The cross-cultural comparisons of customers’ pro-environmental attitudes, satisfaction, loyalty, and intentional behaviours regarding green hotels: A

survey of British and Taiwanese tourists

A dissertation submitted by

TE CHANG LIU

In partial completion of the award ofMSC TOURISM MANAGEMENT AND MARKETING

I hereby declare that the dissertation submitted is wholly the work of Te Chang Liu. Any other contributors or sources have either been referenced in the prescribed manner or are listed in

the acknowledgements together with the nature and scope of their contribution.

BOURNEMOUTH UNIVERSITY

School of Tourism/ Faculty of Management

2015/2016

Dissertation DeclarationI agree that, should the University wish to retain it for reference purposes, a copy of

my dissertation may be held by Bournemouth University normally for a period of

three academic years. I understand that once the retention period has expired my

dissertation will be destroyed.

ConfidentialityI confirm that this dissertation does not contain information of a commercial or

confidential nature or include personal information other than that which would

normally be in the public domain unless the relevant permissions have been

obtained. In particular, any information which identifies a particular individual’s

religious or political beliefs, information relating to their health, ethnicity, criminal

history or gender, has been made anonymous, unless permission has been granted

for its publication from the person to whom it relates.

Ethical and Health & Safety issuesI confirm that any ethical considerations associated with the proposed research

dissertation were discussed with my supervisor and an appropriate research strategy

was developed, which would take them in to account. I also confirm that any potential

health & safety risks were discussed with my Supervisor and, where necessary,

appropriate precautions were documented, including an appropriate risk analysis and

the submission to my Supervisor of an ethics checklist form.

CopyrightThe copyright for this dissertation remains with me.

Requests for informationI agree that this dissertation may be made available as the result of a request for

information under the Freedom of Information Act.

Signed:

Name: Te Chang Liu

Date: 30 Aug 2016

Programme: MSc Tourism Management and Marketing

2

Abstract:

This research explores the relationship among tourist’s pro-environmental

attitude, satisfaction, loyalty, and intentional behaviour in relation to green

hotels in Taiwan and UK. The value of green hotels has been recognised by a

few international hotel chains but more researchers nowadays are promoting

the benefits of green operations in the hospitality industry for energy saving

and environmental protection.

As hotels are always regarded as one of the most resource-consuming

industries, there has consequently been a growing amount of literature in

respect of the trend of green practices in the lodging industry. This is due to

the over exploitation of the natural environment which has been revealed

publicly by media. Tourists’ environmental concerns toward lodging industry

have also been steadily increasing with the environmental information and

news. In general, tourists’ intentions to get involved in green consumption on

vacation are the vital factors to motivate hotels to go green.

Therefore, with the green movement spreading to the whole world, both

academics and practitioners need to understand more about green tourists

with different cultural backgrounds. UK, as a well-developed country for

tourism industry, is always referred to as the indicator of eco-friendly hotel

sectors. Previous studies have revealed that the concepts of green hotels

have already been revealed in UK since 1990s, but green performance of

hotels are also gaining more attention among tourists at present. On the other

hand, Taiwan, as a newly developed country for tourism sectors in Asia-

Pacific region, is also getting involved in the green movement owing to the

over-consumption in natural resources caused by tourists.

Compared with these two countries, it is interesting to find that tourism and

hospitality sectors in both countries are facing the challenge of environmental

crisis. Therefore, this research highlights the dimensions shaping tourists’ pro-

environmental attitude with cross- cultural comparisons. It also examines

whether tourists’ environmental attitude will lead to different level of

satisfaction toward green hotels. Also, enterprises nowadays are searching for 3

the more efficient methods to track customers’ intention to repurchase and

recommend to others. Therefore, this research investigates the respondents

who have ever stayed in green hotels with the view to understanding the

relationship between loyalty and intentional behaviour in the future.

Word count: 14991

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Acknowledgement

I would like to express my appreciation to Dr. Avital Biran, my supervisor in the

project. Her recommendations and suggestions are very useful and also guide me

the way to complete my dissertation more efficiency. This project may not be

complete with an exceptional quality without her valuable advice.

Importantly, I would like to thank my family for the support and opportunity to study

abroad especially my father who had the brain surgery. He always takes care of both

my brother and me. Also, my mother encouraged me all the time until I completed my

dissertation. I am so proud to be their son. In addition, I would like to appreciate my

best friend, Peter. He went through a very hard time with me and supported me in

this entire year. Lastly, I would like to thank for Bournemouth University, for a chance

to let me experience the student life again.

Te Chang Liu

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Table of contents:

I. Dissertation Declaration………………………………………………………...2

II. Abstract…………………………………………………………….3

III. Acknowledgement………………………………………………..5

IV. Table of Contents………………………………………………,,,,6

V. List of Tables……………………………………………………….8

VI. List of Figures………………………………………………………9

VII. List of Abbreviations……………………………………………..10

Contents:

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Research background……………………………………………11

1.2 Reasons for choosing the topic………………………………..13

1.3 Research aims and objectives………………………………….15

1.4 Research Structure……………………………………………….16

Chapter 2:Literature Review

2.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………17

2.2 Culture and behaviour……………………………………………..19

2.3 Culture and pro-environmental attitudes……………………….30

2.4 Consumer satisfaction, loyalty and intentional behaviour in green hotels …………………………………………………………………………352.5 Research Gap………………………………………………………..39

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Chapter 3:Methodology

3.1 introduction………………………………………………………..413.2 The analysis of hypothesis……………………………………..413.3 The development of hypothesis……………………………….433.4 Research philosophy and approach………………………….463.5 Data collection methods………………………………………...483.6 Data collection and analysis……………………………………503.7 Survey development……………………………………………..533.8 Limitation…………………………………………………………..55

Chapter 4: Main Findings and Analysis

4.1 Introduction………………………………………………………..574.2 The comparisons of demographic profile of tourists between Taiwan and UK who have ever stayed in green hotels…………….604.3 The characteristics profile of tourist’s environmental attitudes between Taiwan and UK…………………………………………………644.4 The analysis of satisfaction and loyalty regarding green hotels between Taiwan and UK…………………………………………………………….694.5 The analysis of intentional behaviour toward green hotels between Taiwan and UK…………………………………………………………….714.6 Hypothesis Testing……………………………………………….744.7 Chapter conclusion……………………………………………….81

Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendations5.1 Conclusion…………………………………………………………825.2 Recommendations………………………………………………..84

5.3 Suggestions for future research……………………………….86

References…………………………………………………………………88

Appendix………………………………………………………………….107

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List of Tables

Table Title Page

Table 2.1 The six dimensions of Hofstede’s cultural framework P.21

Table 2.2 Trompenaars’ seven dimensions of cultural comparisons P.26

Table 4.1 The comparisons of respondents’s nationality P.59

Table 4.2 The comparisons of demographic information regarding green

tourists between UK and Taiwan

P.60

Table 4.3 Dimension 1: The comparisons of Environmental Concern

between Taiwan and UK

P.64

Table 4.4 Dimension 2: The comparisons of self-expressive benefits between

Taiwan and UK

P.66

Table 4.5 Dimension 3: The comparisons of social norms between Taiwan and

UK

P.66

Table 4.6 Dimension 4: The comparisons of Greenwashing between

Taiwan and UK

P.67

Table 4.7 The comparisons of customer’s satisfaction and loyalty toward green

hotels between Taiwan and UK

P.69

Table 4.8 The comparisons of customer’s satisfaction and loyalty to

influence intentional behaviour regarding green hotels between

Taiwan and UK

P.71

Table 4.9 The comparisons of dimensions of tourists’ environmental

attitude and satisfaction toward green hotels between Taiwan

and UK

P.74

Table 4.10 The comparisons of relationship between satisfaction and

customers’ loyalty toward green hotels they have ever stayed

in

P.78

Table 4.11 The comparisons of relationship between loyalty and

customers’ intentional behaviour toward green hotels

P.81

8

List of Figures

Figure Title Page

Figure 2.1 The factors that influence the cross-cultural customer’s

behaviours

P.20

Figure 2.2 Hofstede’s six dimensions of cross-cultural comparisons

between Taiwan and UK

P.22

Figure 2.3 The cross-cultural values and consumer’s behaviour P.25

Figure 2.4 The Process of the Effective Factors to Shape

Consumer’s Repurchase Decision-Making on green hotels

P.31

Figure 2.5 The average country-level beliefs in favour of competition

and individual responsibility, 2002-2008

P.34

Figure 3.1 Framework of hypothesis P.45

9

List of Abbreviations

ISPRA: Italy’s Institute for Environmental Protection and Research

UNWTO: United Nations of World Tourism Organisation

TP Trip Advisor

BC Booking.com

MT Mind Tools

HB Hotel Business

GH Green Hoteliers

LOHAS Lifestyle of Health and Sustainability

R.O.I return on investment

SPSS Statistical Product and Service Solutions

ONS Office for National Statistics

EY Executive Yuan ROC

SD Standard Deviation

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Research Background

Due to the over consumption of energy globally, consumers nowadays are

more willing to embrace the eco-friendly concepts or even get involved in

green consumption. According to Hawken (2005), it is recorded that during a

one-day economic session of the entire world consumes the energy which will

take 27 years of solar energy to replace it. As one of the most energy-

consuming industries, the lodging industry is always regarded as a

disproportionate consumer of non-renewable resources, such as electricity

and water. Moreover, following on from the over consumption issues, there

are pollution problems, like the emissions of carbon dioxide and waste water.

It not only causes a shortage of energy but damage to tourism hotspots

(Bohdanowicz 2006).

With the public concerns over environmental issues increasing steadily, more

tourists would now like to pay attention to the green performance of hotels for

the purpose of contributing to the resolution of the accelerating environmental

problems. The environmental problems brought from lodging industry include

the depletion of ozone layer caused by CFC, water contamination from large

amount of waste water, and the solid wastes from tourists (Laroche et al.

2001). Although those visible environmental issues have been generated by

all consumers over the world, there was still space remaining for sustainable

development of hotels when the concept of eco-friendly management just

showed up two decades ago (Erdogan & Baris 2007). Some hotel owners

were reluctant to get embroiled with the new green developments. This was

due to the extra cost for the eco-friendly products or materials of green

construction. Hoteliers also feared that the green operation within travel

accommodation might sacrifice part of consumers’ benefits during their leisure

times, such as the reduction of housekeeping in guest rooms (Lee et al. 2010).

Furthermore, tourists used to regard green initiates as luxurious choice and at

the mean time they also lost some services while staying the green

accommodation (Kahn 2007).11

However, according to Italy’s Institute for Environmental Protection and

Research (ISPRA) (2016), it demonstrated that consumers in more recent

years are now more willing to mitigate the environmental problems by

reducing the excessive consumption of durable goods, water wastage and

energy use on vacation. Therefore, more hoteliers nowadays are getting

involved in eco-friendly operations to meet the green trend. One of the

reasons why they have taken this new direction is because, going green for

the long term operation is more economical (Hays & Ozretić-Došen 2014).

Another reason is that the green initiatives can segment the growing market of

green tourists who are seeking the environmental friendly services, thus

attracting more customers (Chen & Tung 2014).

With regard to the emerging market of “greener” lifestyle, there are more

tourists over the whole world selecting hotels following eco-friendly practices

during their trip. Therefore both academics and practitioners are now

desperate to identify what incentives are capable of drawing tourists to green

accommodation when they go travelling (Manaktola & Jauhari 2007). This

research attempts to shed light on customer’s behaviour regarding green

hotels including environmental attitude, satisfaction, loyalty, and intentional

behaviour, for the purpose of understanding the green trend in hospitality

industry globally. It was confirmed by many past studies that customer’s pro-

environmental attitude leads to positive connection with the green

consumption (Soongil & Yoon 2015). Therefore, this study starts by examining

the dimensions shaping customer’s environmental attitude, and then tries to

finds out the impact of attitude on satisfaction and loyalty. Furthermore, it also

reveals the intentional behaviour in the future based on satisfaction and loyalty

toward green hotels.

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1.2 Reasons for choosing the topic

According to Trip Advisor (2014), millennials in Asian countries and mid-

aged tourists in west Europe and North America, who are below 44 years

old, are the two major groups concerned with the sustainable travel pattern.

As the green consumption emerged in tourism industry recently, consumers

in the developed countries of Asia-pacific area, West Europe and North

America were also more critical of the green practices of travelling

accommodation (Budeanu 2007).

Following this trend, this research discusses the topic of customer’s

behaviour regarding green hotels in a cross-cultural context. It is obvious

that the trend of green hotels has innovated the phase of lodging industry

globally, so this study draws comparisons between consumers’ attitude,

satisfaction as well as repurchase intention in the well-developed countries,

UK, and newly developed country, Taiwan.

It is defined by Green Hoteliers (2016) that green hotels are referred to the

eco-friendly lodging properties implementing a variety of green operation

including water-saving, decrease in energy consumption, reduction of solid

waste, and recycling the routinely durable items, such as containers and

towels reusing etc. As for the green lodging industry in UK, it has been a

valuable domain by academics of tourism and hospitality since 1990s

(Mandese 1991). Nevertheless, it has been growing in popularity among

tourists in UK for the thirteen years with the foundation of “green traveller”

(2003). The “Green traveler” was the first online travel guide for tourists who

have interests in information of eco-friendly travel. Recently, with the

development of more online travel guide platforms, the concepts of green

hotels have also been distributing by tourists’ comments globally via tourism

online guide such as Trip Advisor and Booking.com (Green Hotelier 2008).

The green trend of lodging industry in Taiwan has also been influenced by online

tourism guide websites these few years (Tsai et al. 2014). As McKercher et al.

(2003) presented that hospitality industry is indeed more “supply-driven” than

“demand-led”; hence, if the hoteliers have no offering in green management, there

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will less supply in the green accommodation. It is shown by previous studies that

elder tourists in Far East countries prefer the tour package to individual travelling

pattern (Wong & Lau 2001). It is perceived that there are still rarely tour agencies

in Taiwan offering the eco-friendly packages, and it is obvious that the elder

tourists in Taiwan have no direct chances to experience green hotels (Wang et al.

2000). Thus, this research assumes that the tourists in Taiwan who have

experiences in green hotels will mainly focus on the age group younger than 45

years ago.

Following this context, this research notices the interesting connection between

cultural characteristics and consumption pattern on green hotels in both Taiwan

and UK. This research attempts to analyse the factors of customer’s behaviour

regarding green hotels under these two countries in order to improve the

understanding of green tourists in both countries.

