) This is may become an issue as Urban Heat Islands are

known to contribute to climate change and the greenhouse effect which contributes

to global warming. These effects are enhanced during hot days as increase is

known to have the most negative effects on poor ventilated buildings and areas

with little thermal isolation. These promote living conditions are prominent within the

informal city, the extreme thermal discomfort is known to increase the risks of heat

related illness including: heatstroke, exhaustion, syncope and cramps. (Urban Heat

islands, 2011)

Large areas of undisturbed urban environment lead to an increased opportunity for

direct exposure to sun – light, which is known to enhance this effiency. Vegetation

has proven efficient at lowering the temperatures that are re-radiated, in

comparison to other inanimate objects that have the same colour. (Shashua-Bar and

Hoffman, 2000)

Investment in vegetation especially trees will be beneficial for the urban environment

as they provide invaluable shade preventing up to 30% of the sun energy from

reaching the surface below. (Climate Protection Partnership Division, n.d. p2) As a

result the maximum temperature can be reduced by 45 degrees Farinheight. (Climate

Protection Partnership Division, n.d. p2) and they have the ability to cool the air

through ‘evapotranspiration’. Additionally integration of vegetation in the built form

can help improve air quality through the reduction of CO2 by photosynthesis.

www.cdc.gov/healthyplaces/articles/urban_sprawl_and_Public_Health_PHR.pdf - Urban

Sprawl and Public Health, Howard Frumkin, MD, Dr, PH, Public Health Reports/ May

–June 2002/Volume 117). The use of green infrastructure within the slum could

improve current slum conditions caused by the Urban Heat Island for example the

implementation of green roofs or walls could benefit the residents through the

process of evapotranspiration (shown below) which will cool the air.

Source: Climate Protection Partnership Division, n.d.p3.

Green walls have proven effective at reducing solar heating especially on a south

and west facing wall and are known to reduce daily fluctuations in temperature by

50%. (livingroofs.org, 2012)

Multifunctional Space

The Informal Unplanned City is known to have positive and negative

associations which have the potential to be modified and replicated to increase

sustainability of the planned city. Kowloon’s Walled City was known as a dense

labyrinth of high-rise self-built structures up to 16 stories high and covering an area

of just 6.5 acres. The total population was 33,000 leading to Kowloon’s Walled

being one of the most densely populated places in the world. (Urban Photo, 2011)

The entire city was built by the residents; due to the lack of master planning the

dense high form of the city led to tall dark narrow passages with unplanned

staircases and bridges as the form of access available.

Source: (Urban Photo, 2011) Kowloon’s Walled City

The city was known as an intense hive of human activity, as multiple businesses

where found within one structure; for example factories may exist in one room

which is built next to a residential home that is followed by a restaurant. (Urban

Photo, 2011) Typical slum conditions existed on the ground with piles of rubbish

and hazardous waste, led many of the residents to escape the squalor by

socialising on the rooftops amongst the freshest air (Urban Photo, 2011) suggesting

that these spaces have the potential to continue the multi-functional design

approach through the creation of green recreation spaces which would provide

spaces to relax and socialise with the additional environmental benefits.

Due to the high level of waste in the unplanned cities with investment in this

negative aspect could be redeveloped as a potential source of renewable energy.

Source: (Inhabitat, 2009) Cairo Garbage City Source: (Inhabitat, 2009) Cairo Garbage City

A prime example of this potential is explored in Mekano Architects’ concept design

for Cairo Garbage City. The concept was a response to the current living conditions

of Zabbleen which was once a recycling centre, the design intention was to improve

the sites living conditions whilst maintaining its core economy of recycling. The

resulting design was a layered city that stood above the ground whilst utilising its

potential for energy production in the form of methane production. The

prefabricated homes where stacked on multi-functional pole stilts which were

designed to act as conduits for biogas, water and electricity; in addition to the fact

that they were designed to act like wind stalks in order to harvest the wind that

Source: (Urban Photo, 2011) the

rooftops of Kowloon’s Walled City

which have potential for future

green spaces.

