doctoral study man der son
TRANSCRIPT
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
1/131
Walden University
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
This is to certify that the doctoral study by
Michael Anderson
has been found to be complete and satisfactory in all respects,and that any and all revisions required bythe review committee have been made.
Review CommitteeDr. James Mitchell, Committee Chairperson, Education FacultyDr. Donald Wattam, Committee Member, Education Faculty
Chief Academic Officer
Denise DeZolt, Ph.D.
Walden University2008
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
2/131
ABSTRACT
The Correlation Between Choices, Motivation, and Writing Scores in Elementary SchoolStudents
by
Dr. Michael Anderson, Ed.D.
Ed.D., Walden University, 2008M.A., City University, 1996
B.A., Northwest Nazarene University, 1990
Doctoral Study Submitted in Partial Fulfillmentof the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of EducationWalden University
Walden UniversityMay 2008
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
3/131
ABSTRACT
More pressure than ever is placed on standardized test scores. Writing scores are
generally the lowest among content areas tested. This correlational mixed-methods study
explored the relationship between prompt choices, student engagement, and standardized
writing test scores of intermediate-level students from a suburban elementary school. The
study examined whether students (a) are more motivated when provided with choices, (b)
perform at a higher level when more engaged or provided with choices, and 9c) what role
gender plays in both writing scores and engagement variables associated with writing.
The researcher used concurrent triangulation strategy for data collection on student
perceptions of engagement when provided varied levels of options during writing tests.
The study integrated data from student surveys, interviews, and writing test scores
conducted over a three-month period. Only 24 of the 73-student population met the
criteria for participation in the study. Due to the small sample size, and based on
recommendations from the doctoral study committee members, the researcher used
randomized test-retest measures. The measure of effect was determined using the Pearson
correlation while ANOVA provided for the analysis of means and engagement levels.
The study indicated relationships between writing prompts, student achievement, and
perceived levels of engagement, which added new information for social change by
illuminating characteristics important to student engagement for the promotion of lifelong
learning across both genders. Improved test scores positively impact the community,
school, and student. Increased student engagement reinforces the development of life
long learning. Studying what both genders associated with favorable and nonfavorable
writing experiences contributed to closing the gap on gender-based academic proficiency.
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
4/131
The Correlation Between Choices, Motivation, and Writing Scores in Elementary SchoolStudents
by
Dr. Michael Anderson, Ed.D.
Ed.D., Walden University, 2008M.A., City University, 1996
B.A., Northwest Nazarene University, 1990
Doctoral Study Submitted in Partial Fulfillmentof the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of EducationWalden University
Walden University
MAY 2008
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
5/131
DEDICATION
This is dedicated to Sandra Anderson. She encouraged the pursuit of this venture,
helped edit along the way, and she is the only person who can understand what it took to
complete this study
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
6/131
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTSLIST OF TABLES...............................................................................................................vLIST OF FIGURES............................................................................................................vi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY...................................1Introduction..........................1Problem Statement...........................2Nature of the Study..........................3Research Questions..............................................................................................................3Purpose Statement........................4Social Change......................................................................................................................5Assumptions.........................................................................................................................5Limitations...........................................................................................................................5Delimitations........................................................................................6Validity................................................................................................................................6Summary and Transition......................................................................................................8
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW.............................9Issues Related to Performance of Writing Assessments..................9
Introduction........................9Standardized Writing Tests ...........................................................................................9Gender......................12
Theories of Motivation..............15Introduction..........................15Behavioral Views of Motivation..........................16Social Learning Theory .......................19Cognitive Views of Motivation . ............................................................21Humanistic Views of Motivation ....................25The Impact of Cooperative Grouping on Motivation..................................................32Other Peoples Expectations ...................................................................................34Introduction of Roles...................35Atmosphere: Creating the Right Environment....................36Student Choice: Tapping into Interests and Arousing Curiosity.....................36
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY...............................................................39Introduction: Quantitative and Qualitative Design ...............39
Setting..........................................................................................................................40
Sample..........................................................................................................................41Quantitative Design...........................................................................................................43
Research Question One................................................................................................43Question One Hypotheses............................................................................................43Research Question Two...............................................................................................44Question Two Hypotheses...........................................................................................44Research Question Three.............................................................................................45Question Three Hypotheses.........................................................................................45
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
7/131
iii
Data Collection............................................................................................................45Data Analysis...............................................................................................................47
Qualitative Design.............................................................................................................47Qualitative Research Questions...................................................................................49Purpose.........................................................................................................................49Method.........................................................................................................................50Data Collection............................................................................................................50Data Analysis...............................................................................................................51
Summary............................................................................................................................51
CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA......................................52Quantitative Design...........................................................................................................52
Research Question One................................................................................................54Research Question Two...............................................................................................56Research Question Three.............................................................................................59Summary......................................................................................................................61
Qualitative design..............................................................................................................62Qualitative Research Questions...................................................................................62Qualitative Data Analysis............................................................................................64Summary......................................................................................................................66
Triangulation......................................................................................................................68
CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS.............70Introduction........................................................................................................................70Conclusions........................................................................................................................71
No-Choice Writing Prompts........................................................................................72Multiple-Choice Writing Prompts...............................................................................72Open-Choice Writing Prompts....................................................................................72
Recommendations..............................................................................................................73Summary............................................................................................................................75
REFERENCES......78
APPENDIX A: LETTER...................................................................................................83
APPENDIX B: SURVEY PERMISSION.........................................................................84
APPENDIX C: INTERVIEW PERMISSION...................................................................86
APPENDIX D: SURVEY..................................................................................................88
APPENDIX E: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS.....................................................................90
APPENDIX F: ORAL CONSENT....................................................................................92
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
8/131
iv
APPENDIX G: INTERVIEW ASSENT...........................................................................93
APPENDIX H: SURVEY ASSENT..................................................................................95
APPENDIX I: INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT....................................................................97
CURRICULUM VITAE..................................................................................................120
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
9/131
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. ANOVA Results Between Writing Prompts and Engagement Levels................59
Table 2. ANOVA Results Between Prompt Choices and Gender-Based EngagementLevels ................................................................................................................................61
Table 3. Comparison of Commonality Between Two Established Qualitative AnalysisApproaches .......................................................................................................................65
Table 4. Categorical Interviewee Responses.....................................................................67
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
10/131
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Bar graph showing reported levels of student engagement during writing
prompts of different levels of choice.................................................................................57
Figure 2. Bar graph showing reported levels of student engagement when matched with
gender during writing prompts of different levels of choice.............................................60
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
11/131
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
Introduction
This is a day and age where a students test scores influence the perception of an
educators professional competence. If a teacher has a group who score well on the
writing, reading, and mathematical portions of a state test, the teacher receives
commendation for having done a good job with the students assigned to them. If a group
of students fails to meet the established standard, the teacher or school responsible for the
students receives repercussions from the community, administrators, or the state board of
education because the students have not performed in an acceptable manner. High-stakes,
standardized test scores are even having a direct impact on property values. Hevesi
(2004) stated, There is no question that property values are directly correlated with
schools' test scores (p.1). According to Dougherty, Harrelson, Maloney, Murphy, Smith,
Snow, and Zannoni, D. (2007),
Our findings indicate that elementary school test scores are significantly andpositively correlated with single-family home prices, controlling for housecharacteristics and neighborhood effects. For homes located in geographicallysimilar neighborhoods and very close to school attendance boundaries, a 12percentage point increase (or one standard deviation) in the number of fourth-graders meeting the state achievement test goal is associated with a 2.81% (or$5,065 increase) in the price of an average home. (p. 2)
Often test standards escalate each year, based on the previous years group scores. This
practice does not take the specific needs of the current group into consideration, nor does
it factor in any unusual circumstances, such as the implementation of a new curriculum or
changes in the staffing at a school. Regardless, accountability for student performance on
standardized tests ultimately falls on the teacher and the school.