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1.3 Research aims and objectives

The aims of the research are to explore the relationship among tourists’ pro-

environmental attitude, satisfaction, loyalty and intentional behaviour regarding

green hotels in Taiwan and UK. The research is aimed at analysing the

connection between cultural values and customer’s behaviour, and it also

illustrates the four dimensions shaping customers’ pro-environmental attitude

under the cross-cultural background. In addition, this study also explores the

relationship between customers’ pro-environmental attitude and satisfaction

toward green hotels, to understand how influential each dimension of

environmental attitude affects customers’ satisfaction. It also aims at identifing

whether satisfaction and loyalty have impacts on customers’ intentional

behaviour toward green hotels in the future. Previous research has recognised

that loyalty is one of the most important factors to influence green tourists’

repurchase intention and positive recommendation to others (Soongil & Yoon

2015). Therefore, to conduct the study as the research aims above, this

research should be completed through the objectives as detailed below:

1. To understand if customer’s pro-environmental attitude toward

green hotels under different cultural backgrounds, Taiwan and UK,

affects customer’s satisfaction.

2. To find out if customers’ satisfaction under different cultural

background, Taiwan and UK, has impacts on loyalty after green

consumption in the eco-friendly hotels

3. To discover the connection between customer’s loyalty towards

green hotels and their repurchase intention under the cross-cultural

comparisons between Taiwan and UK.

4. To assess if customers’ loyalty toward green hotels under the cross-

cultural values, Taiwan and UK, has influences on the willingness to

recommend to others.

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1.4 Research structure

This research has been divided into five parts as follows:

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

This chapter outlines the background information of research topic. It presents the

updated trend of green hotels, and the reason for combining customer’s behaviour

regarding green hotels and cross-cultural values. It also identifies the research aims

and objectives, and states the research structure.

Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

The second chapter presents a review of past research, models, and literature from

secondary data related to the topic of this research.

Chapter 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter elaborates the methodology utilised to achieve the aim and objectives of

this study. It demonstrates the framework of hypothesis in respects of the research

topic. In addition, it also clarifies the tools for sampling method, data collection and

analysis, as well as the limitations of this research.

Chapter 4: MAIN FINDING AND ANALYSIS

This chapter explores the main findings and interprets the statistics to examine the

hypothesis of this research.

Chapter 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The final chapter makes conclusions in relation to the literature review and

results of the main findings. In addition, this chapter offers recommendations

in relation to green initiatives and suggestions to future studies.

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Chapter 2 Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

Nowadays, environmental degradation has been reaching a globally alarming level

due to the depletion of natural resources, the damage caused by climate change,

and the insufficiency of living space (Ayre and Callway 2005). With the release of Al

Gore’s “An Inconvenient Truth” worldwide, pro-environmental awareness is now

prevalent in the tourism and hospitality industry (Olson 2007). Research has also

shown that the concepts of green travel patterns are increasingly popular globally,

especially in Western Europe, Northern America, and Asia Pacific regions (Green

Hotel Association 2016). Furthermore when the trend for “green travel” is examined,

there are more tourists enthused by the positive perception of “green hotels”, and

more hoteliers attempt to get involved in green practices in order to achieve the

segmentation of green lodging industry (Hemlock 2007).

With the international hotel chains now being widespread globally, the need for a

deeper understanding of cross-cultural management in the hospitality industry has

been growing. Since Hofstede’s research in 1980, there have already been related

studies focused on the relationship between cross-cultural comparisons and the

customer’s behaviors in tourism (Cohen, Prayag & Moital 2013), but fewer studies

are focused on the discussion of the consumers' behaviors in the green hospitality

industry under different cultural backgrounds. Therefore, this research will discuss

how the green trend will affect consumers' pro-environmental attitudes by looking at

the values under different cultural contexts, Taiwan and the United Kingdom.

In addition, based on Soongli and Yoon’s research (2015), this study explores how

consumer’s pro-environmental attitude affects consumer’s satisfaction as well as

intentional behaviour toward green hotels (Soongli & Yoon 2015). In general,

people’s attitudes towards environment are affected by their national culture, and

attitude also leads to different level of satisfaction and loyalty. Also, according to

Kotler (2011), the more loyalty tourists maintain toward one specific brand, the more

repurchase intentions and recommendations they will make in the future. Therefore,

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this research illustrates the relationship among all of these factors and it also draws

the comparisons of these factors between Taiwan and UK.

While sustainable development has had a positive impact on the tourism and

hospitality industry for a few decades, environmental awareness is now turning into

an essential issue both for consumers and hoteliers (Budeanu 2007). This study is

aimed at identifying the fundamental elements of consumer’s mental processing in

preferring green hotels, and it also will look towards locating the possible research

gaps among the connection between consumer’s attitude, satisfaction, and

repurchase intentions in relation to green lodging and accommodation.

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2.2 Culture and behaviour

2.2.1 Cross-cultural values and consumers’ behaviours

According to the World Tourism Organisation (WTO), it is evident to observe that the

international tourism industry has risen up to become more important for economic

development and it has also deepened diversification in the service industry sectors

globally (UNWTO 2014). It is estimated by UNWTO that the tourism industry

accounted for nine percent of GDP around the whole world in 2015 and has become

the fastest-growing economic sectors in the same year too (UNWTO 2015). Due to

globalisation converging with the widespread growth of the tourism sectors, the chain

or franchised accommodation suppliers have had to keep up with progressive ideas

of cross-national management (Holjevac 2003). With an increasing degree of

hoteliers cross-country operating, they are striving for a more efficient method to

position themselves in the market, for example by understanding the cultural values

within different countries and customer behaviours (Cleveland et al. 2016).

With a view to identifying the consumer’s behaviours under different cultural

background, Oswald suggested that culture shapes customer’s preferences,

expectations, and behavioural patterns (Oswald 1999). Following on the trend of

globalisation, the cross-country hoteliers can get access to the local market easier by

means of incorporating the indigenous culture with the value of home country

(Westjohn, Singh & Magnusson 2012). Therefore, since culture is the connection to

bind the group together, cultural values can also be viewed as the fundamental factor

to influence consumer’s behaviours.

Based on the definition presented by Triandis (1996), culture is comprised of the

“shared elements” of one specific community. Hofstede (2010) suggested that the

“shared elements” of culture plays a fundamental role to understand the values of

one specific organisation, enterprise, or even the national characteristics. To

recognise the shared value of one specific culture, Hofstede (2010) characterised

people’s feeling, thinking, and mind as the “mental programs”, and the evolution of

the “mental programs” is based on the socio-cultural environments in which one grew

up and collect experiences. Therefore, the shared value of culture is defined by

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Hofstede as the “collective programming of the human mind which distinguishes one

specific human group from those of another” (Wagnwe 2008).

The following is the model to illustrate the crucial factors of cross-cultural

comparisons affecting customer’s behaviour:

Figure 2.1 The factors that influence the cross-cultural customer’s behaviours

Source: Adopted from ” Cultures and organisation: Software of the mind “ ( Hofstede

2010)

Figure 1 shows that the identity and the institutions of a nation are classified as the

“visible” traits, such as the language, religion and laws. However, in terms of the

invisible traits of the national culture, it is always regarded as the values of one

specific group of people. Owning to the invisible characteristics of cultural values,

Hofstede developed the six dimensions to underpin the cross-cultural comparisons

(Thien, Thurasamy & And 2013). To discuss how the cultural values affect

customer’s perceptions toward green hotels seems to be the inevitable method when

analysing the cultural factors and customer’s behaviours. The following are the six

dimensions of Hofstede’s cultural framework (Hofstede 2002, 2011):

1. Power Distance

2. Uncertainty Avoidance

3. Masculinity - Femininity

4. Individualism - Collectivism.

5. Long Term and Short Term Orientation

6. Indulgence and Restraint

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2.2.2 The cross-cultural values and consumer’s perceptions toward green hotels

Table 2.1 The six dimensions of Hofstede’s cultural framework

The Dimensions Characteristics Typical Cultures

1.Power Distance The tolerances for rank differentials in a group or society, including the extent to which the less powerful people in the society accept the inequality in different class and regard it as normality(Samovar & Porter 2001).

High-Power Distance Countries: Malaysia Guatemala, Panama, Philippines

Low-Power Distance Countries: US, Australia, New Zealand

2. UncertaintyAvoidance

The intolerance to the uncertainty risk, people in the high uncertainty avoidance group have the tendency to behave in a structured situation. On the other hand, people in the low uncertainty avoidance society get used to the unstructured condition (Mazanec et al. 2015)

The high-uncertainty avoidance countries:Greece Ecuador, Portugal

The low-uncertainty avoidance countries: Denmark, Jamaica,Singapore

3.“Individualism”

and

“Collectivism”

The degree to which people appreciate to be independent rather than interdependent (Hofstede 1994). Individualism and collectivism are the vital elements to Hofstede’s cultural framework, which applies to the tourists’ attitudes, satisfactions, and behaviours under the interconnecting cross-cultural context (Xinrin et al. 2000).

The Individualism Countries: US, Australia, UK

The Collectivism Countries: Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan

4. “Masculinity”

and

“Femininity”

The extent to which the male-oriented values are dominated. The masculinity refers to the men-dominated values which take rooted in the assertiveness, the achievement orientation, competition, ambition and materialism. On the other hand, the femininity values present the nurturing behaviours, and femininity values have unclear barriers of gender differentiation. They tend not to look on the human beings as the dominated species in the universe (Chandan 2014).

The Masculinity Countries: Japan, Austria, Ireland, Jamaica, UK

The Femininity Countries: Taiwan, Thailand, Norway, Sweden

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5 Long-term

and

Short-term

Orientation

The values of long-term orientation are focused on the future rewards, based on the concepts of perseverance and thrift (Hofstede 2001). On the contrary, “the short term” orientation takes rooted in the past and present, and it demonstrated the values of the “immediate results” (Venaik, Zhu & Brewer 2013).

Long-Term Orientation Countries: China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan, and South Korea

Short-TermOrientation Countries:U.S, U.K, Canada

6. Indulgence

and

Restraint

The extent to which people stand gratification and control of basic human desire based on having fun (Hofstede 2011). People who are in the indulgence values have tendency to allow permissiveness in consumption. Nevertheless, people who are in the restraint values tend to be more disciplined in personal desire and gratification (Maleki & Jong 2014).

Indulgence countries: USA, UK, Australia, Canada

Restraint countries:China, Taiwan, Japan,South Korea

Source: Amended from Hofstede 2001; 2011; Samovar et al. 2009

Due to the above mentioned traits, there are three cross-cultural comparisons which

applying to the consumer’s perceptions toward green hotels, including “Masculinity”

and “Feminity”, “Long-Term” and “Short-Term” orientation, as well as “Indulgence”

and “Restraint”. Based on the definition illustrated by Hofstede, the masculine

country may consume more natural resources and achieve greater industrial success

than the feminine countries (Hofstede 2001).

When examining the green intention to stay in the eco-friendly hotels, the study will

make distinctive comparisons between Taiwan and UK.

Figure 2.2 Hofstede’s six dimensions of cross-cultural comparisons between

Taiwan and UK

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Source: Adapted from Hofstede’s Centre (2016)

As figure 2.2 shows above, the UK is ranked 66% of masculinity, higher than Taiwan

only 45 % in the masculinity. It is evident to demonstrate that Taiwan has long been

influenced by the Chinese culture, owing to the majority immigrated population came

from China during World War 2, so Taiwanese eco-friendly concepts also mingled

with the traditional Confucianism, emphasising the eternity of human -nature

relationship (Buckley et al. 2008).

As for the “long-term” and “short-term” orientation, Taiwan ranks 93% versus 51% in

UK. Indeed, in the context of green accommodation, Sullivan noted that British

hoteliers have the tendency to take the immediate reward when operating the green

management, and some may even “pretend green” to attract with the growing

numbers of green tourists (Sullivan 2009). As mentioned in chapter 1, the lodging

industry is indeed more “supply-driven” than “demand-led” (McKercher et al. 2003).

As UK is regarded as a developed country and the green trend in travel

accommodation has been present there for almost two decades, there is still space

remaining for growth in this type of travel pattern in this country (Booking.com 2016).

Compared with the green hotels in UK, the Taiwanese hoteliers may be more tolerant

in the long term sustainable development, initiating the green marketing strategy and

adopting the environmental practices because the green tourists in Taiwan examine

23

the green performance of hotels for the long term (Tsai, Wu & Wang 2014). Although

green hotels are just a new trend in Taiwan, it has been increasing in popularity

among the young, individual tourists recently (Trip Advisor 2016).

Therefore, with environmental concerns increasing among most of the tourists in both

countries nowadays, more tourists now have the consumption pattern to search for

the green practices of the travel accommodation (Han et al. 2011). Hoteliers also

take part in increasing the green practices of their operation in order to explore more

chances in the “greenness” business (Dief & Font 2010).

Finally, applying the indicator of “Indulgence” to green hotels, it is evident to discover

that the UK is 20% higher than Taiwan in figure 2. It demonstrates one factor that

British people are less willing to sacrifice when it comes to enjoying life than

Taiwanese. The higher indulgence values also comprise of increasing rates of

environmental exploitation, to fulfil the customer’s demand or to create the skewed

desires for customers (Goodin 1994).

To meet the green tourists’ demand, there are consequently more environmental

incentives for the hoteliers to turn green recently in both countries due to the

increasing numbers of green tourists, such as benefits gained the eco-friendly

reputation by online travel agency after turning green (O’Neill 2015). The numbers of

Taiwanese tourists, who perceive the eco-friendly value of green hotels as one of the

elements to select when choosing travel accommodation, are also constantly

growing, and it is highly expected that the number of green tourists in Taiwan will

increase 2 percent totally in 2016 (Green Hoteliers 2016). As there has already been

5% increased in the numbers of green tourists in UK according to trip advisor (2016),

it is expected there will be more growth in the green lodging industry in the next ten

years.

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2.2.3 Cross-cultural values and consumers’ behaviours in green hotels

Mooij (2004) defined the topic “consumer behaviour” as the process of behaviours,

which consist of the selection, the purchasing pattern, the satisfaction, or even the

experiences after using the products. Hence, to obtain a deep comprehension of the

cross-cultural consumer’s behaviours, focus needs to be made on the comparisons

of each value of culture as well as the integration of a variety of components of

human behaviours rather than the pure homogenization (Holjevic 2003). The cross-

cultural comparisons of consumer behaviours also offer a profound understanding of

how the cultural values system affects the marketing and communication strategy,

the customer’s attitude, and behaviours (Luna and Gupta 2001).

