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-
ED 396 131
AUTHORTITLE
INSTITUTION
REPORT NOPUB DATENOTEAVAILABLE FROM
PUB TYPE
EDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORS
DOCUMENT RESUME
CE 071 855
Matiwana, Mizana; And OthersThe Struggle for Democracy. A Study of CommunityOrganisations in Greater Cape Town from the 1960s to1988. Update.University of the Western Cape, Bellville (SouthAfrica). Centre for Adult and ContinuingEducation.ISBN-1-86808-004-889378p.; For a related document, see ED 389 834.Centre for Adult and Continuing Education, Universityof the Western Cape. P:ivate Bag X17, Bellville 7535,South Africa.Reports Research/Technical (143)
MF01/PC16 Plus Postage.Accountability; Adult Education; Black Education;Blacks; Case Studies; Community Development;*Community Education; *Community Organizations;*Democracy; Educational Change; Educational Needs;Educational Practices; Educational Trends; ForeignCountries; Leadership; Motivation; OrganizationalChange; Organizational Effectiveness; OrganizationalObjectives; *Political Socialization; Public AffairsEducation; *Role of Education; Voluntary Agencies
IDENTIFIERS Popular Education; *South Africa (Cape Town)
ABSTRACTThis document presents the findings of a
comprehensive study of community organizations in Greater Cape Townfrom the 1960s to 1988 and the role of those organizations in thestruggle for democracy in South Africa. It is divided into foursections. Section 1 presents background information on communityorganizations in South Africa, defines the term "voluntaryassociation," and characterizes South Africa's voluntaryassociations. In section 2, selected South African communityorganizations are characterized from the following standpoints:membership, leadership, authority, accountability, motivation, andeducational practices. Section 3 consists of two case stuuies. Thefirst is a case study of selected community organizations in GreaterCape Town from the late 1970s to 1984, whereas the second focuses onCape Town's community organizations from 1985 to 1988. Section 4,which constitutes more than two-thirds of the document, is anextensive table characterizing a total of 362 existing and defunctcommunity organizations in Greater Cape Town. The organizations arelisted by the following categories: civics; community work agencies;cultural; education, research, resource, and information; political;student and youth; and women. The following information is providedfor each organization: name, life span, aims, main activitiesvandcontacts/addresses. Contains 250 references. (MN)
-
, rPt r
DE
PA
RT
ME
NT
OF
Offi
a.ce
ot E
duC
orat
Res
ean.
.n a
ntlit
rpt.n
tatn
ont
U S
ED
UC
AT
ION
ED
UC
FIO
NA
L R
ES
OU
RC
ES
INF
OR
MA
TIO
N
7C
EN
TE
R tE
RIC
)4
Thi
s do
curn
ont h
as b
een
repr
oduc
ed a
s
_ A
ecow
eci
trom
the
pers
on o
ror
gani
zatio
n
orig
inat
ing
it
CI M
inor
cha
nges
hav
ebe
en in
ittn
to
impr
ove
repr
oduc
tion
qual
ity
Poi
nts
ot v
iew
or
opin
ions
stat
ed in
this
docu
men
t do
not n
eces
said
yre
pres
ent
aloe
OF
_RI p
ositi
on o
rpo
licy
*WI
WE
AT
HE
Furu
ga
.4
6
4re
---
BE
ST
CO
PY
AV
AIL
AB
LE
-
'''-
-
51:
N
"PE
RM
ISS
ION
TO
RE
PR
OD
UC
E T
HIS
MA
TE
RIA
L H
AS
BE
EN
GR
AN
TE
DB
Y
1
TO
TH
E E
DU
CA
TIO
NA
L R
ES
OU
RC
ES
LitlI
FO
RM
AT
ION
CE
NT
ER
(E
RIC
)
2
-
1W
HA
T IS
CA
CE
?
Cac
e is
loca
ted
with
in th
e Fa
culty
of
Edu
catio
nat
the
Uni
vers
ity o
f th
e W
este
rn C
ape.
