Divine Command Theory & Applied Ethics

Learning Outcomes

•Evaluate Divine Command Theory.•Apply the different Christian ethical frameworks to a range of bioethical dilemmas.

Pete Byrne CCRS Bexhill- Session 4

Evaluating Situation Ethics

Strengths•Easy to understand and update

•Flexible – situational

•Based on the Christian concept of love

•Focus on concern for others

•Allows people to take responsibility for their actions

Weaknesses•May go against Church and Bible teachings

•Utilitarian (love substitutes pleasure)

•Difficult to determine consequences

•Danger of selfishness under the banner of ‘love’

•A loving motive does not necessarily make an action good, e.g. killing a suicide bomber

•Not exactly Jesus’ ‘individualised’ love (e.g. haemorrhaged woman)•Can be used to justify anything.

Proportionalism• Arose from the challenge of Situation Ethics and (and

its moral relativism) to traditional Catholic teaching.

• Compromise between Natural Law and Situation Ethics.

• Accepts that certain actions (moral laws) are wrong in themselves (Natural Law) e.g. murder.

• However, it argues that in extreme circumstances, it may be right to break such rules e.g. if there is a proportionate reason to do so.

Example

• Killing in a Just War.

• What would constitute a proportionate reason to kill during a war?WWII? Vietnam? Iraq?

Divine Command Theory

• God, being omnipotent and omni-benevolent, wills certain actions that must be obeyed.

• An action is ‘right’ if God commands it.

• These commands are revealed through the Bible or Church teaching.

• God only commands what is morally good.

• Commands are absolute, objective and deontological e.g. obedience to God comes before consequences.

MORALITY IS DEPENDENT ON GOD.

The best challenge to the relationship between religion andmorality is Plato’s Euthyphro Dilemma.

This can be phrased :

Does God command X (where X is a moral Command) because it is good, or is X good because God commands it?

Challenges to Divine Command Theory

Is X good because God commands it?

In this case God is the direct source of moral knowledge.

GOD GOODNESS MAN

Does God command X because it is good?

In this case goodness exists as something separate from God and to which God needs access in order to make a moral command.

GOODNESS GOD MAN

In Pairs – argue the two sides of the dilemma

Other challenges to Divine Command Theory

This view of Christian ethics goes completely against the morality of love and grace.

1. How do you determine God’s will?

2. Moral teaching based on scripture is unreliable because the texts are culturally relative and specific to the time they were written.

3. Does it undermine our freewill and autonomy in favour of blind obedience?

4. Pope JPII rejected it, saying some things are innately good or bad.

Are Christian Ethics Absolute or Relative?

Absolutism•Divine Command Theory.

•Natural Law e.g. primary precepts

•Jesus’ command to love.

Relativism•Situation Ethics

•Proportionalism

•Jesus breaking the law e.g. healing on the Sabbath, ritual cleanliness.

Applied Ethics

The Right to a Child and Genetic Engineering

Australian couple ????? surrogate twin with Down's syndrome -

but ???? his sister

Background• The first test-tube baby, Louise Brown, was born

on 25 July 1978 at Oldham and District General Hospital.

• The consultant PATRICK STEPTOE was part of the team that developed in vitro fertilisation (IVF).

• Today IVF is used throughout the world to help women who are unable to conceive naturally.

Other fertility treatments include:

• Surrogacy- where a women is used as a substitute to grow the baby and give birth before relinquishing the baby to someone else.

• Artificial insemination- sperm is injected into a women (either from the father or mother).

Ethical IssuesThese ‘test-tube babies’ and other fertility treatments

raise a number of ethical problems.

Two broad categories of ethical issues:

•Do people have a right to a child? Is a child a right or a gift?

•Does ‘everyone’ have the right to a child? Should age or sexuality be a consideration?

• What are the ethical issues associated with the procedure? • What is the status and fate of embryos? • What is the cost to NHS? Success rates? • What issues do donors and surrogacy raise?

Changing Times

Recently there has been a growth in the number of older women in their 50s and 60s having IVF treatment.

In 2006, a Spanish woman, MARIA DEL CARMEN BOUSADA, aged 67, gave birth to twins.

Did she have a right to a child?

HOWEVER…….

• This case highlighted the problem of conflicting rights.

• Maria died in 2009 at the age of 69. She left behind her two year old children.

• Don’t the two young children left without a mother have rights too?

Single Parents and Same-Sex Couples

Do single people have the right to have a child?

Do same-sex couples have the right to have a child?

Is this in the best interests of the child?