The following figure is the model of interconnection between culture and customer

behaviours:

Figure 2.3 The cross-cultural values and consumer’s behaviour

Pro-

environmental attitudes

1. Environmental Concern

2. Self Expressive Benefit

3. Social Norm4. Greenwashing

CulturalValues1. Age

2. Education3.Identity4.Lifestyle

5.Nationality

ConsumerGroup

organisation

The Domains of Consumer Behaviours

1.Consumer’s decision-making

2. Satisfaction.

3. Brand loyalty

4. Intention to repurchase and recommend

25

Source: Adopted from Manrai and Manrai (2001); Mooij (2004)

According to figure 2.3, the consumers are the central element. The components

influencing consumer’s behaviours consist of cultural values including education,

identity and nationality. Also, cultural values not only lead to different prospects of

consumers’ pro-environmental attitude, but also shape the consumer’s satisfaction

and intentional behaviour. The reasons why cultural values have great impacts on

these components are because people’s attitudes, satisfaction, and intentional

behaviour such as repurchase or recommendation are all affected by the foundation

of cultural values (Park 2013).

Cultural values are regarded as the dynamic process to influence consumer’s

decision-making, consumption patterns, and taste orientation toward luxury goods

(Miller 1995; Farah & Fawaz 2016). Since consumer’s behaviours are tightly

connected with the network of cultural values, the mental process of consumption

pattern seems to mainly be affected by the cultural values as well as pro-

environmental attitudes rather than by the individual (Kabaskal & Bodur 2002).In

addition to Hofstede’s six dimensions of cultural values, Trompenaars also discussed

the topic of cultural values applied to the diversity of consumer’s behaviours.

The following is the table to illustrate the cross-cultural comparisons in consumer’s

behaviours:

Table 2.2 Trompenaars’ seven dimensions of cultural comparisons

The Dimension Characteristics Typical cultures

1.UniversalismV.S.Particularism

(1) Universalism:  People emphasise the importance of rules and laws; customers tend to rely on the rules to deal with the suppliers rather than the relationship with the business.

(a) U.S.; U.K; Canada; Australia; New Zealand

(2) Particularism: Consumers have the behaviour pattern to change their perception and rules based on different circumstance and situation. Most of the consumers also take the private relationship as the standard to assess the values of the

(b) China; Taiwan; Hong Kong; Latin America

26

products.

2 IndividualismV.S.Communitarianism

(1) People believe in personal freedom and accomplishment. Children growing up under this culture tend to act independently, and they always rake care of themselves.

(a) U.S.; U.K; Canada; Australia; New Zealand

(2) The benefits of organisation are the first priority to the members among it. Praise the obedience and assess the group performance rather than the individual one.

(b) Japan, Latin American

3. Specificv.s.Diffuse

(1)  Customers under this cultural values have the tendency to keep the business from their relationships. Most of the consumers believe in the money-oriented value.

(a) US; UK; Germany; Switzerland

(2)  Customers tend to highly overlap the personal life with business affairs.People under this cultural values believe that building relationship in the business field is the first priority. The personal affection always leads to the results of the business performance.

(b) China; India; Spain

4 Neutralv.sEmotional

(1) People attempt to control their emotions all the time, not revealing them to the public.

(a) UK, Finland, Germany

(2) People strive for the ways to express their emotions, even at business occasion or at work.

(b) Spain, France, Italy

5.  AchievementV.SAscription

(1) People assess the value through the performance, no matter who you are.

(a) US; Canada; Scandinavia

(2) People recognise the value by the brand, title, and power position. There is tight connection between authority and the values.

(b) Japan; Italy; Saudi Arabia

6. Sequential TimeV.SSynchronous Time

(1) People believe in the importance of punctuality, and they also stick to the schedule, setting up the deadlines and keeping to it.

(a) Germany; U.S; U.K

(2) People regard “time” as “flexible subject”. The plans and commitment are all changeable in terms of their own philosophy.

(b) Mexico; Argentina

7. Internal DirectionV.SOuter

(1) Consumers and suppliers take the human-dominated attitudes, presenting the values that human beings control the nature and legally own the resources of it.

(a) Israel; U.S.; Australia; New Zealand; U.K.

27

Direction (2) People in this culture believe that they are controlled by the environment or the nature, and they must maintain a harmonious relationship with the nature. Human beings also rely on the natural resources mainly and should take it appropriately.

(b) China; Taiwan; Russia

Source: Amended from Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner (2010)

To echo Hofstede’s viewpoints of cultural values applied to customer’s green

perception in travel accommodation, Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (2010) also

argued that British people, who are under the cultural value of Universalism, are

more concerned at the obligations and the law (Mind Tools 2016). Green tourists in

UK tend to find their desired travel accommodation by searching for eco-friendly

recognition via online travel agents (Hotels 2007). Therefore, this seriously influences

the overall green operation in the hospitality industry, and there are now more

hoteliers in UK making an effort to take a lead in the marketplace by increasing green

performance (Hotel Business 2007).

Taiwanese cultural values are more “particularism-oriented” than those in the UK, as

their tourists are more flexible in decision-making concerning consumption and easily

changed depending on circumstances and conditions (Trompenaars & Hampden-

Turner 2010). Take the green operation of lodging industry as an example, the

Taiwanese government tend to tolerate the low green performance in the hotels

which have good relationships with public authorities (Taiwan Environmental

Information Centre 2016). As mentioned before, the concepts of green hotels are

more “supply-driven” rather than “demand-led”, though most of the Taiwanese

tourists nowadays understand the concepts of green hotels; however, there are still

fewer eco-friendly hotels for them when selecting the travel accommodation (Wang

2012).

In addition, one of Trompenaars’ cultural dimensions also draws the comparison of

“International Direction” and “Outer Direction”, the former referring to the values of

“Anthropocentrism” and the later presenting the values of “Ecocentrism” (Minfont &

Duckitt 2004). The “anthropocentrism” is the concept showing that human beings are

dominant in nature, and it also presents that human beings are superior and are

28

therefore entitled to exploit the natural resources in the planet (Kortenkamp & Moore

2001; Page & Connell 2009). On the contrary, based on the definition offered by

Page and Connell (2009), “ecocentrism” is focused on the “nature-centred" values,

which means the nature is the centre of the universe and all of the living things are

just part of it. Buckley (2008) presented that both Chinese and British culture are both

focused on the importance of “going green” in the lodging industry, but the

philosophy behind the green operation of hospitality industry is different. The two

approaches both can arouse people’s environmental awareness due to differentiated

reasons (Schultz & Zelezny 1999).

Applying the anthropocentrism to the average tourists in UK, the anthropocentric

customers take the green attitude into the tourism pattern owing to the benefits which

may bring to people; like the green practices sorting out the lack of renewable

resources including water or electricity power (Eslaminosratabadi et al. 2014). Owing

to the anthropocentric values dominated in UK, most British tourists nowadays still

regard the conventional hotels as the first choice during their trips because they fear

to lose the flexibility of being “luxurious” and “leisure” on vacation (Han et al. 2011).

As a matter of fact, even though more than 80% of the tourists in UK realise the

importance of green hotels and have “green attitudes” towards accommodation while

traveling, there are only 32% tourists in UK selecting the less negative impact on

travel accommodation (Budeanu 2007).

However, the ecocentric customers will take the method of green tourism due to the

support appertaining to the nature-based values (Xu & Fox 2014). In traditional

Chinese philosophy, the perspectives of Confucian and Taoist, in pursuit of

“harmony”( 和 )and “middle way”( 中庸之道 ) with the nature, human beings should

search for the unity of men and nature to regulate human’s development in the

nature (Bucklet et al.2008; Scofield & Li 2011; Xu et al. 2014).

Therefore, owing to the Chinese-value dominated in Taiwan, the Taiwanese tourists

take the values of “ecocentrism” as the principles to select the green hotels though

only few hoteliers are capable of implementing the green practices (Claver-Cortes et

al. 2007;Tsai et al. 2014). Up to 60% tourists in Taiwan nowadays realise the

increasing environmental problems such as the over consumption in water resources

and energy caused by lodging industry (Tsai et al. 2014), and there are more “green

29

tourists” concerned at the operation of hotels, selecting the green hotels which meet

the eco-friendly practice (Shamsuddin et al. 2014).

Based on the discussion mentioned in this chapter, consumers’ behaviours are

affected by the complex network of cultural values and the pro-environmental attitude

(Voss, Lucas & Ward 2014). Therefore, the next chapter discusses the factors, which

shape the pro-environmental attitudes under different cultural background, and how it

affects customer’s behaviours.

30

2.3 Culture and pro-environmental attitudes

2.3.1 The four factors to shape customer’s pro-environmental attitudes

With the green movement increasing in popularity in the travel accommodation

industry, there is more research demonstrating that consumer’s pro-environmental

attitude has also been actively growing (Akenji 2014). Since more research has

showed the positive connection between consumer’s eco-friendly attitudes and the

green performance as well as the profitability of hotels (Han et al. 2011), Teisl et al.

(2008) suggested that consumer’s psychological characteristics, such as the

environmental concern or self-expressive benefits, may affect customer’s intentions

and then influence the consumption patterns.

Therefore, according to Soongil and Yoon (2015), there are four fundamental factors

to assess how the pro-environmental attitude will interact with customer’s satisfaction

and intentional behaviours, including (i) environmental concern, (ii) self-expressive

benefits, (iii) social norm, and (iv) greenwashing.

Figure 2.4 The Process of the Effective Factors to Shape Consumer’s

Repurchase Decision-Making on green hotels

Environmental Concern

Self-ExpressiveBenefits

Social Norms

Greenwashing

Pro-Environmental Attitude

Satisfaction

IntentionalBehaviour

RepurchaseBehaviour

RecommendationTo

others

Loyalty

31

Source: Adapted from Soongil and Yoon (2015)

2.3.2 The four factors of environmental attitudes under different cultural

background

Based on the model amended from Soongil and Yoon (2015), it is illustrated by

Figure 6 that there are four fundamental dimensions shaping customer’s pro-

environmental attitude, and then leads to satisfaction, loyalty as well as intentional

behaviours, including repurchase and recommendation.

Environmental concern has been recognised as the most important issue to affect

consumers’ eco-friendly consumption since 1980s (Balderjahn 1988), and recent

studies have also stated that consumers nowadays are quite concerned at the

environmental issues in terms of the increasing environmental crisis widely presented

by media (Hartmann & Apaolaza-Ibáñez 2012). According to Gosling et al.(2004),

there are a variety of different levels in terms of environmental concern among

tourists, and their cultural values affected tourists’ environmental concern the most

(Woronuk 2008).

Compared the environmental concern between the tourists in Taiwan and UK,

previous research showed that consumers in UK are highly interested in the

connection between environmental crisis and their well-beings in terms of eco-

friendly products (Bahr et al. 2004; Baker et al. 2004). Recently, Taiwanese

researchers also argued that green performance of travel accommodation gives a

competitive advantage to the hoteliers to segment the green trend. It is due to

tourists in Taiwan nowadays have more knowledge of environmental concern while

assessing the overall image of the hoteliers (Chen et al. 2006).

As for the second variable “self-expressive benefits”, Hartmann and Apaolaza-Ibáñez

(2012) suggested that consumers would like to demonstrate their characteristics and

preferences after consumption. In order to receive the psychological reward and

recognition from others, consuming the eco-friendly accommodation is one of the

best perceptions to demonstrate their environmental concern (Hartmann & Apaolaza-

Ibáñez 2008). According to Aaker and Schmitt (1997), they demonstrated the subject

32

of self expressive in consumer behaviours under the influence of cultural values. It

refers to the customers in Collectivist culture, such as Taiwan and China, tend to

recognise “brand” as one way to identify the similarities in one group (Aaker &

Schmitt 1997). On the contrary, the consumers in the Individualism culture, such as

UK and USA, present their characteristic through the brand they choose (Luna &

Gupta 2001).

When looking at self-expressive benefits in relation to green hotels, it is evident to

discover that self-expressive benefits appeal to customers in both UK and Taiwan to

get information of green hotels (Hartmann & Apaolaza-Ibáñez 2006). The customers

in Individualist countries like UK tend to purchase the eco-friendly hotels owing to

personal responsibility to environmental crisis (Jin & Shriar 2013). However, the

consumers in Collectivist culture like Taiwan regard the green accommodation as a

way to demonstrate the identity in one specific group or lifestyle (Cruz-Cárdenas et

al. 2016), such as the LOHAS (Lifestyle of Health and Sustainability) values

widespread in Taiwan recently ( Lohas online 2016).

Social norms are also a key factor to shape customer’s pro-environmental attitude

and then intentional behaviours. According to Peattie (2010), social norms are

defined as the expected behaviours in a specific social context which demonstrate

how people to act in a given situation, and being disobedient to the social norms of

environmental problems also leads to unsatisfying services and even the illegal

behaviours to most of the tourists in hotels (Zukin & Maguire 2004). As Kim et al.

(2012) conducted a survey of the relationships between social norms and

consumer’s intention to consume green products, they discovered that injunctive

social norms issued by local government have a stronger impact on consumer’s

attitudes to select green accommodation than the normal descriptive social norms.

Applying the social norms to the cross-cultural comparisons in green hotels, Reese et

al. (2014) discovered that the numbers of tourists’ towel-use in the hotels of central

UK are reducing more when they meet the national or provincial messages issued by

local government, rather than the standard normal messages globally. The same

situation is also applied to Taiwan, there is recent survey demonstrating if the social

norm message in the hotels including the conformity with the environmental

33

regulation, there will be more tourists willing to get involved in the environmental

programme in hotels (Teng et al. 2012).

Compared with the previous three factors, “greenwashing” is regarded as the

strategy to obtain a green brand image to appeal to tourists, referring to the

misleading act concerning environmental awareness or the eco-friendly strategy

presented by hoteliers with the view to appealing to consumers (Delmas & Burbano

2011; Chen & Chang 2013). With the numbers of the eco-friendly hotels increasing

recently, hoteliers attempt to be competitive by meeting consumer’s environmental

concerns; nevertheless, there are many firms advocating the green practices of the

accommodation but indeed they fail to deal with the green performances (Bowen &

Aragon-Correa 2014).

Moreover, tourists nowadays have the tendency to be skeptical about the authenticity

of green hotels, and tourists’ confusion regarding the green image which hoteliers

attempt to demonstrate to the public may also change customer’s attitudes toward

green hotels (Nilasy et al. 2013).