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
12/131
2
With the increased pressure to produce a class of students who can perform well
on the states standardized test, states, districts, and local schools have spent many hours
reviewing how the students have done in the past, what has worked, and what has not.
Marzano (2003) stated that there is a clear connection between a students engagement
and her or his level of achievement; and that if a student is engaged in his or her learning,
that student will have a greater likelihood of content mastery (p. 144). Stiggins (2001)
stated, We cannot separate affect and achievement from one another in the classroom
(p. 328). Hawley and Rollie (2001) agree that the engaged student has a better chance of
being successful; and propose that a teacher can help facilitate a high degree of
motivation by utilizing a students knowledge base (previous knowledge based on
learning or experiences), things that the student perceives as interesting, and choices
made by the student (p. 17). Chapter two of this document examines standardized testing
and theories of motivation in detail.
Problem Statement
There is a problem in elementary schools across the United States related to
intermediate-level students consistently scoring lower on standardized writing tests than
in other academic areas (National Center, 2002). According to Connell and Guzelmann
(2004), the average intermediate level student is two years behind the standard in the
academic areas of reading and writing. The Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction
(OSPI) for Washington state published results for 2005-2006 stating that 57.7% of
fourth-grade students met the writing proficiency standard, compared to 62.1% who met
the math standard, and 82.4% who met the reading standard.
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
13/131
3
Nature of the Study
This mixed-methods study used a concurrent triangulation strategy to collect
data on student perceptions of engaged writing, when the students were provided with
varying levels of options during writing prompts, and compared these data to the
standardized test scores of the same students. The study integrated data from student
surveys, interviews, and writing test scores conducted concurrently over a three-month
period. The use of the Pearson correlation coefficient established whether there is a
relationship between level of choice and level of student engagement. One-way analysis
of variance (ANOVA) provided for the analysis of group means and attitude levels
between male and female students when the participants received varying levels of
prompt options or choices on writing assignments. ANOVA also provided for the
analysis between writing-test scores when compared to levels of student engagement. The
data collected from the interviews was coded, synthesized, and triangulated with the data
collected via the surveys and writing assessments.
Research questions
1. Is there a relationship between a students perceived level of engagement and
standardized writing-test scores for intermediate-level students in suburban elementary
schools (quantitative)?
2. Do students perceive themselves as being more motivated or engaged in writing
assignments when provided with choice of content (quantitative)?
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
14/131
4
3. Is there a difference in the students perceived level of engagement between
intermediate-level girls and boys when presented with writing assignments of varied
degrees of choice pertaining to content (quantitative)?
4. What variables do students associate with favorable and nonfavorable writing
experiences (qualitative)?
5. How do perceptions of favorable and nonfavorable writing experiences
compare between boys and girls (qualitative)?
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this mixed-methods correlational study was to explore the
relationship among choice, motivation/engagement, student perceptions, and standardized
writing test scores of intermediate-level students attending a suburban elementary school.
A mixed-methods approach allowed for the collection of qualitative data that supported
the statistical data while adding new perspectives to the area of study. One mixed-
methods approach is the concurrent triangulation strategy. A concurrent triangulation
strategy provided a method of verifying and supporting the validity of the data collected
during this study. Additionally, this methodology was superior due to the limited range of
time the study ran. These strengths led to the selection of a mixed-methods approach.
According to Creswell (2003), concurrent triangulation strategy can result in well-
validated and substantiated findings. In addition, the concurrent data collection results in
a shorter data collection time period as compared to one of the sequential approaches (p.
217).
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
15/131
5
Social Change
This study influenced social change through improved student writing test scores
and defined factors for raising student motivation for male and female students. Improved
test scores positively impact the community, school, and student. Increased student
engagement on school related activities reinforce the development of life long learning of
the student. Additionally, studying what both genders associated with favorable and
nonfavorable writing experiences, contributed to closing the gap on gender-based
academic proficiency.
Assumptions
The researcher made certain assumptions about the data collection and
authenticity of the results of the study. First was the assumption that students would
answer survey and interview questions honestly. There was concern due to a prior
working relationship with the participants of the study. The researcher was a classroom
teacher in the grade-level and school where the study took place. The specific concern
was that the prior relationship carried potential bias, leading to students answering survey
questions based on the perception of wanting to please the researcher or their classroom
teacher.
Limitations
Limiting factors of this study included the size of the population and sample
group, in addition to the length of the study. With such a small group and with data
collected over a three-month period, clear trends could have been difficult to identify.
Sampling based on convenience decreases the generalizability of findings (Creswell,
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
16/131
6
2003). Another limitation of this study arrived by the creation of the surveys. Because the
surveys have no history of prior usage, the validity has yet to be established. Moreover,
there were potential limitations based on unforeseeable events outside the researchers
control. These events might have included, but were not limited to, the participants home
life (sleep habits, dietary factors, conflicts within the home, etc.), and unrelated life
events.
Delimitations
Initially, this study gathered data on student perspectives about choice,
engagement, and writing assignments at the intermediate level of a suburban elementary
school. As the study progressed, the scope was expanded to include statistical data
obtained via standardized writing tests completed by a smaller sample group.
Validity
One quality control method was peer debriefing. Peer debriefing can, according to
Creswell (2003), enhance the accuracy of the account (p. 196). Throughout the study,
the researcher reviewed the ongoing process with a team of preselected peers. This
method began with a prestudy conference in an effort to control the quality of the study
through a question-and-answer session with peers who were also in the field of education,
but who had no vested interest in this study. These meetings occurred periodically to
check for consistency in both methods and results. The first peer debriefing was an
opportunity to present the components of the proposed study. At this stage, the group
reviewed the data collection materials, including surveys, writing prompts, and interview
questions. A second collaborative meeting occurred after completion of the surveys to
review the groups perception of the effectiveness and validity of the survey results. The
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
17/131
7
interviews required two more discussions. The first concerned a review of interview
protocol, content, and participant eligibility. The second involved a post-interview
review. The next peer debriefing occurred after the transcribing and codification of the
interviews. Its purpose was to insure accuracy of the reporting. The final peer gathering
took place after the data analysis was complete, as a last check for any irregularities or
threats to the validity of the study.
Concurrent triangulation
The use of concurrent triangulation strategy also provided a method of verifying
and supporting the validity of the data. Concurrent triangulation strategy took place
throughout the data analysis stage. Concurrent triangulation strategy can result in well-
validated and substantiated findings, and is preferred when a study has a limited range of
time (Creswell, 2003).