It i
sin
volv
ed in
the
prom
otio
n of
adu
lt an
d co
ntin
u-in
g ed
ucat
ion
whi
ch s
erve
s th
e ne
eds
of th
e po
oran
d op
pres
sed
both
indi
vidu
ally
and
org
anis
a-tio
nally
, with
an
over
all c
omm
itmen
t to
thtt
atta
inm
ent o
f a
non-
raci
al d
emoc
ratic
soc
iety
.C
AC
E is
com
mitt
ed to
ach
ievi
ng th
is th
roug
hin
form
al, n
onfo
rmal
and
for
mal
teac
hing
ongo
ing
rese
arch
prov
isio
n of
app
ropr
iate
res
ourc
es to
adu
ltan
d co
mm
unity
edu
cato
rs
4
Cov
er b
y T
im J
ames
, Liz
Mac
Ken
zie
and
Zel
da G
roen
er
-
L-_
-Trn
etug
g^
©`R
igT
DgE
MC
GT
EW
A s
tudy
of
com
mun
ity o
rgan
isat
ions
in G
reat
er C
ape
Tow
nfr
om th
e 19
60's
to 1
988
InM
izan
a M
atiw
ana,
Shi
rley
Wal
ters
and
Zel
da G
roen
er
CE
NT
RE
FO
R A
DU
LT A
ND
CO
NT
INU
ING
ED
UC
AT
ION
UN
IVE
RS
ITY
OF
TH
E W
ES
TE
RN
CA
PE
1989
y t)
-
6
ISB
N 1
-868
08-0
04-8
Pub
lishe
d by
Cen
tre
tor
Adu
lt an
d C
ontin
uing
Edu
catio
n (C
AC
E)
Prin
ted
by S
&S
Prin
ters
-
AC
KN
OW
LED
GE
ME
NT
ST
his
is th
e se
cond
edi
tion
of th
is p
ublic
atio
n. I
n th
is e
ditio
nth
e su
rvey
of
com
mun
ity o
rgan
isat
ions
in th
e G
reat
er C
ape
Tow
n ar
ea is
upd
ated
fro
m 1
985
to 1
988.
The
re is
als
o an
addi
tiona
l cha
pter
whi
ch p
oint
s to
tren
ds a
nd is
sues
for
or-
gani
satio
ns d
urin
g th
is p
erio
d.M
any
peop
le h
ave
cont
ribu
ted
to th
e re
sear
ch a
nd th
epr
oduc
tion
of th
is p
ublic
atio
n. W
e w
ish
to th
ank
very
sin
cere
lyal
l tho
se p
eopl
e w
ho g
ave
thei
r tim
e to
be
inte
rvie
wed
and
who
fille
d in
and
ret
urne
d qu
estio
nnai
res.
The
nat
ure
of th
e re
sear
chan
d th
e pe
riod
s in
whi
ch th
e da
ta w
as b
eing
gat
here
d, w
ith th
eSt
ate
of E
mer
genc
y be
ing
decl
ared
in C
ape
Tow
n w
hile
the
rese
arch
for
the
Firs
t Edi
tion
was
in p
rogr
ess
and
it be
ing
rein
stat
ed e
ach
year
sin
ce th
en, m
ade
the
prnj
ect p
oliti
cally
sens
itive
. Und
er th
ese
circ
umst
ance
s w
e w
ere
very
ple
ased
with
the
leve
l of
coop
erat
ion
whi
ch w
e re
ceiv
ed f
rom
a w
ide
rang
e of
peo
ple.
We
wis
h to
ack
now
ledg
e in
par
ticul
ar th
eco
ntri
butio
n of
our
col
leag
ues
Abn
er J
ack
and
Dav
idA
brah
ams,
who
ass
iste
d w
ith th
e re
sear
ch a
t dif
fere
nt s
tage
s,an
d C
ecild
-Ann
Pea
rce
who
pat
ient
ly ty
ped
and
rety
ped
the
surv
ey u
pdat
e.
Miz
ana
Mat
iwan
a, S
hirl
ey W
alte
rs a
nd Z
elda
Gro
ener
Aug
ust 1
989
-
SEC
TIO
N 1
1
SEC
TIO
N 2
SEC
TIO
N 3
SEC
TIO
N 4
CO
M:0
7ZIN
TliO
DU
CT
ION
BA
CK
GR
OU
ND
TO
CO
MM
UN
ITY
OR
GA
NIS
AT
ION
S IN
SO
UT
H A
FRIC
AD
efin
ition
s of
vol
unta
ry a
ssoc
iatio
nsV
olun
tary
ass
ocia
tions
in S
outh
Afr
ica
CH
AR
AC
I E
RIS
TIC
S O
F C
ER
TA
IN C
OM
MU
NIT
Y O
RG
AN
ISA
TIO
NS
Mem
bers
hip;
Lea
ders
hip;
Aut
hori
ty; A
ccou
ntab
ility
;M
otiv
atio
n; E
duca
tiona
l pra
ctic
es
CA
SE S
TU
DY
ON
E: C
OM
MU
NIT
Y O
RG
AN
ISA
TIO
NS
IN G
RE
AT
ER
CA
PE T
OW
N F
RO
M T
HE
LA
TE
197
0'S
TO
198
4W
hy d
id c
omm
unity
org
anis
atio
ns p
rolif
erat
e in
Cap
e T
own
at th
is ti
me?