Figure 2.5 The average country-level beliefs in favour of competition and

individual responsibility, 2002-2008

34

Source: Amended from Roulet and Touboul (2015)

According to the survey conducted by Roulet and Touboul (2015), the countries that

believe that competitiveness is an important factor to assess a company’s

performance also have cultural values which lead to a tendency to get involved in

greenwashing. As figure 5 shows that countries, which believe the competition are

the key issues for the economic growth, including China, Taiwan, Singapore, Egypt,

Indonesia, are more likely to operate the greenwashing strategy to change

customer’s attitudes toward the brand images (Lim & Tsutsui 2012).

On the contrary, if the countries, which believe the virtue of individual responsibility,

have the tendency to assess the performance of cooperation by their concrete

participation in green operation (Jackson & Apostolakou 2010). Furthermore, those

individual countries believe the cultural values of corporation social responsibility, so

the customers also take the eco-friendly performance into consideration, as one

35

factor to evaluate the C.S.R (Cooperation Social Responsibility)(Jones & Nisbet

2011). Customers of countries including Switzerland, US, New Zealand, and UK, are

more willing to confirm the green performance before purchasing the green labels

(Maignan & Ralston 2002).

All of these four factors result in the different levels of pro-environmental attitude, and

then they influence the satisfaction and the repurchase behaviour after the

consumption. The next chapter will discuss customer’s satisfaction and intentional

behaviour after the experience in green hotels.

36

2.4 Consumer satisfaction, loyalty and intentional behaviour in green hotels

2.4.1 Cross-cultural comparisons and consumer satisfaction in green hotels

Consumer satisfaction (C.S), also named as customer satisfaction, has been

recognised as the major strategic consideration for most tourist and hospitality

enterprises as customers are their only source for return on investment (R.O.I) (Hill &

Alexander 2006). As Tsoukatos and Rand (2006) defined customer’s satisfaction, it

showed that in order to expand market share, the cooperation needs to fulfill

consumer’s satisfaction by providing services or products based on customer’s

demands. The reasons why most enterprises nowadays lose original customers and

suffer from financial losses of around 10 to 30 percent annually is because they focus

on searching for new sources of customers and innovation rather than maintaining

their existing customer satisfaction base and original brand image

(Mohsen,Mohammadreza & Majid 2012). Therefore, measuring customer satisfaction

is needed to be established, to realise what consumers’ needs are, and based on the

understanding of consumer’s satisfaction, there will be a more precise method to

formulate an effective strategy for the firms to develop their consumer base. (Tabibi

et al. 2015).

As Sen and Bhattacharya (2001) stated that the green performance of hotels has the

positive connection with customer’s emotional needs in satisfaction, there are also

other research supporting the subject that green tourists might experience feelings of

well-being when they behave altruistically, especially for those tourists who strive for

the moral satisfaction (Hartmann & Ibanez 2006). Following after the context,

according to Manaktola and Jauhari (2007), the green operation of hotels are not

necessary for tourists as a factor to affect satisfaction and the service quality is the

key factor to influence consumer’s satisfaction (Eisingerichet al. 2011). Therefore,

based on the survey conducted by Luo and Li (2013), even though tourists in UK and

Taiwan nowadays recognise the eco-friendly values of green hotels, the essential

determinant of consumer’s satisfaction is still the service quality and physical

equipment of hotels.

37

With green practices of hotels increasing in popularity nowadays, assessing

satisfaction of consumption experience under different cultural backgrounds is more

challengeable owing to the diversified values of culture (Bolton & Mathew 2003). As

Kotler (2003) presented four characteristics of the service industry, he illustrated that

the cross-cultural enterprises always meet the challenges of inseparability, variability,

intangibility, and perishability. Even though the green initiatives have already been

taken into account for the travelling trend recently, however, most of the customers

still keep the satisfaction or even remain loyal to the hotels based on the concrete

service sectors rather than whether it is green or not (Kamal & Vinnie 2007).

Compared with the tangible services such as the facilities of gyms, pool, spa, or

guest rooms, most of the green practitioners tend to attach the psychological and

emotional needs for the tourist’s environmental awareness or even self-esteems

(Sen & Bhattacharya 2001). Based on the characteristics cited from Kotler, the green

hoteliers tend to link the affective award with the intangible and the imperishable

values of green lodging, and the customer’s self actualisation after getting involved in

the green travelling may be satisfied with the positive emotions (Gutierrez & Seva

2016).

As for inseparability and variability, the brand images of green initiatives strive to

fulfill the ideas of the green movement or even create the values and expectations for

green tourists. Customer’s satisfaction is determined by customer emotional awards

and their feedback in relation to green experiences after purchasing is important. In

other words, the eco-friendly resources and facilities are tightly connected with the

brand image of those green initiatives (D’Souza, Taghian & Lamb 2006), and

moreover, the services or even the operation strategies are all varied with the newest

environmental policies and trend (Gutierrez & Seva 2016). Therefore, while applying

the green practices to the hospitality industry under cross-cultural comparisons, most

of the green hoteliers nowadays tend to emphasise the eco-label images identified by

green certificate to convey the environmental friendly messages publicly, such as

“biodegradable”,” ozone-friendly”, or “eco-friendly” (D’Souza 2000). Consumers may

perceive the eco-label before purchasing, and they are willing to pay premiums to

those green lodgings by recognising the green certificates (Bruce & Laroiya 2007).

Here, this study aims to analyse the intentional behaviours after purchasing, and

38

clarifying the factors of satisfaction to influence the willingness to repurchase under

different cultural background.

2.4.2 Satisfaction, loyalty and intentional behaviour in green hotels

According to recent study, it has already been verified that there is positive

connection among satisfaction, loyalty and repurchase behaviours in the green hotels

(Han & Yoon 2015). According to Laazi et al.(2016), consumer’s satisfaction has

become a fundamental database for most of the enterprises to enhance the service

quality or innovate the new products, and also satisfaction is regarded as the vital

concern to maintain customer’s loyalty; furthermore, loyalty will have impacts on

repurchase behaviour and positive word of mouth(WOM).

Repurchase behaviour is defined as the success to form the long-term and profitable

relationship with customers, based on the strategy of organisation to fulfil the

promises to customers (Carpenter & Fairhurst 2005). In addition to the intention to

repurchase, the positive WOM can also be taken as an indicator to assess

customer’s satisfaction and loyalty to one brand (Yi & La 2004). Consumers will

repurchase or recommend one product to others due to the great satisfaction with

one brand (Bennett & Rundle - Thiele 2004). Therefore, the question of how to make

the tourists who experience their first-time green experience come back for

repurchasing in the future, turns out to be the most challenging task for the green

hoteliers.

Although there still remains problems recently to confirm the connection between the

relationship between loyalty and repurchase behavior; however,

as Choi and Parsa (2006) presented that actual services of green lodging industry,

which customers indeed experience in their hotels, are actually the key issue to affect

consumer’s satisfaction and maintain loyalty. Also, there are more studies presenting

that customer’s psychological reward, such as the recognition and identification

toward the green practices of the hoteliers, will lead to repurchase behaviours

(Bhattacharya & Sen 2004). According to Kang et al. (2012), consumer’s satisfaction

with green hotels may rely on the actual service quality; however, if the green

39

performance of hoteliers is highly connected to the green practitioners, then

consumers are more willing to repurchase or recommend to others.

With globalisation widespread, Ueltschy et al.(2007) suggested that international

hotel chains should not assume the individual consumer’s satisfaction will represent

local consumer patterns, especially when the cross-country firms would like to take

standardisation to fit the innovative product to a foreign culture. As Jiang and

Rosebloom (2005) suggested that most of the customers in Asian countries, like

China or Taiwan, tend to be ignorant of the values of eco-friendly facilities and

services when they experience the green accommodation at first. Therefore, the

hoteliers should educate their tourists about actually what green hotels are, shaping

their green loyalty further (Jiang & Rosebloom 2005). Laroche et al. (2004) also

suggested that even though the concepts of green hotels are prevalent over

conventional hotels in UK, however, most of the tourists who visit them still remain

ignorant as to whether the hotels they stay in are eco-friendly or not. It is crucial for

the tourists who just firstly experience the green operation to deepen their

understanding of eco-friendly facilities or the green management regarding green

hotels (Hays & Ozretic´-Došen 2014).

40

2.5 Research Gap

A review of the present studies in green products has revealed that most of the

research still remains in the stage of looking at how green practices affect

consumer’s behaviour based on the green performance of lodging industry (Han et

al. 2011), but fewer studies have been undertaken into the framework of cross-

cultural comparisons applied to consumer’s satisfaction and intentional behaviours in

green hotels (Millar & Baloglu 2011).

The future research should focus on more than just the green trend of the hospitality

industry, but attempt to find out the elements among each sectors of cross-cultural

customer’s behaviour (Soongil & Yoon 2015).

The following are the three suggestions that the cross-cultural consumer behaviours

in green hotels may be applied to in the future:

1. The multi-dimensions of emotions and the customer’s behaviours

2. The cross-cultural analysis of consumer’s satisfaction based on green experience

on the travelling guide websites

3. The cross-cultural comparisons of intentional behaviours in green hotels

It has been proven that green practices of hoteliers can boost customer’s positive

emotions. However, based on the research of Dube and Menon (2010), the two

dimensions of emotion positive and negative, are not sufficient to explain the attitude

and consumer’s behaviours. Furthermore, further psychological analysis is needed to

assess customer’s multi-dimensions of attitudes and behaviours.

Also, as the global economy has been growing steadily recently, to understand the

customer’s satisfaction under different cultural background seems to be a more

effective method to maintain the customer’s database (Gilbert et al. 2004). With the

development of the co-creation of the third party traveling websites, such as Trip

Advisors or Booking.com, it is easier for the lodging industry to obtain tourists’

satisfaction in terms of their experiences (Cruz & Marques 2014). Hence, research in

on-line surveys, including the third party traveling guide, is also another approach to

obtain a deeper understanding of customer’s demands and satisfaction.

41

Finally, when it comes to the intention to repurchase, most of the research nowadays

is still concentrated on the general hospitality industry. There are still fewer studies

which are focused on the customer’s consumption relationship with green hotels

(Song et al. 2012). To some extent, the green practices of hoteliers may also apply to

the actual segmentation strategy, not just the academics (Takács-Sánta 2007).

42

Chapter 3 Methodology

3.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses the choice of research methodology, and also covers

the research questions and hypothesis in terms of the topic of this study. In

addition, there will be the theoretical background of the research methods, and

the comparison of quantitative and qualitative research. In addition, this

chapter will also discuss the reliability and validity of the measurement.

3.2 The analysis of hypothesis

Due to the research aims and objectives mentioned in chapter 1, considering

there are large amount of statistical factors and correlation among each factor,

the followings are the functions of SPSS applied to explore the main findings

to the hypothesis.

(1) Descriptive Statistics

(2) Characteristic Information

(3) Correlation and Significance

(4) Impact Studies

3.2.1 Descriptive statistics

Descriptive statistics are employed to organise the original datas and present

the basic features of samples in a more logical way, such as the bar charts or

pie graphs. Generally, the descriptive statistics are adapted to the summaries

of demographic information (Powell 2004). As Trochim (2002) stated that the

method of descriptive statistics is commonly utilised to demonstrate the

quantitative descriptions in an arranged form. This research therefore presents

the charts to analyse of demographic factors and the 4 variables which shape

customer’s pro-environmental attitudes, including environmental concern, self-

expressive benefits, social norms, and the green-washing strategy (Soongil &

Yoon 2015).

3.2.2 Characteristics Information

43

Factor analysis, one of the function of SPSS, is mainly utilised in the

characteristics information (Cooper & Schindler 2003). In this research, the

characteristics information identifies the characteristic of each variable, such

as frequency and percentage.

3.2.3 Correlation and Significance

To analyse the significance, this study adopts the simple correlation to explore

the relationship of two groups. In general, it is vital to analyse the non-normal

distribution by examining the T Test for two independent variables (Tolmie et

al. 2011), and to see whether the correlation of two groups is significant or not.

With the view to examining the hypothesis testing, this research reviews the

significant level (sig.) (2-tailed). By exploring the value of significant level, this

survey demonstrates the correlation between the independent variables and

satisfaction, loyalty and repurchase intention of tourists who have ever stayed

in Green hotels in Taiwan and UK. Owing to the majority of 2-tailed value

beginning with the level of significance (sig.) less than 0.01 (P<0.01), this

research will present the significance relationship less than 0.01(sig<0.01)

between independent variable and dependent variable (Plewis, 1997)

3.2.4 Impact Studies

According to Tolmie et al. (2012), it is essential to discover the impacts of

satisfaction and loyalty factors on the repurchase behaviour in business

studies. Therefore, this study adopts the regression function of SPSS, Linear

Regression, to explore the significance impacts of the following three

variables, satisfaction, loyalty, recommendation and repurchase behaviour.

Through the analysis of the relationship among these factors mentioned

above, the linear regression can demonstrate the results of the hypothesis.

44

3.3 The development of hypothesis

This framework of hypothesis is amended from the model proposed by

Soongil and Yoon (2015). As the previous studies showed that the theory of

reasoned action (TRA) is the most influential model to explain customer’s

willingness and purchase behaviours(Fishbein & Ajzen 1975), Soongil and

Yoon (2015) modified TRA into the model which illustrates consumer’s

behaviour under the influence of self-identity, ethical obligation, psychological

factors and corporate social responsibility(CSR). Soongil and Yoon’s model

clearly identified the factors which shape customer’s pro-environmental

attitude in the social and cultural context, so this study adopts their model to

illustrate the variables of consumer’s environmental attitude, satisfaction and

repurchase intention regarding green hotels.

Figure 3.1 Framework of hypothesis

EnvironmentalConcern

45

Self-Expressive

Benefits

Pro-environmental

Attitude

Satisfaction

IntentionalBehaviour

Recommendation to others

H1

H2

H3

H5 H6

46

SocialNorms

Loyalty

RepurchaseBehaviour

H4

H5H6

47

Source: Amended from Soongil and Yoon (2015)

According to the framework of hypothesis, the

followings are the hypothesis of the research:

Hypothesis1: This research assumes the relationship of environmental

concern, one of the factor to shape customer’s pro-environmental attitude, and

customer’s pro-environmental attitude toward green hotels between Taiwan

and UK.