Member checking
Member checking provided an additional quality-control method. Member checks
involved the researcher checking findings, interpretations, and conclusions with the
participants of the study. Member checks transpired with the participants after the
transcription and coding of the interviews. According to Creswell (1998), the member
check method is a means to check the credibility of a researchers findings and
interpretations (p. 202). Hatch (2002) lists both triangulation and member-checking as
methods for verifying or extending data collected during a qualitative study (p. 92). In
addition, triangulation in conjunction with member checking is the recommended
approach to establishing the validity of a study (Creswell, 1998, p. 216).
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
18/131
8
Summary and Transition
There has been pressure for students to perform well on standardized writing
tests. The pressure is at the national, state, local community, and individual student
levels. There has also been a disparity among the writing test scores of males and female
students. The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship among choice,
engagement, student perceptions, and standardized writing test scores of intermediate-
level elementary school students. The second chapter of this document contains further
references to relevant scholarly professional literature. Chapter three identifies, defines,
and defends methodology and research design used for this study. The researcher reports
the studys findings in chapter four and based on the data in chapter four, conclusions are
drawn and research-based recommendations are presented in chapter five.
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
19/131
9
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Issues Related to Performance of Writing Assessments
Introduction
Chapter one established the importance of standardized test scores beyond the
basic implications of the No Child Left Behind legislation. How well students perform on
standardized tests may impact a large number of people and businesses. An entire
community may experience a reaction to the published scores. Many researchers have
stated that the level of student motivation or engagement on school related assignments
and activities directly relate to the students performance on school related assessments.
Chapter two of this document outlines current research in the areas of standardized
writing test scores and theories on motivation. The researcher gathered literature
pertaining to research findings in the areas of standardized writing tests, issues involved
with standardized writing assessments, and student motivation through exhaustive
database searches.
Standardized Writing Tests
The arguments for and against standardized testing have been voiced for years.
One stance is that standardized testing provides a way to hold students and teachers
accountable for student learning and improvement. The other side of the argument is
concerned with potential negative impacting on students and educational systems. In the
mid 1970s, the Association for Childhood Education International (ACEI) called for
discontinuing standardized testing in elementary schools. Their position paper led to a
nationwide debate over potential adverse effects of standardized testing. During that
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
20/131
10
period educators began looking for alternatives to standardized testing that were
adaptable to student needs and open to student creativity and choice (Perrone, 1991). In
1983, the U.S. Department of Education's National Commission on Excellence in
Education published the report, A Nation at Risk , which expressed concern about the
educational performance of public schools in America. The release of this document led
to a refocusing of attention on implementing and maintaining standardized tests (Perrone,
1991). The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 created legal mandate to measure
student achievement via standardized testing at the state level. The NCLB Act sets
deadlines for states to develop and implement student testing, revamp accountability
systems, and insure that every teacher is highly qualified in the subject area the teacher
teaches. NCLB also requires annual demonstration of progress in raising the percentage
of students meeting proficiency standards in reading and math (U.S. Department of
Education, 2002). Both sides of the argument for and against standardized writing tests
proclaim their primary focus is improving student learning and wellbeing in the academic
arena.
Newkirk (2002) made a strong point for those who believe that society is doing
more harm than good in its attempt to make students focus their reading, writing,
mathematic, and content areas skills in an attempt to meet state standards, instead of
learning for the joy of knowledge. Newkirk asserted that being a lifelong learner requires
more than following writing prompts and grading work according to rubrics. In addition,
the topics students are writing about tend to be restricted to our current system of
expectations. An example of an exemplary practice that Newkirk takes from Educational
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
21/131
11
Leadership magazine (2000, p. 39) is a lesson done with kindergarteners that involved
scoring according to a rubric. In the lesson, the teacher directed students to draw a picture
of what they see outside the classroom window. Afterwards she identifies the things she
sees outside and then drew a picture that represents those things. Next, the students
helped the teacher assign a numbered score of 1-4 to the student samples. The numbered
score represented the scale of same things the student samples contained that the
teacher also drew. Newkirk (2002) said that he finds it difficult to imagine a more
developmentally inappropriate task. At an age where the childrens art is wonderfully
idiosyncratic, this instruction pushes them into a conventionalized, schematic, pattern (p.
188).
Hillocks (2002) drew a similar conclusion as Newkirk (2002), however Hillocks
(2002) research was limited to a focus on standardized writing tests. After a study that
involved K-12 writing assessments in five states Hillock (2002) concludes, Not only do
most standardized tests fail to improve writing, they actually have harmful implications
(p.5). It was Hillocks observation that when presented with high-stakes standardized
writing tests, teachers and/or schools tend to teach to the test. According to Hillock
(2002), teaching to the test encourages the learning of vacuous thinking, thinking
without substance (p.6).
Harwayne (2001) took a different approach when it comes to standardized writing
tests. While acknowledging the impact scores from standardized tests have, Harwayne
(2001) encourages an outlook that incorporates both choice and non-choice options in
writing instruction.
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
22/131
12
Today, with so many high-stakes pressures surrounding them, teachers need tomaintain their sense of ownership and creativity and not become swallowed up byoutsiders agendas. Yes, we must prepare our children to do the kind of writingthat helps them pass the required standardized tests, but we must maintain controlof the amount of time we devote to such preparations, never allowing testpreparations to become the mainstay of out teaching lives. We cannot allow themovement toward standardization of teaching to eliminate energizingpossibilities. Then too, when standardized testing requires specific genres, wemust hold to the theory that when life gives you lemons you make lemonade. (p.286)
Bowers (1989) suggested the use of performance-based assessment, such as
portfolios or a cumulative collection of work samples, as an alternative to standardized
testing. Bowers (1989) stated that alternatives to standardized writing tests should be
sought because, When tests are constructed in this [standardized] manner, active skills,
such as creative writing, speaking, acting, drawing, constructing, repairing, and thinking
creatively are automatically relegated to a second-class status (p.1). Due to the nature of
this study, the researcher will collect writing test data from both standardized and
nonstandardized writing assessments.
Gender
According to both Woolfolk (1987) and Forsyth et al. (1993), there are no overall
differences between the scores of elementary aged girls and boys on standardized tests
designed to measure general intelligence. However, during the test design stage,
developers insure gender-neutrality. This might mean eliminating an item that seems to
favor one gender over the other, or it might mean adding items that favor the other gender
in an attempt to balance the assessment. On the other hand, though there is not a
significant difference in IQ, there does tend to be a gap in the types of questions on which
girls and boys excel. In particular, girls test better when the item relates to verbal ability
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
23/131
13
and boys tend to favor the items that have to do with visual and special tasks (Maccoby &
Jacklin, 1974). It is possible that there are biologically based gender differences in
specific mental abilities (Woolfolk, 1987). Connell and Guzelmann (2004) state that
research has shown a significant difference in the way boys and girls use the different
hemispheres of their brains:
In short, many girls have an advantage by being able to use their left-hemispherestrengths in the early grades by speaking, reading, and writing. The right-hemisphere strengths of girls enable them to feel empathy and to betterunderstand and reflect the feelings of their teachers and peers. On the other hand,boys tend to have an advantage in their left-hemisphere by being able to recallfacts and rules and categories. Their right-brain strengths encompass visual-spatial and visual-motor skills, which enable boys to excel in topics likegeography, science, and math. (p. 2)
This indicates there is a biological factor that influences how boys and girls score
on standardized tests. There are those, however, who believe this gap is more closely
related to societys influence on gender identities and sex-role stereotypes than it is to
actual biological ability (Huston, 1983). These influences include cultural stereotypes and
influences that children experience while growing up. Though it is clear that a childs
primary caregiver(s) and peers play a direct role in how that child perceives his or her
gender-based expectations there have been studies that suggest the gender gap is due, at
least in part, to gender roles portrayed in movies, video game, music, books, and on
television. Virtually every study of the content of television programs in particular has
found disparity between the genders and that roles and behavior are stereotyped (Huston,
1983). Even toy commercials reinforce gender differences and expectations. High levels
of inanimate action, frequent changes to new scenes, rapid cuts, sound effects, and loud
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
24/131
14
lively music typify boys ads. Moderate levels of action, few scene changes, fades,
dissolves, and soft tinkle music typify girls ads (Huston, 1983, p.1).