IVF – other moral issues1. What is the moral status of the fertilised

embryos that are not implanted into the woman?

This is the spare embryo problem.

• When eggs have been fertilised only 2 or 3 are implanted back into the woman. The embryos are graded and the best ones chosen for implantation.

• What happens to the unused embryos?

In the UK :a. The embryos may be frozen and made

available for later implantation. b. They may be used in medical research or

donated to other women. c. Alternatively they may be destroyed.(If used in medical research all embryos must be

destroyed within 14 days of fertilisation).

When does life begin?

• At conception

• After conception

• At birth

Potentiality and Actuality!

• There is a difference between potential life and actual life.

• Life begins upon implantation in the womb – about 6/7 days after conception.– If life begins at conception, the

Morning After Pill is chemical abortion.

– If life begins at implantation, the morning after pill is contraception.

Differing opinions

• British Law sees life as beginning when the foetus can survive independently.

• Some say it is when brainwaves first show.

• Some say when the heart starts beating.

– Does all this mean that without these things the foetus is not human?

When does life begin?

• At conception

• After conception

• At birth

Differing opinions

• Mary Ann Warren.– Life begins when the baby

no longer relies totally on the mother for survival.

• Jonathan Glover.– There is no major difference

in development between a late foetus and a new born or premature baby.

When does life begin? When does the ‘unborn’ become a human person?

1. Conception- becomes a unique human life. Consistent but doesn’t seem very human e.g. just a single cell.

2. Ensoulment- when the soul is implanted: Conception, 40 days and 90 days? Advances in biology and is there any evidence of a soul?

3. Certain stage in development e.g. heart beats, major organs. Very arbitrary e.g. which organs?

4. Viability- survive outside the mother’s body e.g. around 22 weeks. Varies between foetuses.

5. Birth- But is there a difference between a baby born at 24 weeks and a foetus about to be born at 36 weeks?

6. Characteristics of a human person e.g. self awareness, rationality. But a new born baby doesn’t have these qualities.

Mary Ann Warren’s Criteria for Personhood• Sentience

– Conscious experiences

• Emotionality– Ability to feel happy, sad, loving

• Reason– Ability to solve problems

• The capacity to communicate

• Self-Awareness– Awareness of oneself individually

and socially.

• Moral Agency– Ability to regulate actions through

moral principles.

However, a young baby does not have many of these qualities.

How does a Catholic ‘untangle’ the ethical issues surrounding

fertility treatments?

At conception

• Catholic Church teaching is that life begins at conception.– It is at this time that God

implants a soul into the body.

• It is at this time that all genetic material from both parents is present that is required to make a complete and biologically distinct entity.

Papal opinions

• 1869 – Pope Pius XI in Casti Cnnubi.– The foetus is a human

person from the moment of conception.

– The life of an unborn child is as sacred as that of its mother.

• 1968 – Pope Paul VI in Humanae Vitae.– Reinforced this teaching.

Catechism of the Catholic Church – 1994

• Human life must be respected and protected absolutely from the moment of conception.

• From the first moment of his existence a human being must be recognised as having the rights of a person – among which is the inviolable right of every innocent being to life.

Natural will always see a foetus and a human life with potential rather than a potential human life.

What is the relationship ‘potential’ and ‘goodness’ in natural law?

Biblical passages to support this view.

• Before I formed you in the womb I knew you.

– Jeremiah 1:5b

• For it was you who formed my inward parts; you knit me together in my mother’s womb.

– Psalm 139:13

• For as soon as I heard the sound of your greeting, the child in my womb leaped for joy.

– Luke 1:44

2. What is the moral status of the biological father when he is not the spouse/partner of the mother?

This is the donor father problem.

• In the UK clinics can only pay expenses such as travel and loss of earnings to the donor. This is not the case in other countries. Commercialisation raises important issues about the relationship of the donor to the child.

• A further problem is the right to know. Children born using donor sperm may wish to know their biological father later in life.

• Before April 2005 donors could remain anonymous.

• Children conceived after this date have the right to access details about the donor when they are 18.

• However, donors can still refuse contact with their donor-conceived child. This can be psychologically damaging to the child.

• Legally, donor fathers are not required to take on any responsibilities for their donor-conceived children, but what moral responsibilities does a donor father have?

• What about a woman who has donated eggs?

3. What moral issues are raised by multiple births?

In the UK, women under 40 can have two embryos implanted, and women over 40 three.

But in some countries larger numbers are implanted to increase the chances of success. This can result in multiple births, with as many as 8 babies being born.