Hypothesis 2: The next factor which shapes customer’s environmental attitude

is self-expressive benefits. This research assumed that people have the

tendency to express their contribution to the environment when purchasing the

green products. Therefore, this research examines the relationship of self-

expressive benefits and customer’s attitude towards green hotels between

Taiwan and UK.

Hypothesis 3: This research assumes social norm is also one of the factors to

shape pro-environmental attitude. People are deeply motivated by the social

norms and adapted their behaviours in a certain context of social norms

(Goldstein et al. 2008). Thus, through this hypothesis, this survey will explore

the connection of social norms and customer’s attitude toward green hotels

between Taiwan and UK.

Hypothesis 4: The final variable to shape customer’s pro-environmental attitude is

greenwashing, which refers to the strategy that the hoteliers attempt to mislead

customer’s attitude toward the eco-friendly image of their travel accommodation

(Chen et al. 2013). Due to the widespread distrusts among tourists toward

greenwashing lodging industry, this research assumes that the greenwashing will

have the impacts on customer’s environmental attitude. Therefore, this research

explores the relationship of customer’s attitude toward greenwashing and perception

regarding green hotels between Taiwan and UK.

Hypothesis 5 : This research assumes consumer’s pro-environmental attitude has

an overall impact on satisfaction and loyalty in green hotels, so the analysis

GreenWashing

48

examines whether environmental attitude has the impact on satisfaction and loyalty

regarding green hotels.

Hypothesis 6: This research assumes that customer’s satisfaction and loyalty

in green hotels has an effect on customer’s intentional behaviour, including

recommendation to others and repurchase behaviour.

49

3.4 Research philosophy and approach

3.4.1 Research philosophy

It is essential for researchers to understand the method of philosophical

commitment in terms of the investigated topics (Saundars, Lewis & Thornhill

2009). To deepen and discuss the research topic, it is fundamental to select

the appropriate methodology, hypothesis, and the research strategy.

According to Collis and Hussey (2003), the research methodology can be

categorised as the “Pragmatism”,”Interpretivism”, “Realism”, and “Positivism”.

Positivism is the major philosophical concepts regarding the factor analysis,

the theoretical background of the studies, and the results of mathematical

measurement. One of the positivism approach is called quantitative method,

mainly discussing the subject of numerical data collecting, statistical

measurement, and confirmation of hypothesis (Cameron & Price 2009). As for

the “Qualitative research”, it is mainly based on the Interpretivism. Qualitative

research is the method taken rooted in the interviews, and non-statistical data.

It can deepen the research topic and understand the research samples

completely (Hair et al. 2010).

According to Bryman and Bell (2011), quantitive method is widely utilised in

the business and management studies, and it is also applied to the tourism

academics since 1980s. Owing to the previous chapters demonstrating the

research questions and framework of hypothesis based on the statistical data,

and with the view to strengthening the accuracy of measurement and the

validity of figures in this study, this research adopts the quantitive method to

analyse the relationship of customer’s environmental attitude, satisfaction, and

intentional behaviour.

3.4.2 Research approach: Quantitative method

Quantitative method is one of the most common methods in Positivism

(Amaratunga et al. 2002). Due to the attribute of the quantitative method in

50

terms of the hypothesis development, data collecting, measurement of

statistics, as well as analysis of variables, thus, it is essential for researchers

to receive a large number of respondences in order to obtain more precise

measurement of results (Veal 2006; Johns and Darren 1998). Finn, Elliot and

Walton (2000) suggested that the quantitative research is the method to

examine and review the existing theory, to verify if the statistical data matches

the hypothesis of the aims and objectives in the research.

The research aims at determining what the factors shape consumer’s pro-

environmental attitudes under different cultural backgrounds of Taiwan and

the UK. It also discusses the cross-cultural impact of satisfaction and loyalty

regarding green hotels. In addition, this study examines post-purchase

behaviours, including the recommendation to others and the intention to

repurchase. Therefore, considering a huge amount of factor analysis and

impact studies, quantitative research is the most suitable method for this

research.

3.4.3 Research approach: Qualitative method

Piantanida and Garman (1999) stated that the qualitative research is

concentrated on non-numerical data collection. Considering the attribute of the

research purpose, most researchers who take the qualitative method will take

a different approach to maintain the quality of the data, such as interview,

observation, or they will use a focus group (Saunders et al. 2007). With the

lack of previous research results, the qualitative research is highly related to

the research still under development, especially when researchers would like

to discuss a new observation or deepen an existing theory (Creswell 2003).

Due to the data collection and analysis in this study based on the

mathematical measurement, also, there is a large amount of data analysis

focused on the variables of consumer’s behaviour, which the previous studies

have already discovered the related results to the hypothesis in this study.

Therefore, this research will take the quantitative method rather than

qualitative.

51

3.5 Data collection methods

3.5.1 Primary and Secondary data collecting

According to Chisnall (2005), there are two types of method to collect data;

one is primary data and the other is secondary data. The secondary data

collection is based on the research data from the available publications, such

as the journals, organisation reports, financial reviews, official statistics, and

even from newspapers or magazines. Due to the verification by previous

scholars, the secondary data is mainly utilised for the literature review, and it

is also the foundation to set up the framework of hypothesis and theoretical

background of analysis(Wilson et al. 2012).

As for primary data collection, it is based on the hypothesis, observation,

collecting, analysing data, and then confirmation to the validity of

measurement. The primary data can be employed to the qualitative and

quantitative research. As for this study, it takes the primary data collected by

the use of questionnaires, the quantitative method. In general, the secondary

data is focused on the existing data or available statistics in contrast to the

primary data collecting (Bryman & Bell 2007).

Though the secondary data is verified by previous studies, however, the

primary data is straight from the respondents and participants. Compared with

the subjective research bias from the original researchers of the secondary

data (Baxter 2010), the primary approach is more available for the valid

statistical results, so this research will take primary data for the hypothesis and

main findings. As for the literature review, it is mainly based on the secondary

data.

3.5.2 Research Tool

Saunders (2007) presented that the use of questionnaires is the most

dominant tool to adapt in the quantitative research for primary data collecting.

Through a variety of distributions, Sakaran (2003) suggested that

52

questionnaires can be distributed to the respondents directly, or through online

platforms, such as questionnaires by Google forms. The benefits of

questionnaires are objectives, and they are not time-consuming for the

respondents rather than the group discussion or the use of interviews for

qualitative research (Saunders et al. 2003). This research will collect data

through questionnaires, and it will employ the questionnaires by google form

and completion in person.

53

3.6 Data collection and analysis

3.6.1 Data collection

Considering the accessibility and availability to obtain responses efficiently,

online survey is a popular method to undertake questionnaires (Kim, OK &

Canter 2010). According to recent research, there is more academic research

in hospitality industry employed for collecting data online (Han & Kim 2009;

Han et al., 2009). Therefore, this research collects the data via the online

survey tool, “Google Form”, and self completion method.

The questionnaires will be collected from two groups, including 150 samples

from Taiwanese online or in person, and 150 samples from UK in such pattern

as well.

According to Malhotra and Birks (2007), by examining the size of the collected

samples, the research can explore the overall components in each issue and

situation. The following chapters are the illustration for the sampling method

and size.

3.6.2 Sampling method

According to Bergh and Ketchen (2009), convenience sampling is

suitable for low cost research. Convenience sampling is useful not only

for research with limited funds, but for short lead-time data collection as

well. In addition, Kothari (2008) also suggested that convenience

sampling is the appropriate method to set up a systematic survey

without getting involved in a large population frame, as convenience

sampling concentrates only on one specific sampling group.

Concerning the topic of this study, it attempts to

find out the comparison between British and Taiwanese tourists’ pro-

environmental attitude, satisfaction and intentional behaviour regarding

green hotels. It is more appropriate to represent the entire population

by one specific sampling group, only for British and Taiwanese

respondents who had the experience in green hotels before. Therefore,

the target sampling group will be concentrate on the tourists who have

54

the green consumption pattern in green hotels rather than the entire

population frame.

3.6.3 Sampling size

The sampling size refers to the valid and reliable quantity of the respondents

(Malhotra & Birks 2007). In light of the difficulty in examining the entire

population, all of the British and Taiwanese green tourists who stayed in green

hotels before, this research will therefore only examine the reliable and valid

samples collected from the respondents, who had green consumption in

hotels, before analysing through SPSS to represent the whole population.

According to Cooper and Schindler (2003), researchers who adopt the

convenience sampling method are suggested to collect at least 300 samples

to represent the entire population framework. In order to analyse the impacts

of cross-cultural comparisons on consumer’s pro-environmental attitude,

satisfaction and intentional behaviour in green hotels, the questionnaire in this

study is designed in two languages, English and Chinese.

Concerning the validity and reliability of the survey, the questionnaires will be

collected from 300 samples from two groups, including 150 Taiwanese

samples in Chinese mainly online and a few in person, and 150 British

samples in English based on mainly self completion. The online collection is

mainly from the Google form, respondents complete the questionnaires via

Google Form and the data will be collected from the tourists who had the

green consumption while travelling.

3.6.4 Ethical Consideration

As a researcher, it is important to not cause the respondents any harm.

Therefore, this research will assure any personal or private information of the

respondents remains confidential throughout the whole questionnaires and

survey. It is also vital that individuals will not be identifiable when the findings

55

are published. For the purpose of it, the respondents who fill in the

questionnaires will remain anonymous.

Before the survey of the questionnaires, a consent form page will be attached

to inform the confidential and privacy principles both on line and for self

completion, so that the questionnaires will be collected under the mutual

agreement. All of the reasons given for the research will also be attached in

the questionnaires and on-line form, and the respondents will be explicitly

informed of the background of the survey by the instruction on the form.

3.6.5 Pilot study

A pilot study is employed to pretest for the sample respondents before

distributing to the target respondents (Finn et al. 2000). The purpose of the

pilot study tends to examine the validity and reliability of the questionnaires,

and it also tests if the sample size matches the results of the literature review

or not (Saunders et al. 2007). Applying the pilot study to this research, the pre-

test will distribute 30 sample tests to the tourists, 15 for Taiwanese and 15 for

British. As Gilbert suggested that the pilot study can indicate whether there are

any problems with the questionnaires, and it also enhances the

misunderstanding or unclear options for the respondents to answer the

questions.

56

3.7 Survey development

The questionnaires of this research are divided into four sections,

including Section 1 “demographics information”, Section 2 ”the factors

shaping customer’s pro-environmental attitude”, Section 3 ”the

relationship among pro-environmental attitude, satisfaction and loyalty”,

and Section 4 “the repurchase and recommendation behaviour in green

hotels”. Owing to the research aims and objectives, this questionnaire

is only for the respondents who have stayed in green hotels before, so

the first question on the questionnaire, ”Have you ever stayed in green

hotels before”, is trying to filter the valid samples from all of the

distribution. The following is the background profile of each section in

the questionnaire.

In Section 1, there are 6 questions, which tend to find out the

respondents’ demographics including gender, age, nationality,

education level, family status, and income rank. This section attempts

to collect the tourists’ demographic information and discuss the

descriptive statistics of the green tourists from Taiwan and UK.

In Section 2, there are 10 questions related to the factors of cultural

values which shape customer’s pro-environmental attitudes, including “

Environmental Concern”,” Self-Expressive”,” Social Norm”, and “ Green

Washing”. The environmental concern refers to the attitudes toward the

environmental problems and awareness. As for the self-expressive, it

demonstrates the values through which green tourists will get the

psychologically rewarded while selecting the eco-friendly

accommodation. Cultural values are always influenced by people’s

living environment and society, so the social norms will also be

regarded as variables to discuss if it affect people’s motivation for

purchasing green hotels or not. The final one is green washing, which

relates to the strategy that hoteliers tend to promote the green brand

image to the customers but in reality they do not achieve green

practices. There are five options in each question, referring to the

57

degree to which the respondents reply to the questions ranging from

extreme disagreement to extreme agreement. The respondents are to

answer these questions based on their personal experiences.

Due to the design of the questionnaires regarding the satisfaction and

intentional behaviour in green hotels, Part 3 of this questionnaire is

regarding the satisfaction and loyalty toward green hotels, and there

are three questions which are employed to assess respondents’

feedbacks after the real experiences in green accommodation. Also,

this part will also interact with Part 2 to analyse the correlations

between these two sections.

As for Part 4 of this survey, it is directed at the intentional behaviour

toward green hotels in the future, comprising of 5 questions in terms of

the intention to repurchase and the recommendation to others. Owing

to part 4 is also affected by satisfaction as well as loyalty, there will also

analysis of the relations between part 3 and part 4.

58

3.8 Limitation

1. The major limitation of the survey in this research is looking for

the tourists who had experiences in green hotels before. It is

time-consuming to search for the respondents who have ever

stayed in green hotels to fill in the questionnaires. The

questionnaire is trying to filter the valid questionnaires from 664

samples, only 334 samples are valid owing to the respondents

who have ever stayed in green hotels.

2. Due to the attribute of cross-cultural comparisons in this

research, the design of questionnaire should take any language

translation barriers into account. It therefore will take more time

for the research to collect the valid and reliable samples. The

design of questionnaires should also fit into the understandings

for local residents, such as the education section and annual

household income. This research takes more time for interpret

the options of the questions to make a mutual understanding for

respondents in both countries.

3. It is time-consuming to collect the data between both countries,

especially when the researcher tried to contact the respondents

who had experiences in green hotels. Through the contact with

the respondents who stayed in green hotels both in Taiwan and

UK, there are many invalid data owing to lack of experiences in

green hotels.

4. Most British tourists require high privacy. Therefore, conveying

the ideas of the promise to keep the personal and confidential

information highly confidential takes time for English

respondents. Also, with the pilot test undertaken, there was

modification in the income section due to the sensitivity of

personal income. Therefore, this research encounters the

unexpected feedback in terms of personal privacy section of

questionnaires.

5. The pilot tests of the English questionnaires were mainly for the

English native speakers in UK. Through the pilot test, the

59

questionnaires were presented the problems that some

academic terms, such as “greenwashing”, “psychological

reward”, are quite vague concepts for respondents in pre-test.

Although there were modification and explicit statement for the

academic term attached to make the questions simply

understand, however, there were still some respondents replying

the section of greenwashing is too academic to understand.

60

CHAPTER 4

MAIN FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction

The main aim of this research is to give a critical analysis of the comparisons

between tourists in Taiwan and UK regarding their perceptions of pro-

environmental attitudes, satisfaction and intentional behaviour in green hotels.