Research has indicated that most elementary-school curriculum emphasizes the
left-brained skills of reading, writing, and speaking, which tends to develop at a slower
rate with boys than with girls, and that often boys are expected to be successful on
standards that favor girls (Connell and Guzelmann, 2004). Boys are expected to sit still,
speak articulately, write legibly, work in groups, color between the lines, and be neat and
organized (p. 2). According to Pollack (1999), society has placed a code of expectations
upon boys concerning how they act, how they display their emotions, and how they learn.
This code, reinforced by peers, parents, and teachers, requires that boys do not show their
true feelings, and act cool. The way most of our school culture is established leads to
problems for boys who feel pressured to follow this code. It makes it very difficult for
them to seek help if they need it, especially if it is in a content area and they are having
trouble comprehending the subject matter. Instead of asking their teacher for help, they
become frustrated, distracted, restless, and eventually end up getting reprimanded
(Pollack, 1999). Over time, and with repeated instances, boys who follow this unwritten
code begin to believe that they cannot be successful, and that school is not a fun and
enriching place. Many of these boys become depressed and develop a low self-esteem
before they even have a chance to realize their strong points. This could lead to a
continued pattern of failure (Pollack, 1999).
Another problem that occurs involves inequities of teacher attention. According to
Gender Gaps: Where Schools Still Fail Our Children (1998), teachers generally view
girls as having good behavior and a desire to please their teacher, which can lead to less
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
25/131
15
one-on-one teacher-student contact time. On the other hand, boys received more attention
than girls did on average, because teachers considered boys more likely to have discipline
problems or poor work habits (p. 46-47). Newkirk (2002) said that this additional
attention from the teacher is counter-productive for boys. He makes the claim that it
reinforces negative behavior and that the results is a rewarding of the troublemaker or
clown by providing them with an audience (p.33). Based on this information it looks as
if educators are expecting quite a bit of conformity from the boys in the classroom, while
not necessarily meeting their gender specific needs. Moreover, in some cases the system
may even be perpetuating a cycle of poor performance, behavior, and a lack of drive for
school related success.
Theories of Motivation
Introduction
Many factors influence whether students in a classroom will or will not be
motivated to learn. It is clear that no single theory or interpretation of motivation explains
all characteristics of student motivation or engagement. Different theories, however,
present understanding as to why some students, in a given learning situation, are more
likely to want to learn than other students are in the same environment. Similarly, each
theory presented in this section may add to an overall understanding of motivating
students in the classroom.
The typical definition of motivation is something that initiates, invigorates, or
directs an individuals behavior towards action (Weber, 1984). Because this definition is
so general, researchers have focused on three basic questions. First, what is it that causes
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
26/131
16
a person to initiate action? Second, what causes a person to progress toward a specific
goal? Third, what causes a person to continue their attempts to achieve a given goal?
There are two main schools of thought when it comes to explaining the questions
as to how or why people are motivated. The first general category argues that motivation
comes from extrinsic forces (those outside a person); typically meaning external
consequences, incentives, or rewards. The second school of thought proposes that the
source of motivation for a person is intrinsic, or comes from within. These two broad
schools of thought, pertaining to motivation, fall into one of three classifications that are
more specific: behavioral, cognitive, and humanistic views of motivation (Woolfolk,
1987).
Behavioral Views of Motivation
According to the behavioral view, learning is an observable change in behavior
that is relatively permanent (Forsyth, Hansen, Schickedanz & Schickedanz, 1993). These
changes are generally believed to take place through four different learning processes:
contiguity (learning through simple associations), classical conditioning (automatic
responses to stimuli), operant conditioning (controlling the consequences of behavior),
and observational learning (learning through observing others). These four learning
processes involve varying degrees of stimuli, from simple associations and observations
to positive and negative reinforcements, in an attempt to produce a desired action,
reaction, or behavioral outcome. The behaviorists theory, based on the concept that
people have basic physiological needs that motivate us, asserts that learning occurs best
with the use of extrinsic rewards and/or consequences. Two main branches stem from the
category of behaviorism; classical and operant conditioning (Forsyth, et al., 1993).
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
27/131
17
Classical conditioning. Classical Conditioning is a type of learning made famous
by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936). Through a series of experiments
with canines, Pavlov showed that under certain circumstances these animals could learn
to provide a desired response to external stimuli. The gist of the experiment is this:
Pavlov presented dogs with food, and measured their salivary response. Then he began
ringing a bell just before presenting the food to the dogs. After repeating this process
numerous times, the dogs began to salivate when the bell sounded, even if the food was
not present. In this regard, the subjects learned to associate the sound of the bell with the
presentation of the food and this manifested the same physiological responses as if the
food had in fact been present (Forsyth, et al., 1993). The result of this form of
conditioning is that responses associated with certain stimuli can be used to direct
behavior. According to Corpus and Wilson (2001), applications of classical conditioning
can involve making activities fun, so that students associate learning experiences with
positive responses. However, in contrast to the positive potential, the authors point out
that if the student becomes conditioned to associate negative experiences with school
related activities, it can lead to the developing of fears or phobias for that student. If a
student perceives that a given activity or environment is producing undesirable stimuli
they will be inclined to evoke a negative response. An example of this phenomenon may
be a student who develops chronic stomachaches during test taking. Regardless of his or
her ability or skill level in a given area, the student may perceive the discomfort based
upon previous negative experiences associated with testing or increased levels of stress.
Operant conditioning. Skinner (1953) believed that the principles of classical
conditioning could only account for a certain amount of learned behaviors. For example,
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
28/131
18
classical conditioning may describe how existing behaviors is paired with new stimuli,
but not how new behaviors are learned. It was Skinners observation that many behaviors
are not simply responses to stimuli; but in fact were deliberate actions. What this means
is that while Pavlov and classical conditioning is concerned with stimuli that occurred
before the behavior, Skinner researched the possibility that sometimes the stimuli that
occurs after the behavior is the influencing factor. Operant conditioning involves control
of the consequences of, as opposed to controlling the stimuli leading up to, the behavior.
During his studies, Skinner observed that consequences brought on by a specific behavior
could be pleasant (positive reinforcement) or negative (negative reinforcement). The
application of these reinforcements provided incentive to either increase a desired
behavior, or decrease an undesired behavior. This process of reinforcing behaviors based
on desired outcomes is shaping (Forsyth et al., 1993).