Nadya Suleman – octuplets!

• This can pose dangerous health risks to the woman and the children. The mother may also have difficulty taking care of a large number of children.

What is Genetic Engineering?

Genetic Engineering is the process in which the genetic make up of an organism are changed or manipulated in some way.

Examples include:Genetically modified (GM) cropsGenetically engineering bacteriaGene therapyCloning: Therapeutic and Reproductive Cloning

The Potential of Genetic Engineering

A lack of vitamin A causes blindness.

Millions of people in places such as India, do not have access to a balanced diet containing vitamin A, and rely on a rice-based diet.

How could this problem be overcome by using genetic engineering?

Can genetically modified food alleviate World HungerGM Rice 'Golden Rice'

The beta carotene gene is isolated from carrot DNA.

The gene is copied Copies of the gene are inserted into rice plants to produce rice containing beta carotene which can be converted into vitamin A by humans.

Other Examples:

1.Growth genes to increase yields / profits.

2.GM crops that can grow in arid (poor) conditions.

Pesticide Resistant Crops

How it works?•GM crops are modified with a pesticide resistance. •Reduces the need for pesticides and chemicals and prevents their build up in ecosystems. •Increases yields / profits. •

Super Weeds• GM crops are modified with a

weedkiller resistance.

• Insects carry pollen containing resistance genes in their to weeds.

• Weeds grow uncontrollably disrupting the natural biodiversity of the area.

• Need for more chemicals (affects food chains).

Other ethical concerns:1.Crops with ‘terminator’ genes e.g. GM crops whose seeds can’t be grown the next years2.Is this playing God and interfering with God’s Creation

(Are we being poor stewardship?).

Genetically Engineered Animals

Key ethical Questions1.Is it ‘playing God’ or a way of helping the poor? Is it different than selective breeding? 2.Is this cruelty to animals? Multiple miscarriages / Cold for the chicken? 3.Is GM use to increase food production different than making a fish glow in the dark?

Humans and Genetic Engineering • Gene therapy attempts to cure existing disorders by replacing

‘faulty’ genes with healthy ones e.g. cystic fibrosis.

• However, these benefits are only temporary as these genes die, they are replaced by the person’s faulty genes.

• However, if this was done with gametes (reproductive cells) or embryos it would be permanent. This would be genetic engineering. This is illegal on humans. British law prohibits implantation of embryos that have been genetically modified

Key ethical Questions

1.Is it ‘playing God’? Or a way of helping the sick? 2.Is this creating designer babies? Which genes ‘can’ be altered? Genetic diseases? Eye colour? Intelligence genes? 3.What does this say about disability? Something to be ‘got rid’ of? 4.What are the long term risk? E.g. inserting new genes into an individual?

Gene therapy

Possible uses of stem cells for treatments

Therapeutic CloningThis involves the cloning of embryos that can be used as a source of stem cells, either for research or to treat a disease directly.

Human Cloning

Reproductive CloningThis involves producing a genetically identical copy of another organism e.g. Dolly. This is illegal in humans.

Key Ethical Questions

1.Is it ‘playing God’? Or a way of helping the sick? 2.Does this undermine the Sanctity of Life? Does human life become a commodity? Something useful? 3.What is the status of a human embryo? Embryos are discarded in this process.

Genetic Screening

Key ethical Questions

1.Is it ‘playing God’? Or preventing a child from a life of suffering? 2.Is this creating designer babies? Which embryos should be selected? Genetically healthy? Eye colour? Boys?3.What does this say about disability? Something to be ‘got rid’ of? 4.What is the status of the other human embryos? Faulty or unwanted embryos are discarded.5.Does this undermine the Sanctity of Life? Does human life become a commodity or product?

• Multiple embryos are created by IVF.

• Embryos can be genetically tested for a range of inherited characteristics including:

– Gender– Physical characterises e.g. eye colour – Diseases e.g. cystic fibrosis– Tissue Match (Saviour Siblings)

• Selected embryos e.g. those that are genetically healthy or are the right tissue match are injected into the women’s uterus.

Essay Titles1. To what extent are Christian ethics distinctive?

2. Explain, with examples, the main principles of natural law. To what extent is this the ‘best’ approach to moral problems?

3. Explain, with examples, the strengths and weaknesses of Situation Ethics.

4. To what extent does the Church have authority to provide moral teaching for Catholics?

5. Justify what is the hardest moral dilemma for a Catholic in 2015.

6. Suggest your own essay title.