First of all, the study focuses on the comparisons of demographic

characteristics. It demonstrates the comparisons of gender, family status, age,

education, and household annual income between UK and Taiwan.

Secondly, it identifies and compares differences in descriptive statistics across one or

more factors between Taiwan and UK. This research adopts the Means function of

SPSS to identify the characteristics information of the collected samples. The

analysis includes the Means, Standard Deviation, and the interpretation of each of

the variables. With the difference of cultural backgrounds influencing customer’s

attitudes and behaviours, a focus is made on the comparisons of dimensions in

different nationalities which shape customers’ pro-environmental attitude. It also

attempts to find out whether the dimensions of environmental attitude cause any

differences of satisfaction, loyalty and intentional behaviour between UK and Taiwan

tourists In addition, there is a comparison of the total means of each questions,

interpreting the overall mean score of both countries.

The mean score of this survey will be weighted into the category as follow:

1. For data of Taiwanese and British tourists’ pro-environmental attitude

regarding the levels of perception toward green hotels, they were analysed

and interpreted as five levels. These were as follows:

1.00 – 1.80 = Lowest valuable

1.81 – 2.60 = Slightly valuable

2.61 – 3.40 = Neutral

3.41 – 4.20 = Much valuable

4.21 – 5.00 = Strong valuable

61

2. In terms of data regarding satisfaction and loyalty toward green hotels

for Taiwanese and British tourists, they were also analysed and interpreted as

five levels. These were as follows:

1.00 – 1.80 = Lowest influence

1.81 – 2.60 = Slight influence

2.61 – 3.40 = Neutral

3.41 – 4.20 = Much influence

4.21 – 5.00 = Strong influence

3. For data regarding influence of satisfaction and loyalty over the levels

of intentional behaviour in green hotels for the tourists both in Taiwan and UK,

they were analysed and interpreted as five levels including:

1.00 – 1.80 = Lowest influence

1.81 – 2.60 = Slightly influence

2.61 – 3.40 = Neutral

3.41 – 4.20 = Much influence

4.21 – 5.00 = Strong influence

Finally, this analysis also attempts to discover whether the correlation of

environmental attitudes leads to the different results in customer’s satisfaction,

loyalty, and intentional behaviour regarding green hotels. Through SPSS, the

main findings comprises of two functions, T-test and Linear Regression, in

order to explore the correlation among each variables shown in the hypothesis

in last chapter.

62

Table 4.1 The comparisons of respondents’s nationality

The tool used in this study was to gather questionnaires from the sample

group of 664 people. To filter the valid questionnaires, the first question of this

survey attempts to delete the invalid responses which have no experience of

green hotels before. Through the process of filtering, there were finally 334

valid responses, as the table shows above.

63

Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative Percent

Nationality Number % % %

British Citizen 150 44.91 44.9 44.9

Taiwanese Citizen

184 55.09 55.09 100

Total 334 100.0 100.0

4.2 The comparisons of demographic profile of tourists between Taiwan

and UK who have ever stayed in green hotels

Table 4.2 The comparisons of demographic information regarding green

tourists between UK and Taiwan

Demographic Profiles Frequency Percent

UKGender :MaleFemale

9456

62.7037.30

Family Status :SingleMarried without childrenMarried with childrenRetired

49207110

32.6713.3347.33 6.67

Age :20 - 30 years old31 - 40 years old41 - 50 years old51 - 60 years oldMore than 60 years old

116149209

7.3340.6732.6713.33 6.00

Education:A LevelBachelor’s degreePostgraduate ( Master’s degree )Postgraduate ( Doctor’s degree )

3057567

20.0038.0037.33 4.67

Household annual income ( Gross) :Less than 28,100 G.B.P28,101 G.B.P - 33,100 G.B.P33,101 G.B.P - 38,000 G.B.P38,001 G.B.P - 43,000 G.B.P43,001 G.B.P - 48,000 G.B.P48,001 G.B.P and above

6617156838

44.0011.3310.00 4.00 5.3325.33

Total 150 100.00

TaiwanGender :MaleFemale

10579

57.0742.93

Family Status :SingleMarried without childrenMarried with childrenRetired

105392416

57.0721.2013.03 8.70

Age :20 - 30 years old 61 33.15

64

Demographic Profiles Frequency Percent

31 - 40 years old41 - 50 years old51 - 60 years oldMore than 60 years old

4636329

25.0019.5717.39 4.89

Education:A LevelBachelor’s degreePostgraduate ( Master’s degree )Postgraduate ( Doctor’s degree )

40775611

21.7441.8530.43 5.98

Household annual income ( Gross) :Less than 28,100 G.B.P28,101 G.B.P - 33,100 G.B.P33,101 G.B.P - 38,000 G.B.P38,001 G.B.P - 43,000 G.B.P43,001 G.B.P - 48,000 G.B.P48,001 G.B.P and above

128196832

69.57 0.54 4.89 3.26 4.3517.39

Total 184 100.00

Total respondents 334 100

Based on Figure 4.2, it demonstrated frequency and percentage of demographic

information of 150 British respondents and 184 Taiwanese respondents as follows:

According to Figure 4.2, gender profile of 150 British tourists who have ever stayed in

green hotels when traveling, males accounts for 62.7%, more than females at only

37.3%. Compared with the respondents in UK, it can be perceived that the gender

profile of the sample group of 184 Taiwanese tourists, who have ever stayed in green

hotels when travelling, males account for 57.07%, more than females at only 42.93%.

The statistics of gender profile demonstrates that the tourists who have ever stayed

in green hotels in both countries are both male dominated.

As for family status for the respondents in UK, the highest rank is families with

children accounting for 71 people or 47.33 %, and the second highest rank is single,

accounting for 49 people or 32.67 %. On the contrary, as the statistics shown in the

family status in Taiwan, the highest rank is single for 105 people or 57.07 %. The

second highest rank is married without children, accounting for 39 people or 21.20%.

It is obvious to find that up to 79% of respondents in Taiwan have no children.

Compared with the top two highest range of family status, it is worth noting that the

majority of respondents who have ever stayed in green hotels in Taiwan is single,

and the respondents of UK who have ever stayed in green hotels are concentrated

on the range of families with children.65

In terms of the age section, it is perceived that most of the tourists who have ever

stayed in green hotels in UK are in the age range of 31-40 years -,61 people,

accounting for 40.67%, and the second highest group is 41-50 years - 49 people or

32.67%. The majority of respondents in UK are the age group ranging 31-50 years

old. However, compared with the respondents in UK, it is obvious to find that the

majority of tourists in Taiwan who have ever stayed in green hotels are in the age

range of 20-30 years, 61 people, accounting for 33.15%, and the second highest in

the group is 31-40 years, accounting for 46 people or 25%. It can be perceived that

the average age for Taiwanese respondents are younger than the age of

respondents in UK regarding green hotels issues.

As for the level of education, it is discovered that most of British respondents

graduated with a bachelor’s degree -57 people, 38.00%, and the next is masters

degree -56 people, accounting for 37.33%. It is interesting to note that more than

75% of British respondents, who have ever stayed in green hotels, is ranked with

higher education above the bachelor’s degree level. On the other hand, based on the

education section in Taiwan, the majority of Taiwanese respondents who have

stayed in green hotels also graduated in bachelor’s degree, accounting for 77 people,

41.85%, and the next range is masters degree accounting for 56 people, 30.43%. In

general, it is worth noting that the majority of respondents, who have ever stayed in

green hotels in both countries, are all ranked at the higher education, above the

bachelor’s degree.

Finally, in term of household annual incomes, due to the pilot test distributed to the

British citizen, it showed only 15 out of 30 participants who had experience in green

hotels would like to leave the information of personal income. Therefore, owing to this

sensitive topic, the survey modified the annual income section to household annual

income. In addition, according to Office for National Statistics (2016), the provisional

2014/15 value of median income for non-retired households is 28,100 GBP. The

range of the household income is added by 5,000 GBP each, based on inflation and

measures of income inequality ahead of revised estimates from the Effects of Taxes

and Benefits on Household Income (Office for National Statistics 2016).

66

Based on Figure 4.2, it is found that most of the tourists in UK who have ever stayed

in green hotels have the income range less than 28,100 GBP - 66 people or 44%,

and the next highest range is over 48,001 GBP for 38 people or 25.33%. On the

other hand, according to Executive Yuan in Taiwan (Executive Yuan ROC 2016), the

average annual household income in Taiwan is NTD 1,157,926 in 2015, equal to

27,569 GDP. Through Figure 4.2, it is found that the majority of respondents in

Taiwan had an income range less than 28,100 GBP for 128 people or 69.57%, and

the second highest range is over 48,001 GBP for 32 people or 17.39%. Compared

with the household income section, it can be found that the majority of respondents

who have ever stayed in green hotels in both countries are concentrated on the

household income range, less than 28100 GDP or above 48000 GBP annually.

4.3 The characteristics profile of tourist’s environmental attitudes between Taiwan

and UK

67

4.3.1 Dimension 1: Environmental Concern

The following is the analysis of one of dimensions, Environmental Concern, shaping

tourists' pro-environmental attitudes between Taiwan and UK

Table 4.3 Dimension 1: The comparisons of Environmental Concern between

Taiwan and UK

Factor Means Standard Deviation Interpretation

UK

1. I think that we, human beings on earth, are facing serious environmental problems.

3.94 0.91 Much

valuable

2. I believe that selecting the green accommodation on vacation helps to prevent environment crisis.

3.95 0.78 Much

valuable

3. I think that obtaining information about green performance of the hotels is necessary when selecting travel accommodation.

3.94 0.91 Much

valuable

4. I agree that having news or information on the environment raises awareness of environmental concern

4.14 0.78 Much

valuable

Total 3.99 0.68 Much valuable

Taiwan

1. I think that we, human beings on earth, are facing serious environmental problems.

4.14 0.78 Much

valuable

2. I believe that selecting the green

4.00 0.81 Much

68

Factor Means Standard Deviation Interpretation

accommodation on vacation helps to prevent environment crisis.

valuable

3. I think that obtaining information about green performance of the hotels is necessary when selecting travel accommodation.

3.94 0.91 Much

valuable

4. I agree that having news or information on the environment raises awareness of environmental concern

3.94 0.91 Much

valuable

Total 4.01 0.68 Much valuable

As figure 4.3 demonstrates the analysis of Means, S.D.(Standard Deviation)

and Interpretation of the dimension of pro-environmental attitude,

environmental concern, which shapes consumers 'environmental attitude in

UK, shows that most of tourists who have ever stayed in green hotels consider

environmental concern as a valuable factor to shape environmental attitude. It

is also perceived from the chart that respondents in Taiwan also refer to

environmental concern as one valuable dimension shaping environmental

attitude.

4.3.2 Dimension 2: Self-Expressive Benefits

The question for dimension 2, Self-Expressive Benefits, is “I feel that I am a better

person when I select green accommodation for my travel itinerary”. The following is

the figure to demonstrate the comparisons between Taiwanese and British’s

perception toward dimension 2.

Table 4.4 Dimension 2: The comparisons of self - expressive benefits between

Taiwan and UK

69

Nationality Means Standard Deviation

Interpretation

UK 3.87 0.87 Much valuable

Taiwan 4.07 0.88 Much valuable

According to the analysis demonstrated above, it is evident that the average

respondents in Taiwan are more valuable in the self-expressive benefits than the

respondents in UK. Although it is shown by Figure4.4 that the average respondents

of both countries refer to self-expressive benefits as much valuable dimension to

shape customer’s pro-environmental attitude, it can still identify that the respondents

in Taiwan are more influenced by the psychological reward brought by green

consumption than the respondents in UK

4.3.3 Dimension 3: Social Norms

The following is the analysis of one of dimensions, Social Norms, shaping tourists'

pro-environmental attitudes between Taiwan and UK

Table 4.5 The comparisons of social norms between Taiwan and UK

Questions Means Standard Deviation

Interpretation

UK

1. I believe that environmental protection is an important issue when assessing the overall image of a hotel.

3.39 1.08 Neutral

2. I purchase green accommodation on vacation because of social pressure.

1.81 0.65 Slightly Valuable

Total 2.60 0.76 Slightly Valuable

Taiwan

1. I believe that environmental protection is an important issue when assessing the overall image of a hotel.

3.85 0.90 Much Valuable

2. I purchase green accommodation on vacation because of social pressure.

2.91 0.74 Neutral

70

Total 3.38 0.78 Neutral

As Figure 4.5 demonstrates the Mean, S.D and Interpretation of Perceptions of

tourists toward the dimension shaping environmental attitude: Social Norms, it can

perceive that Q1”I believe that environmental protection is an important issue when

assessing the overall image of a hotel“, the mean of 3.85 of respondents in Taiwan

is higher than the mean of 3.39 of respondents in UK.

However, in terms of Q2” I purchase green accommodation on vacation because of

social pressure”, the mean of 1.86 in UK is less than the mean of 2.91 in Taiwan.

British respondents think they purchase green accommodation is only slightly

influenced by social pressure compared to respondents in Taiwan. The average

respondents in Taiwan take a neutral attitude toward this factor, social norm, to

shape environmental attitude regarding green hotels.

It is evident from the chart that the British tourists who have ever stayed in green

hotels regard social norm as a less important dimension to shape the environmental

attitude to stay in green hotels. In comparison, the average respondents in Taiwan

refer to this factor as neutral due to there still being some moral principle influenced

by the Confucius philosophy laying deep in customers' perception toward travel

accommodation, such as the “Ecocentrism” mentioned in Ch2.

4.3.4 Dimension 4:Greenwashing

The following is the analysis of one of dimensions, Greenwashing, shaping tourists'

pro-environmental attitudes between Taiwan and UK

Table 4.6 The comparisons of Greenwashing between Taiwan and UK

Questions Means Standard Deviation Interpretation

UK

1. I think that we should pay more attention to the hotels getting involved in green washing.

4.07 0.88 Much valuable

2. I think that distrust of the green washing hotels can lead to the collapse of the

3.87 0.87 Much valuable

71

Questions Means Standard Deviation Interpretation

emerging market of green hotels.