Source: (Homa Therapy, 2009) Future visualisation of

high rise recreational green spaces.

can be utilised within the settlements. Finally all non-organic waste is to be

recycled as building components; in a similar way to how slums are built.

Source: (Green Prophet, 2011) Images of Mekano Architects’ Cairo Garbage City

This concept highlights some aspects that need to be considered in any future

development such as how to deal with waste. Recycling is core part of what make

the slum sustainable with all structures are made from recycled materials. On site

waste utilisation either through biofuel, compost or recycling is essential as in 2011

23.5 million tonnes of waste was sent to landfill. (defra, 2012) This concept utilises

the potential of the negatives; through a productive resource which is similar to

how a slum is developed with everything having a function.

Green Walls

Future developments have the potential for multifunctional aspects to be built into

them; an example of this is green walls and roofs. Green Walls have the potential

to reduce the urban heat island effect. Traditionally Hedra is one of the most

commonly used species for wall – climbers and under the right conditions the

vegetation can be used to generate a self-regenerating cladding system which can

reach heights of 25 metres; through the use of sufficient irrigation greater heights

can be achieved. (livingroofs.org, 2012) Aesthetically the softer ‘green’ surfaces

break up a mass of bleak urban surfaces, as a result additional greenery is known

to improve the public’s perception of the city.

As the slums occur mostly in tropical and sub-tropical zones a different

planting palette is required; this provides the opportunity for a more dynamic

possibly productive finish. Simple additions of a wooden trellis can provide the

opportunity to grow fruit on vines including Kiwis, Grapes and Passion Fruit which

could enhance the economy of a local slum. (MaCabe, 2010) Careful selection of

vines can improve biodiversity as varieties with flowers and fruit can serve as a

nectar source for insects and food for birds. (livingroofs.org, 2012) Additionally

climbers are very effective at trapping dust, thus reducing air pollution. Studies

have shown that the concentration of lead and cadmium where the highest in the

dead leaves and wood; having stored the pollutants the metals and dispatching of

them with minimal environmental impact. (livingroofs.org, 2012) There effectiveness

of climbers will contribute to the reduction of air pollution, energy consumption,

water run-off and improving biodiversity within the future cities.

Green walls should be seen as an asset for future slum upgrading because

they are designed to maximise the productivity of a vertical space whilst consuming

little horizontal space making green walls especially suitable for the informal city.

As more than 90% of construction in the informal city is done by the residents

(www.policyinnovations.org/ideas/innovations/data/000161) as green walls would be

a viable option for the informal city as with some education green walls can be

planted and maintained by the residents.

CASE STUDY: Puente Piedra

Pitagoras school is one of the poorest schools in the Lomas de Zappalli

community which has a population of 27,000 a small part of the mega-slum which

has 1.5 million inhabitants. (University of Washington, 2012) As part of an

Exploration Seminar with the University of Washington worked with the community to

develop a number of designs for the 600 square metre park that connects both the

upper and lower sections of the school, which has now become a ecological

learning landscape with all vegetation labelled for reference. (University of

Washington, 2012 The park was constructed over a two week period by the

community. An estimated 200 plants ranging from geraniums to African tulip trees

were planted. (University of Washington, 2012) Additionally a grey water irrigation

system was developed and installed alongside a program for further collaboration

with the Slum Dwellers International to aid future Slum Upgrading (University of

Washington, 2012)

Source: (University of Washington, 2012) Before:

Source: (University of Washington, 2012) After:

The informal city is known to be constructed and developed by its residents

through a bottom up approach to urbanisation, in many cases this has led to the

creation of a self-sufficient city. Construction materials are often scrap pieces of

wood and metal sheeting; as migrants come to the city with nothing they are often

very entrepreneurial as they continue to strive to better themselves by making the

most of the assets available. (www.ft.com/cms/S/0/92994d10-f854-11e0-a419-

00144feab49ahtml#axzzlx6DEEfa0) As a result an organic, flexible city structure is

developed which has a strong cultural heritage maintained by the presence of older

generations that generates a strong community and social network.