Many behavioral learning theorists developed methods of behavior modification
under the theory that students are motivated to complete tasks based on the promise of a
reward (Corpus & Wilson, 2001). Some examples of different rewards include grades,
tokens, and special privileges. In the classroom setting, the teacher may use this system
of motivation to condition students to exhibit specific behaviors by reinforcing those
desired behaviors with rewards. This might involve a certificate of achievement, free
choice time after the completion of a designated assignment, or even the acquiring of
points used toward the receiving of a larger reward, like a pizza party or lunch with the
teacher.
Some researchers are saying that the problem with operant conditioning is when a
person is conditioned to respond to external stimuli in one area, that same person may not
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
29/131
19
respond as desired in other areas, unless similar rewards are offered (Corpus & Wilson,
2001; Johnson, 1999; Woolfolk, 1987). For example, though this does not apply to every
situation, if a student is consistently reinforced with money, praise, or privileges for
doing well in sports, but receives little or no recognition for their academic work, the
student will likely put more effort into his or her pursuit of playing sports than that
student will apply towards schoolwork. Every individual circumstance may involve
multiple factors that play a role in effecting the students motivation. Motivation based on
external rewards, that have little or nothing to do with the learning process itself, are
considered extrinsic in nature.
This is not to imply that the behavioral view of motivation only focuses on
reinforcement and consequences. The work of Bandura (1977, 1986) and social learning
theorists broadened the traditional view of behavioral motivation to include some
flexibility for cognitive factors. Some examples of these include such cognitive
influences as avoidance, self-efficacy, and personal expectations (Corpus & Wilson,
2001; Hawley, 2002; Woolfolk, 1997). This change in views led to the development of
the social learning theory.
Social Learning Theory
Bandura (1977, 1986) called attention to the importance of observation, imitation,
and the expectation of reinforcement, which a person receives when that person sees
someone else receiving rewards for a particular behavior. While studying the way people
self manage, Bandura developed the theory of social learning and self-efficacy (Corpus &
Wilson, 2001). This theory suggested that there are several basic sources of motivation.
Additionally, one factor in determining the motivational level of an individual toward a
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
30/131
20
given task is bias on the part of the subject as to whether or not they can be successful at
completing said task. Hawley (2002) supports this theory by stating, The students
beliefs about their ability to achieve some goal or execute some task-related activity are
at least as influential in learning outcomes as their actual abilities (p. 17).
Another source of motivation, according to Bandura (1993), is personal goal-
setting. The goals that people set become their standards for assessing personal abilities.
This relates to self-efficacy, which plays a role in determining the goals that a person will
attempt to reach. As a person progresses toward achieving a goal, he or she may envision
the positive outcomes of completion, or the negative outcomes of failure. Whether or not
the individual achieves their envisioned goal causes them to adjust their perception of
their abilities in a given area. This leads to a circular system where by a persons
perceptions of their abilities affect their goal-setting, and in turn, a persons outcome with
their attempts to achieve their goals affect their perception of their abilities, and the cycle
repeats. Woolfolk (1987) adds an important point to this by stating that, Goals that are
specific, moderately difficult, and likely to be reached in the near future tend to enhance
motivation and persistence (p. 314).
Finally, social learning theory states that a person might be motivated to achieve
based upon admiration and respect for someone held in high regard. In addition, a person
who observes other people (older siblings, classmates, or friends) obtaining benefits or
rewards for behaving in a certain way may be motivated to imitate those actions to
receive a similar reinforcement. Likewise, a person may feel a sense of discouragement
or disdain by observing the success of others, if the person is unable to be successful.
Ames (1992) pointed out that both vicarious reinforcement and direct reinforcement can
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
31/131
21
raise or lower an individuals sense of self-efficacy in regards to a specific task or area,
which in turn leads to a higher or lower degree of motivation.
Cognitive Views of Motivation
Cognitive views emphasize that the way people think about themselves and their
environment influences their behavior. Stipek (1988) suggested that the behavioral
choices a person makes fall into one of four categories: a persons beliefs concerning the
nature of cognitive ability, the need to create an ordered and reasonable knowledge base,
a persons expectations for success at a given task, and the factors that a person believes
will account for success, or failure. One of the central beliefs in the cognitive view of
motivation is that people do not only behave in response to external and physical stimuli,
but that individuals also behave based on personal perception of the stimuli. For example,
the individual's thought process is a factor in determining the level of motivation and the
goals that a person sets. This is in contrast to the behavioral point of view because it
proposes that there are intrinsic (internal) factors in a persons motivation. Some
examples of these intrinsic forces are curiosity, the satisfaction of learning for learnings
sake, and a persons sense of accomplishment. This leads to a theory of behavior based
on intrinsic motivation, in order to search out understanding, causes, and balance in the
perceived environment of the individual, even if the course of action results in the
forgoing of physical needs or desires, such as hunger or sex.
Some cognitive theorists propose that people have a basic need to understand their
environment. This leads to the intrinsic drive to be competent when coping with said
environment (Woolfolk, 1987). The inherent desire for proficiency in an environment
relates to Piagets (1969) theory of equilibration, which stated that people are motivated
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
32/131
22
by a desire for balance between new knowledge and established perceptions. Piaget
proposed that a person might reach this balance either by a process of assimilation,
relating a new experience to an existing scheme, or by accommodation, modifying an
existing scheme to adjust for the new experience (Forsyth et al., 2005). Along similar
lines, Festiner (1957) developed his theory of cognitive dissonance, which stated that if a
person has a conflict between two schemes, beliefs, or actions, the individual will be
motivated to resolve the clash or inconsistency. What this implies is that if there is an
appropriate amount of disequilibrium a person will be motivated to change something
due to their need for maintaining balance within his or her environment.
Another cognitive model, or approach, is expectancy theory (Huitt, 2001). This
theory uses the following formula: Motivation equals expectancy multiplied by
instrumentality multiplied by value. Expectancy is a persons perceived probability of
success; instrumentality is when the person has perceived connection between success
and reward; and value (or valance) is the worth the individual places on obtaining a goal.
Because these factors multiply with each other to arrive at common product, this theory
proposes that a low integer in one area will result in a lower level of motivation.
Consequently, all three factors must be present for motivation to occur. In other words, if
a person believes that he or she cannot be successful in a course of action, or if the person
does not perceive a connection between action and success, or if the person does not
perceive a value resulting from successful completion of the activity, then the persons
motivation to engage in the given task is diminished. Likewise, according to this theory,
in order to have a high level of motivation on a given task, all three values must be
present for the individual. The individual therefore must perceive the possibility of
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
33/131
23
success, the connection between their actions and the potential successful outcome, and a
value to the assignment to have a high level of motivation. A teacher can accomplish this
by helping students choose goals that are of value to the student, clearly stated, and have
a reasonable chance of being successfully completed. In addition to this, students should
experience being successful on a regular basis in order for them to maintain the
perception that they can be successful learners.