3. I think that green washing hotels should be penalised.

3.93 0.81 Much valuable

Total 3.96 0.71 Much valuable

Taiwan

1. I think that we should pay more attention to the hotels getting involved in green washing.

4.23 0.88 Strong valuable

2. I think that distrust of the green washing hotels can lead to the collapse of the emerging market of green hotels.

4.07 0.88 Much valuable

3. I think that green washing hotels should be penalised.

4.21 0.76 Strong valuable

Total 4.1 0.74 Much valuable

It is perceived from table 4.6 that the tourists on average in both countries regard

greenwashing strategy as a valuable dimension to shape customers’ pro-

environmental attitude. However, the respondents in Taiwan believe more that the

greenwashing hotels may change the relationship between tourists’ trust and

hoteliers’ green brand image. On the contrary, the average British respondents also

take greenwashing as a potentially threatening factor to affect customers'

environmental attitude, but not as highly as the respondents from Taiwan. In addition,

as mentioned in chapter 2.3.2, the value of competitiveness and individual

responsibility, it can be observed that people with cultural values like Taiwan and

China, believe hoteliers get involved in the greenwashing strategy owing to the

competitiveness in marketplace. Therefore, the average respondents from Taiwan

agree that the phenomenon of greenwashing is unavoidable, and it should be

prevented by regulation, such as penalty. However, the respondents in UK refer to

the consumption of green hotels as the individual responsibility, and there are less

respondents in UK agreeing with the regulation to manage the phenomenon of

greenwashing in the marketplace.

72

4.4. The analysis of satisfaction and loyalty regarding green hotels between

Taiwan and UK

Table 4.7 The comparisons of customer’s satisfaction and loyalty toward green

hotels between Taiwan and UK

73

Questions Means Standard Deviation

Interpretation

UK

1. I feel satisfied with the green performance of the green hotels I have ever stayed in.

3.85 0.90 Much Influence

2. I will keep loyal to the green hotels based on their green performance.

3.40 0.81 Neutral

3. I will still feel satisfied with the green hotels I have stayed in even if I have to pay premium on it.

2.60 0.69 Slight Influence

Total 3.28 0.68 Neutral

Taiwan

1. I feel satisfied with the green performance of the green hotels I have ever stayed in.

3.57 0.78 Much Influence

2. I will keep loyal to the green hotels based on their green performance.

4.02 0.74 Much Influence

3. I will still feel satisfied with the green hotels I have stayed in even if I have to pay premium on it.

3.46 1.00 Much Influence

Total 3.68 0.69 Much Influence

Figure 4.7 regarding Question 1 of Satisfaction,“ I feel satisfied with the green

performance of the green hotels I have ever stayed in”, shows a mean of 3.85 in UK

and the mean of 3.57 in Taiwan. It can be perceived that respondents in UK are

averagely more satisfied with the green performance of green hotels they have ever

stayed in compared to the respondents from Taiwan. As for the Question 2 of

Satisfaction,” I will keep loyal to the green hotels based on their green performance”,

the mean of 4.02 in Taiwan is more than the mean of 3.40 in UK, meaning that more

green tourists in Taiwan will keep loyal to the green hotels based on the green

performance compared to green tourists from the UK. In terms of Question 3, ”I will

still feel satisfied with the green hotels I have stayed in even if I have to pay premium

on it”, it shows that the mean of 3.46 in Taiwan is more than the mean of 2.60 in UK,

which shows that more green tourists in Taiwan would like to pay more on green

hotels than the tourists in UK. Compared the total means of both countries, it is

evident to find that the respondents in UK averagely take a neutral attitude towards

74

the satisfaction and loyalty regarding green hotels which they have ever stayed in;

however, the respondents in Taiwan are a bit higher on average to feel satisfied and

loyal to the green hotels they have ever stayed in, with the mean of 3.68 in Taiwan

versus the mean of 3.28 in UK.

4.5 The analysis of intentional behaviour toward green hotels between Taiwan

and UK

Table 4.8 The comparisons of customer’s satisfaction and loyalty to influence

intentional behaviour regarding green hotels between Taiwan and UK

75

Questions Means Standard Deviation Interpretation

UK

1. I will make an effort to repurchase green accommodation that I have ever stayed in.

3.46 1.00 Much Influence

2. After the first experience of booking and staying in a green hotel, I will examine if the same hotel is still “green” when considering rebooking.

4.01 0.86 Much Influence

3. I will repurchase the green accommodation even its higher price than the same level hotels.

3.85 0.90 Much Influence

4. I will maintain loyalty to a certain green hotel if I consider they have excellent green performance.

2.22 0.66 Slight Influence

5. I will encourage my friends and relatives to stay at a green hotel when traveling.

3.59 0.86 Much Influence

Total 3.43 0.68 Much Influence

Taiwan

1. I will make an effort to repurchase green accommodation that I have ever stayed in.

3.92 0.69 Much Influence

2. After the first experience of booking and staying in a green hotel, I will examine if the same hotel is still “green” when considering rebooking.

4.00 0.80 Much Influence

3. I will repurchase the green accommodation even its higher price than the same level hotels.

3.67 1.07 Much Influence

4. I will maintain loyalty to a certain green hotel if I consider they have excellent green performance.

4.02 0.77 Much Influence

5. I will encourage my friends and relatives to stay at a green hotel when traveling.

3.99 0.73 Much Influence

Total 3.92 0.89 Much Influence

According to figure 4.8, the Q1 of intentional behaviour is “ I will make an effort to repurchase

green accommodation that I have ever stayed in”, the mean of 3.46 in UK is less than the

76

mean of 3.92 in Taiwan, which indicates that the green tourists in Taiwan are more willing to

repurchase green accommodation than the green tourists in UK.

As for the Q2 of intentional behaviour is “After the first experience of booking and staying in a

green hotel, I will examine if the same hotel is still “green” when considering rebooking”, it

demonstrates that the mean of 4.01 in UK is a bit more than the mean of 4.00 in Taiwan,

showing that a higher percentage of green tourists in UK tend to check the green

performance after first green consumption than the green tourists in Taiwan.

In terms of Q3 of intentional behaviour is “ I will repurchase the green accommodation even

its higher price than the same level hotels”, it can be interpreted that the mean of 3.85 in UK

is more than the mean of 3.67 in Taiwan, which shows that the green tourists in UK are more

willing to pay a premium on price for green hotels even at the same level.

Figure 4.8 in respect of Q4 “I will maintain loyalty to a certain green hotel if I consider they

have excellent green performance” reveals a mean of 2.22 in UK and a mean of 4.02 in

Taiwan. The difference infers to that the green tourists in Taiwan are more willing to keep

loyal to a certain green hotel based on its excellent green performance compared to green

tourists in UK.

Finally, based on the figure table above, Q5 of intentional behaviour is “I will encourage my

friends and relatives to stay at a green hotel when traveling”, it can be seen that the mean of

3.59 in UK is less than the mean of 3.99 in Taiwan, which shows that the green tourists in

Taiwan tend to recommend to their friends to purchase green accommodation on vacation

more than the green tourists in UK.

Compared the total means of both countries, it is evident to find that respondents in both

countries are averagely agreeable with the influence of satisfaction and loyalty on intentional

behaviour in the future toward green hotel. However, it is still obvious that the total means for

the respondents in Taiwan is a bit higher than the total means in UK, with the mean of 3.92 in

Taiwan versus the mean of 3.43 in UK.

77

4.6 Hypothesis Testing

4.6.1 Pearson’s Correlation

With the view to exploring the relations among variables, this research adopts

Pearson’s correlation. As Emerson (2015) presented that Pearson’s

correlation can be summarised as, “A statistical measure of the strength of the

linear relationship between a pair of variables”, this research analyses the

78

data by Pearson’s Correlation in order to understand the statistical measure of

how closely two variables are correlated. The correlation between two

variables is regarded as a perfect positive relationship if the correlation

coefficient (rs) is +1. On the contrary, a value of -1 presents a perfect negative

relationship (Saunders et al. 2009). In addition, this research presents values

of ±0.1 as a weak correlation, and ±0.3 for a medium correlation and ±0.5 for a

strong correlation (Field 2009).

4.6.2 Tourists’ dimensions of environmental attitude and satisfaction toward

green hotels in Taiwan and UK

As mentioned before, this study assumes customer’s pro-environmental attitude

affects satisfaction regarding green hotels. Therefore, this study illustrates 4

dimensions which shape consumer’s environmental attitude and compare how these

4 dimensions influence tourists’ satisfaction toward green hotels between Taiwan and

UK. The following is the figure to illustrate the comparisons of correlation between

tourists’ pro-environmental attitude and satisfaction toward green hotels. Therefore,

according to the framework of hypothesis, the following figure is the comparisons for

the hypothesis testing of this study.

Table 4.9 The comparisons of dimensions of tourists’ environmental

attitude and satisfaction toward green hotels between Taiwan and UK

Pro-environmental attitude Tourists’Satisfaction

Environmental concern

Taiwan

Correlation Coefficient 0.699**

Sig(1-tailed) 0.000

N 184

UK

Correlation Coefficient 0.465**

Sig(1-tailed) 0.000

79

Pro-environmental attitude Tourists’Satisfaction

N 150

Self-Expressive Benefits

Taiwan

Correlation Coefficient 0.627**

Sig(1-tailed) 0.000

N 184

UK

Correlation Coefficient 0.219**

Sig(1-tailed) 0.000

N 150

Social Norms

Taiwan

Correlation Coefficient 0.130**

Sig(1-tailed) 0.000

N 184

UK

Correlation Coefficient -0.053**

Sig(1-tailed) 0.000

N 150

Greenwashing

Taiwan

Correlation Coefficient 0.419**

Sig(1-tailed) 0.000

N 184

UK

Correlation Coefficient 0.334**

Sig(1-tailed) 0.000

N 150

80

It is demonstrated by figure 4.9 that tourist’s environmental concern and self-

expressive benefits in Taiwan both have strong linear relationship with

satisfaction regarding green hotels, with a correlation coefficient of rs = 0.699

and 0.627 respectively. In addition, Figure 4.9 also illustrates the significance

value of this correlation is p < 0.001, indicating that the relationship between

all of these four attitude dimensions and satisfaction regarding green hotels as

statistically significant. Therefore, according to the chart above, it is possible to

make a conclusion that the higher level of tourists’ environmental concern and

self-expressive benefits in Taiwan, the higher level of tourist’s satisfaction

toward green hotels which they have ever stayed in.

However, on the contrary, it is shown by figure 4.9 that customers’

environmental concern has only a moderately linear relationship with

satisfaction regarding green hotels in UK, with a correlation coefficient of rs =

0.465. In addition, it is also found that customers’ self-expressive benefits has

a weakly positive linear relationship with satisfaction regarding green hotels in

UK as well, with a correlation coefficient of rs = 0.219, p<0.001. Thus, it is

possible to make a conclusion that the higher level of tourists' environmental

concern and self-expressive benefits in both countries, the higher level of

tourists’ satisfaction toward green hotels which they have ever stayed in;

though tourists’ satisfaction in Taiwan is more strongly influenced by the

environmental concern and self-expressive benefits than in UK.

In terms of the correlation between social norms and satisfaction toward green hotels

in both countries, it is evident to perceive from Figure 4.9 that social norm in Taiwan

has a weak linear relationship with tourists' satisfaction, with a correlation coefficient

of rs = 0.130 In addition, it is also identified by Figure 4.9 that the relationship

between social norms and tourists’ satisfaction toward green hotels in UK is

negatively correlated, with a correlation coefficient of rs = - 0.053. Based on the

statistics presented above, it is interesting to note that the respondents in UK do not

refer to social norms as issues to assess the satisfaction toward green hotels. Also,

the respondents in Taiwan regard “social norms” as a weakly related dimension to

affect satisfaction regarding green hotels. Therefore, it is possible to make a

conclusion that respondents who have ever stayed in green hotels in both countries

81

averagely view “social norms2 as a less influenced dimension to interact with

satisfaction regarding green hotels.

Finally, in terms of the reception toward greenwashing for respondents in UK,

it is found that the relationship between Greenwashing and the satisfaction

toward green hotels is just moderately positive (rs = 0.334, p < 0.001). In

addition, it can be seen from figure 4.9 that there is a stronger positive

relationship between Greenwashing and customers' satisfaction toward green

hotels in Taiwan, with a correlation coefficient of rs = 0.419. Conclusively, the

environmental attitudes of tourists in Taiwan tend to be affected by

Greenwashing strategy more. Considering the theory background in chapter 2,

it is verified that hoteliers in Taiwan are under the cultural values of

competitiveness compared with the dominant cultural values of individual

responsibility in UK. Therefore, the tourists in Taiwan also regard

“Greenwashing” as a more influenced dimension shaping their environmental

attitude and then affecting their satisfaction regarding green hotels than in UK.

4.6.3 Hypothesis 5 The relationship between tourists’ satisfaction and loyalty

regarding green hotels

Table 4.10 The comparisons of relationship between satisfaction and

customers’ loyalty toward green hotels they have ever stayed in

Satisfaction Loyalty

Taiwan

Correlation Coefficient 0.715**

Sig(1-tailed) 0.000

N 184

UK

Correlation Coefficient 0.643**

Sig(1-tailed) 0.000

82

Satisfaction Loyalty

N 150

It is demonstrated by figure 4.10 that tourists' satisfaction toward green hotels in both

countries has a strong linear relationship with loyalty, with a correlation coefficient of

rs = 0.715 and 0.643 respectively. It is evident to make a conclusion that the higher

level of tourists' satisfaction regarding green hotels in both countries, the higher level

of tourists' loyalty toward green hotels which they have ever stayed in; though the

tourists in Taiwan tend to keep loyal to green hotels based on the satisfaction more

than in UK.

4.6.4 Hypothesis 6 The relationship between tourist’s loyalty and the

intentional behaviour regarding green hotels

Table 4.11 The comparisons of relationship between loyalty and customers’

intentional behaviour toward green hotels

Loyalty RepurchaseBehaviour

TaiwanCorrelation Coefficient 0.498**

Sig(1-tailed) 0.000

N 184

UK

83

Loyalty RepurchaseBehaviour

Correlation Coefficient 0.334**

Sig(1-tailed) 0.000

N 150

Loyalty Recommendationto

Others

TaiwanCorrelation Coefficient 0.762**

Sig(1-tailed) 0.000

N 184

UKCorrelation Coefficient 0.652**

Sig(1-tailed) 0.000

N 150

It is demonstrated by figure 4.11 that tourists' loyalty toward green hotels has strongly

positive linear relationship with intentional behaviour, including repurchase behavior

and recommendation in both countries. It is evident to make a conclusion that the

higher level of tourists' loyalty regarding green hotels in both countries, the higher

level of tourists' repurchase behaviour and positive WOM to others toward the green

hotels they have ever stayed in; though it is obvious that green tourists in Taiwan

have the tendency to repurchase and recommend to others more than in UK.