CASE STUDY: Rural Studio

The rural studio was created to provide students with first-hand experience

of designing and constructing buildings in a rural setting that are more appropriate

response. This is due to the students living on site within the community which will

enable them to gain an understanding; this should allow them to develop a more

suitable response based on what is viable on site with the local’s skills and

materials, without the contradictions and opinions generated in an academic setting.

(designboom, 2010) The project was developed as a form of context-based learning,

which was created with the aim of improving living conditions in rural Alabama.

(designboom, 2010) Some of their projects include:

Source: (designboom, 2010) Hale

County Animal Shelter

Source: (designboom, 2010) Perry Lakes

Park Project Bridge

Both examples are result of a flexible organic design approach, simple to the

approach adopted by the slum dwellers that develop the Informal City.

CASE STUDY: Metro Cable

In comparison to how the planned city has developed with its intensive

transportation network which has caused fragmentation of the city and its

communities. The adverse effects of the transport network has been recognised by

the Urban Think Tank when they developed the Metro Cable Car system in Caracas,

the project was developed through observation and conferences over a three year

period. The aim of the project was to treat a public transport system for the slum

community without destroying any homes or communities in the process of

constructing the necessary infrastructure. As the half an walk to the top of Barria

la Cruz hill is the equivalent to the height of a 39 storey building, the journey

consists of a dangerous 1000 stepped incline with spontaneous curves that wind

their way up the hill. (www.policyinnovations.org/ideas/innovations.data/00161) The

Metro Cable is a cable-car system that was designed to integrate the slum

communities to the subway lines in Caracas. The sensitive nature of the

development causes minimal disturbance on site whilst maximising accessibility: this

form of approach should be adopted in future slum upgrading.

Urban Farming

Urban farming could become a viable solution for the future of food

production as the shortage of agricultural land becomes more prominent with

currently over 800 million hectares committed to agriculture which equates to about

38% of the earth’s total landmass. In the next 50 years based on current

agricultural techniques it is expected that an additional 109 hectares (the size of

Brazil) is required to feed the expected population. (Despommier, n.d.) Community

led urban farms within todays planned cities would increase social interaction and

improve respect for an area through an increase in social connections. The

concept of an urban farm has been explored in the form of food production

centres which are commonly known as Vertical Farms. Tall buildings made with

agricultural land on every level will enhance productively immediately by increasing

the land available, as well as the climate conditions as they can be monitored and

adapted eliminating the risk of severe weather conditions such as flooding or

drought. Production on site with city would significantly reduce reliance on

imported goods which in turn will reduce energy use and emissions. A long-term

benefit of vertical farming is that gradually the earth’s natural ecosystems which

have been damaged by intensive agriculture will begin to repair themselves.

(Despommier, n.d.) Further benefits could be benefited from the structure itself

through water collection and recycling, all other waste has the potential to be

recycled on site and utilised within the city energy network. These systems could

consist of utilising animal waste for methane collection, leaf litter for composting

and where applicable algae can be used for harvesting; all of which are sustainable

energy sources.

CASE STUDY: inFARMal network

The sustainability of the slums is achieved through their access to local

amenities, as everything is located within walking distance. Zarachary Aders

explored this idea through his concept of an Urban Farm which he designed as an

additional layer to an existing informal city. In order to determine the arrangement

of the agricultural layer Aders studied exiting slums to discover possible siting

options. In order to develop an appropriate framework he studied the existing

urban density and the topography of the land. A key aspect of his approach was

that it could be constructed from the existing housing structures; this would be

achieved by pouring additional concrete around exiting or cleared housing footings.

The sensitive nature of Aders’ approach was built on the foundations of existing

structures; which allows it to form pre-determined networks which were

unintentionally designed by the residents. The organic nature of the farm allows it

to wind its way around existing houses with minimal intervention, but achieving

maximum impact. (slumlab, 2008) Aders worked the concept on a new ‘layer’

elevated above the ground to maximise productivity and to generate potential to

improve energy and drainage within the slum.

Source: (slumlab, 2008) Images illustrating concept

A raised farm will minimise impact on the ground as it would not interfere with the

existing dynamic economy and finally by raising the farm it disconnected the

productive space from the ground and its diseases improving food security.

(slumlab, 2008)

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