A different cognitive theory that deals with motivation is that of attribution theory
(Heider, 1958; Weiner, 1985). Attribution theory describes how a persons excuses,
justifications, and explanations influence motivation. This theory proposes that everyone
tries to explain causes for success or failure using certain attributions. These attributions
are internal or external, and either under the persons control, or not under personal
control. For example, innate ability is an internal cause that is uncontrollable. Effort is an
internal cause that an individual can control, whereas the difficulty of a given task has an
external locus of control and is an uncontrollable cause of success or failure for the
individual. According to Woolfolk (1987), people will usually try to justify their failures
or their success to themselves. This may mean that a person attributes the cause of their
failure to either internal or external factors; and people who attribute their failures to a
lack of effort usually focus on building strategies for future success. Ames (1985) drew
the same conclusion and adds to it that, This is a positive, adaptive response, one likely
to lead to achievement, pride, and a greater sense of control (p. 268). The potential for
problems arise, however, when people attribute failure to internal and uncontrollable
causes. This can lead to the person believing that he or she is incapable of being
successful in a given area or on a specific task. If this course of action continues, the
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
34/131
24
person can even develop a learned helplessness. This is the sense that nothing the
individual does will matter, and is destined to fail in achieving personal goals (Ames,
1985). When applying the attribution theory of motivation to the classroom Huitt (2001)
stated:
In a teaching/learning environment, it is important to assist the learner to developa self-attribution explanation of effort (internal, control). If the person has anattribution of ability (internal, no control) as soon as the individual has trouble inthe learning process, he or she will decrease appropriate learning behavior. If theperson has an external attribution, then nothing the person can do will help thatindividual in a learning situation. In this case, there is nothing to be done by theindividual when learning problems occur. (p. 4)
Because the notion of individual perception is at the heart of attribution theory, it is
important to help people believe that they can be successful. When people believe that
they can successfully complete a given task, even if they do not have the ability to do so,
people will act on that belief. On the other hand, if a person believes that he or she cannot
be successful, the person will have little or no motivation to try at an attempt toward goal
completion. According to Woolfolk (1987) there is no substitute for continuing success,
and that in order to keep making attempts towards the successful completion of difficult
goals, a person must be successful a good portion of the time. In addition to the reward of
succeeding, an individual needs to be able to attribute some of that success to his or her
own efforts (p. 317). One strategy that helps some people with their motivational needs
on certain tasks involves emphasizing a persons progress to date on a specific task or in
a particular area. For example, even if a student has not achieved his or her end goal of
memorizing multiplication tables to a certain point, a teacher may have the student reflect
upon the facts the student has memorized. Doing this, while stressing the connections
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
35/131
25
between past efforts and past accomplishments, presents that student with examples of
previous successes in order to help the student set goals for new challenges. During this
process, the student has the opportunity to reflect upon successes, even if the main goals
have not yet been met (Woolfolk, 1987).
Humanistic Views of Motivation
Humanism is a broad category of philosophies that avow the worth of people,
based on the capacity to determine right and wrong by appeal to reason (Weber, 1984).
The humanistic views of motivation stress personal freedom, self-determination, and
choice. As with the cognitive views of motivation, the humanistic models emphasis
intrinsic motivation. Many humanistic theorists stress the role of needs as being central to
a persons motivation. According to Kolesnik (1978) a need is defined as any type of
deficiency in the human organism or the absence of anything the person requires, or
thinks he requires, for his overall well-being (p. 149). From this perspective, people are
always moving towards goals that they perceive as being helpful in meeting their needs.
The individualistic nature of these needs provides the opportunity for the constructivist
approach in the classroom. Constructivism emphasizes the importance of the knowledge,
skills, needs, and desires that the individual learner bring to the learning environment.
Constructivism is the theory that the construction of new learning is a combination of
new information, prior knowledge, and the readiness of the individual. According to the
constructivist approach, the individual student chooses what new learning to accept and
how the new ideas will fit into their established view of the world (Brooks & Brooks,
1993).
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
36/131
26
Maslow (1968) referred to need gratification as the most important factor in
determining a persons motivation. Maslow stated, The single, holistic principle that
binds together the multiplicity of human motives is the tendency for a new and higher
need to emerge as the lower need fulfills itself by being sufficiently gratified (p. 55).
Maslow added to his conclusion by developing a hierarchy of needs that consists of five
levels. In this list, the needs at the bottom are more crucial for a persons survival and an
individual will meet them first. A person will only move onto higher-level needs after
meeting the lower-level needs. If a person is not meeting the most basic needs for
survival, there will not be motivation to address needs that are less crucial. According to
this theory, the individual is in a continuing state of flux in an attempt to find a balance or
equilibrium. If at any point a lower need ceases to be satisfied, a person will abandon the
higher needs and adjust efforts towards satisfying the lower one. The first four needs in
ascending order are physiological, safety, love, and belonging. Maslow referred to these
needs as deficiency needs, because a person is only motivated to satisfy them when the
needs are unmet to some degree. Self-actualization (self-fulfillment) is the fifth need in
this theory. By contrast, Maslow (1968) considered self-actualization a growth need,
because people are constantly trying to satisfy it. In addition to the five basic needs,
Maslow (1968) contends that there are cognitive (the need to learn and understand) and
aesthetic (the need for order or accord) needs which play a critical role in satisfying the
needs of the hierarchy. He emphasizes this point by stressing that such environmental
conditions as the freedom to learn, fairness, consistency, and order are crucial because
their deficiency makes satisfying the five basic needs more difficult (Maslow, 1968).
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
37/131
27
Maslows hierarchy of needs theory has significant implications for motivation in
the educational setting. According to Maslows theory, if a student comes to school sick,
hungry, or hurt that the student is less likely to be motivated towards learning, than if the
student comes to school having had those needs met. Maslows theory also stresses that if
the student finds the classroom to be a fearful and unpredictable place the student is more
likely to be more concerned with safely and security than with education. In addition,
Maslows (1968) hierarchy can offer insight into the choices a student makes. Their drive
to satisfy low-level needs may come into conflict with their teachers expectations.
Woolfolk (1987) said that one way to cope with this is to consider the factors that
influence motivation at different times in the learning process itself (p. 319).
Wlodkowski (1981) suggested that by asking questions prior to beginning any learning
activity a teacher can plan to meet the students needs. Questions, such as how can I
foster a positive attitude towards learning during this activity; or what special needs do
my students have at this time, can help facilitate a learning environment that meets
students needs and cuts down on conflicts related to expectations. Fetterman &
Rohrkemper (1986) suggested that teachers can create a psychologically safer class
environment where wrong answers and mistakes can become occasions for learning, for
probing the thinking behind the answers, instead of simply occasions for criticism (p. 2).
Achievement motivation theory. Atkinson (1964) was one of the first theorists to
concentrate on the study of why some people are motivated to achieve for the purpose of
achievement itself. Atkinson noted that people have two drives (motivating forces) in the
area of achievement, and that these two drives are always at odds with one another. These
opposing areas are, the endeavor to be successful and the fear (or avoidance) of failure.
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
38/131
28
Because these factors are always competing, a persons behavior or course of action can
differ from one situation to the next. For example, if an individuals need to achieve in a
particular activity is greater than the need to avoid failure, the resultant motivation will be
to take risks in an attempt to be successful at the activity. On the other hand, if the
individuals need to avoid failure is greater, the activity becomes threatening, which
results in behavior (motivation) to avoid the activity.
According to Atkinson (1964), people who have a high need for achievement
expect to be successful with a more consistent rate that those who are failure avoidant.