84

4.7 Chapter Conclusion

This chapter has focused on the data analysis by primary research results

relevant to the previous hypothesis. It is evident that tourists' satisfaction

regarding green hotels is mainly positively associated with pro-environmental

attitudes, besides the social norms.

It is worth noting that social norms have a negative relationship with

customers' satisfaction. In addition, it is presented by statistics that the

environmental concern, self-expressive benefits and greenwashing all seem to

be the key factors to shape customers' pro-environmental attitude. In general,

85

the interaction of environmental attitude, satisfaction, loyalty, and intentional

behaviour are all tightly interconnected with each other in terms of the green

hotels.

Furthermore, a critical analysis and evaluation with the perspective to test

hypothesis have also been covered in this chapter. The conclusions of this

analysis are outlined in next chapter.

Chapter 5 Conclusion and Recommendations

5.1 Conclusion

Since green hotels are a new trend in the hospitality industry throughout the world,

customers’ satisfaction and intentional behaviour have become important issues for

discussion in terms of the competitiveness for the global lodging industry. Through

this research, it has been verified that customers’ perception toward green hotels are

influenced by the cultural values. This study analyses cross-cultural values and

consumer’s perceptions toward green hotels by Hofstede’s cultural framework, and it

also explores customer’s behaviour under different cultural values, Taiwan and UK,

via Trompenaars’ framework of cultural comparison.86

Through the present studies on tourists’ environmental attitude toward green hotels,

this research modifies Soongil and Yoon’s model. It is concentrated on customer’s

attitude and purchasing intention on green products. In Chapter 2, Literature Review,

it discusses the dimensions to shape customer’s pro-environmental attitude, and it

also illustrates the comparisons of these four dimensions under different cultural

values, Taiwan and UK. Furthermore, in order to explore customer’s satisfaction and

loyalty under the influence of environmental attitude, this research also examines the

relationship among these three variables of, satisfaction, loyalty and attitude.

In addition to the relationship of satisfaction and loyalty regarding green hotels, this

research also examines the topic of tourists’ intentional behaviour in the future.

According to the discussion in Chapter 2, it concludes that the connection among

satisfaction, loyalty and intentional behaviour have a positive relevance to each

other. Due to the topic of this research being based on cross-cultural values, the

previous chapter also looks at the cross-cultural comparisons between satisfaction

and intentional behaviour regarding green hotels under Taiwan and UK.

As for the main findings, the aim is to verify the relationship among tourists’ attitude,

satisfaction, loyalty and intentional behaviour. Therefore, through Chapter 4, main

findings and analysis, this research adopts quantitative method to explore the

comparison of the demographic information, descriptive statistics and T-Test as well

as Linear Regression under different cultural background, Taiwan and UK. With the

view to testing the hypotheses, this study not only explored the relationship among

variables regarding green hotels, but also interpreted the variables as having a

strong or weak impact.

As the main findings and analysis demonstrates, tourists’ pro-environmental

attitude has a positive impact on satisfaction regarding green hotels. The

dimensions of environmental attitude comprise of environmental concern, self-

expressive benefits, social norms and greenwashing. To understand how

cultural values shapes customers’ pro-environmental attitude, this research

explores the comparisons between tourists’ perceptions toward the four

87

dimensions shaping environmental attitude and satisfaction regarding green

hotels under different cultural background, Taiwan and UK.

Also, it is found that only social norms have a weaker relationship toward the

satisfaction regarding green hotels in Taiwan, and it is even negatively

correlated with satisfaction regarding green hotels in UK. However, besides

social norms, the other three dimensions shaping tourists’ pro-environmental

attitude are all examined to have strongly or moderately positive relationship

with satisfaction regarding green hotels in both countries.

It is also worth noting that the relationship between satisfaction and loyalty is

also strongly positive in both countries, but it is obvious to find that customers’

satisfaction is more strongly correlated with loyalty regarding green hotels in

Taiwan than in UK. With the further analysis focused on customers’ loyalty

and intentional behaviour regarding green hotels, it was found that the

relationship between loyalty and repurchase behaviour is also positively

correlated; however, it is perceived by the statistics that the influence of loyalty

on repurchase behaviour for respondents in Taiwan is a bit stronger than in

UK. In addition, the relationship between loyalty and recommendation to

others regarding green hotels has been presented. It can see from these

statistics that customers’ loyalty toward green hotels also has a positive

relationship with recommendation, but there is stronger relationship between

the two variables for respondents in Taiwan than in UK.

5.2 Recommendations

According to the main findings through the analysis, the results can be used to

present green hoteliers with a framework of comparisons of tourists under a

different cultural context. To meet customer’s satisfaction, hoteliers must

understand tourists’ perception toward the “green operation” and “green

management” of hotels. This research examines the four dimensions of

environmental attitude, and it is perceived that environmental concern and

self-expressive benefits both are positively correlated with tourists’ satisfaction

regarding green hotels. However, according to Table 4.9, social norms are the

least influential factors to shape customer’s pro-environmental attitude both in 88

Taiwan and UK. Therefore, it is suggested for the green practitioners that it is

unnecessary to incorporate the social norms into the green operation.

Take the environmental message for towel reusing as an instance, according

to the results of previous studies presented in chapter 2, there are positive

connection between environmental message in the bathroom of hotels and the

reduction of towel usage. However, as the survey of this research shows that

there is only a weak correlation for Taiwanese respondents between social

norms and satisfaction toward green hotels, and it is even identified that there

is a negative correlation of social norms and satisfaction regarding green

hotels in UK. Therefore, through the results, it is inappropriate to shape

customers’ positive perception by social norms.

As for Greenwashing strategy, it is shown by Table 4.9 in chapter 4 that it is

only moderately positively correlated with satisfaction toward green hotels in

both countries, and the statistics is a bit higher for respondents in Taiwan than

in UK. Through the statistics, it is found that respondents in Taiwan tend to

believe there are more greenwashing information offered by hoteliers, and

greenwashing accumulates their distrust towards green hotels. Compared with

the respondents in Taiwan, the green tourists in UK regard the green practice

of hotels as a less important factor to assess the overall performance of travel

accommodation. Therefore, in terms of the green image to appeal to the green

tourists, it is more efficient for hoteliers in UK than in Taiwan.

In addition, based on the research aims and objectives, the results of this

study also show how important tourists’ satisfaction is as it impacts on loyalty

regarding green hotels. It is suggested by the statistical measurement that the

respondents in both countries on average regard satisfaction as an influential

factor to shape loyalty toward green hotels. Therefore, it is suggested by

statistics that the more satisfaction that green tourists maintain, the more

loyalty the green tourists keep in the same green hotel. According to the Table

4.7 in Chapter 4, tourists in Taiwan are more willing to pay a higher premium

on the same green hotels than tourists in UK. It is also perceived that green

89

tourists in Taiwan refer to premium price as a less influential factor to shape

brand loyalty toward green hotels.

Finally, it is also suggested by statistics in chapter 4 that tourists’ loyalty

toward green hotels leads to positive connection to the intentional behaviour

both in Taiwan and UK. According to the framework of hypothesis, it assumes

that intentional behaviour including repurchase behaviour and

recommendation to others. Following the analysis in chapter 4, it is found that

the respondents in Taiwan will keep loyal and repurchase the same green

hotels they have ever stayed in more than in UK. As for the positive world of

mouth (WOM), the correlation between loyalty and recommendation is

strongly positive in both countries. It is suggested that green hoteliers can

measure customers’ intention to repurchase by maintaining their loyalty, and

also the higher loyalty will lead to the positive WOM.

5.3 Suggestions for future research

From the discussion illustrated in the previous chapters, this study presents

recommendations based on the findings and statistics via convenience

sampling collected in Taiwan and UK. The results of this research present the

analysis of the tourists’ perception toward green hotels, in respect of attitude,

satisfaction, loyalty and intentional behaviour in the future. Nevertheless, there

is still some suggestions for future study as follows:

90

1. For the future research, it is suggested to identify more dimensions of

customers’ pro-environmental attitude which shape satisfaction toward green

hotels. It is identified by previous studies that tourists’ environmental concern,

psychological reward, and even the hotelier’s green brand image may all have

impact on satisfaction. However, owing to the green consumption widespread

globally, the future research may explore more factors which influence

consumers’ attitude.

2. The questionnaires of this survey were distributed to 664 samples and

there were only 334 out of them who had experience in green hotels. Although

green consumption on vacation is more popular nowadays, however, in terms

of the investigation of satisfaction, loyalty, and intentional behaviour, it still

needs more samples to support the entire population. On the other hand, due

to the research being focused on discussing the comparisons of cultural

values, the data collection of this study was from only two countries, Taiwan

and UK. It was also found that the respondents in both countries who had

visited green hotels were made up of those who had graduated from college

or universities. Nevertheless, the idea of green hotel, as a new trend for

traveling pattern, only exists in some countries with full eco-friendly

information. Tourists who are concerned at green practitioners while traveling

only account for 50 percent in both countries. It can be perceived that “green

hotels” are still the term for luxurious tourism style in some developed

countries, full of well-educated people. The future research can be carried out

clarifying satisfaction, loyalty, and intentional behaviour in different types of

green hotels, or even in different areas of the world.

3. As chapter 2 stated that the concepts of “green hotels” are more “supply -

driven” than “demand - led”, therefore, it is suggested that the future research

can also find out the managers’ viewpoints and employee attitude toward

green hotels. In addition, it also needs to illustrate the differentiation in

marketplace in respect of green management or green operation. In general,

the green consumption on lodging industry is increasing more attention among

tourists globally at present, but the hoteliers should pay more attention to the

green trend to meet customers’ emerging needs.

91

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AppendixQuestionnaire

Dear participants:

My name is Te Chang Liu. This questionnaire is part of my MSc. in Tourism Management at

Bournemouth University which conducts cross-cultural comparison of customers’ pro-environmental

attitudes, satisfaction, and intentional behaviours regarding green hotels. Your participation and

honest response will be highly appreciated.

* Green Hotels: Green Hotels are environmentally-friendly properties whose managers are eager to

institute programs that save water, save energy and reduce solid waste—while saving money—to help

protect our one and only earth(Green Hoteliers Association 2016).

Please note that this questionnaire is completely anonymous; your answers are confidential and for

academic use only, and may help to create a better experience for tourists at green hotels in the

future.

Thanks for your cooperation and feedback. If you decide to know more of this academic research, let's

start from the first question .

Are you ready, let's get start !

Have you ever stayed in the green hotels while traveling?

☐ YES, I have been to a green hotel before ☐ NO, I have never been to any green hotel

Part 1:Personal Information

1. Gender

☐ (A) Male ☐ (B) Female

2. Age

☐ (A) Below 20 years old ☐ (B) 20 – 30 years old

☐ (C) 31 – 40 years old ☐ (D) 41 – 50 years old

☐ (E) 51 – 60 years old ☐(E) More than 60 years old

3. Nationality

☐ (A) British Citizen

☐ (B) Taiwanese Citizen

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4.Education

☐ (A) A Level

☐ (B) Bachelor’s Degree

☐ (D) Master’s Degree

☐ (E) Doctor’s Degree

4. Occupation

☐ (A) Entrepreneur ☐ (B) Private employee

☐ (C) Government officer ☐ (D) Student

☐ (E) Others (Please specify)...................................................

6. Household Annual Income (gross) *the provisional 2014/15 value of median

income for non-retired households is £28,100

☐ (A) Less than 20,000 GBP ☐ (B) 20,000 GBP – 25,000 GBP

☐ (C) 25,000 GBP – 30,000 GBP ☐ (D) 30,000 GBP – 35,000 GBP

☐ (E) 35,000 GBP – 40,000 GBP ☐ (F) More than 40,000 GBP

______________________________________________________________

Part 2:The 4 dimensions of cultural values to shape customer’s pro-environmental

attitude

Customer’s Attitude

Strongly

Disagree

(A)

Disagree

(B)

Neutral

(C)

Agree

(D)

Strongly

Agree

(E)

1. Environmental Concern(1) I think that we, human beings on

earth, are facing serious

environmental problems.

(2) I believe that selecting the green

accommodation on vacation helps to

prevent environment crisis.

(3) I think that obtaining information

about green performance of the

hotels is necessary when selecting

travel accommodation.

(4) I agree that having news or

information on the environment raises

awareness of environmental concern.

2. Self – expressive Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly

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Disagree

(A) (B) (C)

(D) Agree

(E)

I feel that I am a better person

when I select green

accommodation for my travel

itinerary.

3. Social Norm

(1) I believe that environmental

concern is an important issue

when assessing the overall image

of an hotel.

(2) 13. I purchase green

accommodation on vacation

because of social pressure.

4. Green Washing * Green washing refers to hoteliers who mislead their customers into believing that their products or services are eco-friendly.

(1) I think that we should pay

more attention to the hotels

getting involved in green washing.

(2) I think that distrust of the green

washing hotels can lead to the

collapse of the emerging market

of green hotels.

(3) I think that green washing

hotels should be penalised.

Part 3:The pro-environmental attitude which leads to the satisfaction and loyalty

toward green hotels

Customer’s satisfaction and loyalty

Overall Image of green hotels

Extremely

Disagree

(A)

Disagree

(B)

Neutral

(C)

Agree

(D)

Extremely

Agree

(E)

(1) I feel satisfied with the green

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performance of the green hotels I

have ever stayed in.

(2) I will keep loyal to the green

hotels based on their green

performance.

(3) I will still feel satisfied with the

green hotels I have stayed in even if I

have to pay premium on it.

_____________________________________________________________

Part 4 The green satisfaction and loyalty in relation to intentional behaviour toward

green hotels in the future

1. Customer’s repurchase behaviour

Green satisfaction and loyalty Extremely

Disagree

(A)

Disagree

(B)

Neutral

(C)

Agree

(D)

Extremely

Agree

(E)

(1) I will make an effort to repurchase

green accommodation that I have ever

stayed in.

(2) After the first experience of booking

and staying in a green hotel, I will

examine if the same hotel is still

“green” when considering rebooking.

(3) I will repurchase the green

accommodation even its higher price

than the same level hotels.

2. Customer’s recommendation to others

Green satisfaction and loyalty Extremely

Disagree

(A)

Disagree

(B)

Neutral

(C)

Agree

(D)

Extremely

Agree

(E)

(1) I will maintain loyalty to a certain

green hotel if I consider they have

excellent green performance.

(2) I will encourage my friends and

relatives to stay at a green hotel when

traveling.

End of Questionnaire

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