Most of these (high-need) people expect, or anticipate, a feeling of satisfaction in
achievement prior to having completed a task. When given a choice, these people with a
high-need for achievement, will pursue reasonably challenging tasks as those types of
tasks present a sense of balance between challenge and the expectation of success.
In contrast, the person who has a low-need for achievement will avoid those tasks
that are moderately challenging because fear of failure offsets the expectation of success.
Failure-avoidant people choose tasks that either offer a high likelihood of success, due to
a low level of challenge, or are difficult enough that there is very little probability for
success. For these people the goal itself is an intimidating factor.
According to Huitt (2001), achievement motivation theory involves three separate
types of goal-based theories. He referred to them as mastery, performance, and social
goals. Mastery goals are learning goals that apply to a persons motivation to improve
proficiency in a given area. Mastery goals can also describe an individuals drive to
master new knowledge or skills. Performance goals (also called ego-involvement goals)
apply to a persons motivation to achieve, or be successful at, standards-based activities.
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
39/131
29
This might manifest as a competitive nature or as a drive to do better than others might.
Social goals are those tasks where people are motivated to focus on relationships with
other people (p. 6).
People who are motivated by a mastery goal orientation are usually successful and
see themselves as capable. These people fall into the high-need for achievement category,
and typically take risks or choose relatively challenging goals (Woolfolk, 1987). Huitt
(2001) said, In the context of school learning, which involves operating in a relatively
structured environment, students with mastery goals outperform students with either
performance or social goals (p. 6). However, Huitt made the point that it is important
for people to have a balance of all three types of goals if they are to be highly successful
in life (p. 7).
In contrast, performance goals are ones where the purpose is to achieve or
demonstrate ones proficiency or ability on a task or in a given area. The person who is
motivated towards performance goals defines their success based upon comparing the
results of their achievement against that of their peers. In this regard, people will avoid
tasks that give them too great a challenge because they are motivated to appear more
competent than their comparison group. This can eventually lead to academic struggles
and failure avoidance (Ames, 1992).
Social goals represent a person's perceptions about the social factors for trying (or
not trying) to achieve a task. According to Ames (1992), people strive to be successful in
a given task in order to be a productive member of society; bring pride and honor to their
family unit, or gain the approval (respect) of peers or people the individual respects.
Thus, the focus of social goals can vary from person to person. In addition to this, the
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
40/131
30
result of an individuals effort or ability might not correlate with their degree of success
due to the external nature of the determining factors locus of control.
Control theory and locus of control. Most classroom management systems
indicate that the control over how and what students learn stems from the classroom
teacher (Corpus & Wilson, 2001). In these settings, the teacher attempts to control the
students and the learning process. Recent studies have shown, however, that student
motivation and achievement increases when students have choices or options as a way to
meet their educational needs (Brooks & Brooks, 1993; Glasser, 1990; Corpus & Wilson,
2001).
Glasser (1986) contended that intrinsic stimuli cause a persons behavior. His
theory (choice theory) stated that the motivation behind a persons behavior is the wants
or needs of the individual at any given time. Glasser (1990) added to the theory by stating
that if we are to understand what motivation actually is, it is necessary first to
understand that control theory contends that all human beings are born with five basic
needs built into their genetic structure: survival, love, power, fun, and freedom (p. 43).
Glasser (1990) stressed that no matter what extrinsic motivators are used, some people
will exercise their need for power or control and may lack motivation if those people do
not agree with the value of the given goal. When a person perceives to be in control over
their learning, it increases their belief in their own ability to be successful. In this regard,
the focal point, or locus of control, is the motivating factor for a person. If the individual
perceives that the motivating force is intrinsic, the person might believe that they were
successful or failed due to his or her effort or ability. If a student perceives the force
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
41/131
31
behind the motivation as external, the person might believe that any success or failure
experienced was not due to his or her effort or ability, but to some outside force (Glasser,
1990).
The important factor here is the perceptions of the cause for success or failure.
Stiggins (2001) suggested that this aspect of motivation is a sufficiently important part
of academic success to justify considering separately (p. 328). According to this theory,
one way to assist a person with the level of motivation is to work with the individual in a
noncoercive manner. Glasser (1990) referred to this as being a lead-manager as opposed
to being a boss when attempting to direct a persons course of action. He proposes that
the lead-manager type of motivator assists by helping the individual see the connection
between efforts and level of success. In contrast to this is the boss-manager motivator
who relies on external stimuli in an attempt to motivate or coerce others into taking a
desired action.
Corpus and Wilson (2001), said that while many people still use external stimuli
in an attempt to motivate, the result is usually a short term positive effect with possible
long-term negative results (p. 3). However, the argument many current researchers are
making is that those people who perceive themselves as being in control of their own
outcomes, are more inclined to be successful (Glasser, 1990; Schlechty, 2002; Stiggins,
2001). According to this theory, when individuals are appropriately challenged, view a
goal as worthwhile, believe that they have a choice in the setting of the goal, and perceive
that their efforts will have a direct influence on the outcome, they will have increased
intrinsic motivation, perseverance, and confidence that they can be successful.
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
42/131
32
The Impact of Cooperative Grouping on Motivation
Cooperative grouping is a model where by people put effort towards
accomplishing shared goals. In this situation, what is beneficial for one person in the
group is beneficial for the whole, and vice versa. Cooperative arrangements lead people
to utilize effort and cooperation as the primary focus of motivation. In a cooperative
atmosphere, people are motivated out of a sense of obligation to the group with whom
they are working. This leads to a system of motivation characterized by positive
interdependence due to the outcome for the individual being the same as, and dependent
upon, the outcome for the other members of the group. According to Glasser (1990),
motivation and achievement tend to be highest for activities that require a team effort.
A problem that can arise when using cooperative grouping is that it can lead to
competitive motivation between groups. Johnson and Johnson (1995) drew the
conclusions that competitive goal arrangements can result in a situation of negative
interdependence. Situations where people are motivated to accomplish something at the
expense of someone else, characterize the problem. Typically, this occurs when people
view the failure of other people as the successful outcome to a task. These perceptions
may lead some people toward a failure avoidance approach when working in competitive
groups (Ames, 1985). One way to counteract the negative effects of cooperative
competition, according to Linnenbrink (2005), is to focus goals around relative
improvements between groups rather than relative performance (p. 16). A strategy to
accomplish this involves the utilization of tasks that have multiple solutions, which grant
competitive groups a sense of autonomy. In this regard, cooperative groups are not
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
43/131
33
benefiting from another groups failure, and the success or failure of their group is
independent of the accomplishments of other groups.
Another problematic situation that has potential to occur with cooperative
grouping is that of inequity amongst the group members that might occur in two distinct
areas. The first is the potential problem that involves equality of effort. The perception
that some group members are putting forth greater effort than other group members can
lead to resentments within the group and or a decrease in effort on the part of those who
felt they were working harder. The second problem is that, even though a group can be
successful as a whole, it does not mean that every member of the group benefits equally
(Woolfolk, 1987). This stems from the individualistic nature of the learners in any given
learning situation. There are precautions, however, that teachers can take in an effort to
counteract these potential issues. An attempt to remedy the first condition by pre-
assigning sub-tasks within the group has been a solution offered by some researchers
(Woolfolk, 1987). Another way to assist group members in this area is to monitor their
progress and levels of individual effort to make sure that each person is contributing
equally. Finally, if the individuals within the collaborative grouping have separate but
interconnected learning goals, a person can benefit based upon their own needs.
Slavin (1995) developed a system called Student Teams-Achievement Division
(STAD) that addresses both of these issues. STAD is a system based on predefined teams
with a mix of abilities, gender, and background experiences. Within this system, a
motivator calculates a score for each individual in the group, based on their ability and
expected level of participation towards the groups achievement goal. This is similar to a
tiered system where group members have differing levels of expectations (or goals) even
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
44/131
34
though the groups final goal is cooperative in nature. In this way, those members with
less ability can still be successful members of the team; and goes toward addressing the
inequities listed above, as well as the issue of individual benefit. As long as the approach
to cooperative grouping involves a system where the individual members still have a
perception of choice and appropriate goals that can be achieved, the value for the
individual has the potential to remain intrinsic.
Other Peoples Expectations
Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) conducted landmark research pertaining to the
study of causal relationships between teacher expectations and student achievement. For
this study, the researchers selected students at random and created nonfactual learning
profiles for the students that either said the student would do well or poorly on their
schoolwork. Teachers, not having had any prior experience with the individual students,
where then presented with this biased information. The breakthrough discovery was, that
if teachers believed students would make significant academic gains, then the students
had an increased potential for doing so. This led to the presentation of data that suggested
a nature of self-fulfilling actions, based upon the teachers predefined expectations. One
of the problems with a causal relationship of this nature is that it may, or may not, be
based upon a persons actual ability. According to Woolfolk (1987), this means, a
teachers incorrect beliefs about students abilities or behaviors in some way bring the
very behaviors the teacher expects (p. 331).
Brophy (1998) suggested that there are two types of expectation, which have an
effect upon a persons motivation. The first one is the self-fulfilling expectation
mentioned above, where the bias of expectation may be incorrect. The other is the
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
45/131
35
expectation drawn after sufficient assessment pertaining to the individual and the
situation has occurred. This second type has a greater chance of accurately assessing an
individuals abilities, and needs. One potential problem can occur when the person
forming the expectations has not maintained pace with the individuals actual progress.
For a teacher this could mean that a students goals are no longer appropriate. Brophy
(1998) stresses that this inconsistency in evaluation has the potential to lead back to
maintaining an inaccurate expectation, which can become self-fulfilling.
Introduction of Roles
Motivation is the inner drive, arousal, selection, intention, or direction that moves
a person towards action or causes them to act in a certain way. When using these criteria
to judge whether a student is motivated one needs to remember that as long as a student
sets goals and puts forth a measurable amount of effort towards achieving those goals,
that the student is, by definition, motivated. The problem arises when the mental image a
students teacher has of how that motivation should look, and in which direction the
action should be taking place, is different from the choices made by the student. This
means that in a given situation a student may not be motivated to behave the way the
teacher would prefer.
Because educators are encouraged to promote motivation that is intrinsic in
nature, the teacher in the above situation cannot directly control the students motivation.
What the teacher can do, with the help of the various motivational theories covered in this
paper, is to develop a purposeful plan with the intention of influencing the student.
Ultimately, the teacher must attempt to guide the students actions towards a desirable
result. This is similar to the way a rudder works on a sailboat. The wind provides the
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
46/131
36
force (the power to move toward action) and the rudder helps by steering the boat in the
desired direction. Some ways a teacher can accomplish this is by creating an atmosphere
that fosters curiosity, student choice, and cooperation, by helping students set their own
goals that they perceive as both attainable and valuable, and by providing clear
expectations related to the individual needs of the student. Both teachers (Ames, 1992)
and researchers (Corpus and Wilson, 2001) advocate that motivating students toward
appropriate goals is one of the most important and critical roles of a teacher.
Atmosphere: Creating the Right Environment
Many decisions a teacher makes may have an effect on student motivation. For
example, the method a teacher uses for grading can motivate students to try harder or to
give up (Woolfolk, 1987). Choices the students make and groupings that allow students
to work collaboratively at various times throughout the day may have an effect. Even the
classroom materials, chosen with student interest and ability in mind, may help motivate
students to learn. Hawley (2002) said that, Students are driven or motivated by their
deep-seated interests (p. 17). This would imply that the environment the teacher creates
and the relationship the teacher has with the student, are crucial in determining which
factors characterize the force behind a students drive toward learning. Glasser (1990)
said, If we attempt to manage people without taking their needs into account, we will
ask them to do things without considering whether or not those things are need-satisfying
either now or later (p. 48).
Student Choice: Tapping into Interests and Arousing Curiosity
Effective educators attempt to create a learning environment that relates to the
interests of the students (Hawley, 2002; Glasser, 1990; Woolfolk, 1987). Granted there
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
47/131
37
will be times when students need to master basic skills or complete tasks that hold no
intrinsic interest for them. Not every student will be motivated by the same activity or
influencing stimuli. On the other hand, Woolfolk (1987) pointed out that, If a teacher
knows what students interests are, these can be part of many teaching strategies (p.
324). One way to do this is to provide students with choices. Hawley (2002) made the
statement that teachers should acknowledge students goals and interests and cultivate
an academic climate that is supportive and encouraging of students individual interests
and goals to the extent that students goals further the desired instructional goals (p. 17).
In addition to this he stresses that Student choice and self-determination can also
enhance motivation (p. 17). A teacher can provide students with choices at the onset of
almost any given task or assignment simply by allowing them to have a voice in how the
students would choose to prove subject mastery. This might mean giving options for a
final project, or even choices pertaining to procedural steps during the activity.
Schlechty (2001) stated that, Individuals who have choice are empowered.
Empowerment increases the likelihood of commitment (p. 125). Schlechty (2002) adds a
new dimension to the perspective that motivation and engagement increase when an
individual receives choices, by asserting that student engagement is scalable. The
assessment rubric for this scale covers five descriptions of engagement. These categories
include Engaged, Strategically Compliant, Ritually Compliant, Retreatism, and Rebellion
(Schlechty, 2002, p.12). According to Schlechty, student learning stems from the efforts
of the student, while the level and type of engagement a task produces, determine a
students effort (p. 38). Schlechtys scale will be the standard for measuring the
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
48/131
38
engagement of the participants in this study. Section three of this document will detail the
scale at greater length.
-
8/14/2019 Doctoral Study Man Der Son
49/131
39
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
Introduction: Quantitative and qualitative design
Intermediate-level students are consistently scoring lower on standardized writing
tests than in other academic areas (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2002).
According to Connell and Guzelmann, (2004) the average intermediate level student is
two years behind the standard in the academic areas of reading and writing. The Office of
Superintendent of Public Instruction for Washington State published results for 2004-
2005. The results from statewide testing showed a mean 57.7% of fourth-grade students
meeting the writing proficiency standard. The 57.7% passing rate for the state writing
assessment was the lowest percentage of passing students compared to 60.8% that meet
the math standard and 79.5% that meet the reading standard that same year (OSPI, 2006).
This mixed-methods correlational study explored a potential relationship between
choice, motivation/engagement, and standardized writing test scores of intermediate-level
students attending a suburban elementary school. The study integrated quantitative
(surveys and writing test scores) with qualitative (interviews and observations) data. The
priority between the methods was equal. Integration of the two types of data occurred at
two stages in the research process. The f