Why
did
' dem
ocra
cy' b
ecom
e an
impo
rtan
t ide
olog
ical
con
cept
for
thes
eor
gani
satio
ns a
nd w
hat d
id it
mea
n?
7 9 13 23
CA
SE S
TU
DY
TW
O: C
OM
MU
NIT
Y O
RG
AN
ISA
TIO
NS
IN G
RE
AT
ER
CA
PE T
OW
N F
RO
M 1
985
TO
198
847
SUR
VE
Y O
F C
OM
MU
NIT
Y O
RG
AN
ISA
TIO
NS
INC
APE
TO
WN
FR
OM
TH
E 1
960'
S T
O 1
988
Cat
egor
ies
of C
omm
unity
Org
anis
atio
ns:
Civ
ics
Com
mun
ity w
ork
agen
cies
Cul
tura
lE
duca
tion,
res
earc
h, r
esou
rce
anil
itV'o
rmat
ion
Polit
ical
Stud
ent a
nd y
outh
Wom
en
61
CO
NC
LU
SIO
N16
4
IND
EX
165
NO
TE
S18
2
-
INT
RO
DU
CT
ION
The
Cen
tre
for
Adu
lt an
d C
ontin
uing
Edu
catio
n(C
AC
E)
was
est
ablis
hed
at th
e U
nive
rsity
of
the
Wes
tern
Cap
e (U
WC
) in
Apr
il 19
85. A
t tha
t tim
e,th
e fi
rst p
roje
ct th
at w
as s
et u
p w
as th
e C
omm
unity
Org
anis
atio
n R
esea
rch
and
Edu
catio
n (C
OR
E)
Proj
ect.
Thi
s pu
blic
atio
n is
one
of
the
resu
lts o
f th
ew
ork
with
in th
e C
OR
E P
roje
ct. T
he C
OR
E P
roje
ctco
nsis
ts o
f:
1.T
he o
ngoi
ng a
nd s
yste
mat
ic d
evel
opm
ent a
ndm
aint
enan
ce o
f a
data
-bas
e on
com
mun
ity o
r-ga
nisa
tions
in th
e G
reat
er C
ape
Tow
n ar
ea.
(Gre
ater
Cap
e T
own
exte
nds
from
Sim
onst
own
to T
able
Bay
to A
tlant
is to
Bel
lvill
e to
the
frin
geof
Paa
rl, W
ellin
gton
, Ste
llenb
osch
, Str
and,
and
Som
erse
t Wes
t.) T
his
data
base
incl
udes
the
colle
ctio
n of
pre
sscl
ippi
ngs,
pam
phle
ts,
post
ers,
boo
klet
s, n
ewsl
ette
rs, o
ccas
iona
lpa
pers
and
aca
dem
ic th
eses
;
2.R
esea
rch
into
var
ious
asp
ects
of
com
mun
ityor
gani
satio
ns in
ord
er to
doc
umen
t his
tori
cal
and
cont
empo
rary
dev
elop
men
ts;
3.T
he d
isse
min
atio
n of
res
earc
h fi
ndin
gs in
popu
lar
form
in o
rder
to s
timul
ate
refl
ectio
n on
and
a de
eper
und
erst
andi
ng o
f co
mm
unity
or-
gani
satio
ns a
nd th
e co
ntex
t with
in w
hich
they
oper
ate.
The
est
ablis
hmen
t of
the
CO
RE
Pro
ject
was
driv
en b
y a
num
ber
of c
onsi
dera
tions
. Fir
stly
, in
the
proc
ess
of a
n ea
rlie
r re
sear
chpr
ojec
t', w
hich
focu
sed
on s
elf-
educ
atio
n w
ithin
com
mun
ity o
r-ga
nisa
tions
with
in C
ape
Tow
n in
the
earl
y 19
80s,
the
dear
th o
f in
form
atio
n on
com
mun
ity o
rgan
isa-
tions
was
app
aren
t. T
hrou
gh th
e Pr
ojec
t we
are
begi
nnin
g to
fill
the
gap
in o
ur k
now
ledg
e an
d to
high
light
the
impo
rtan
ce o
f th
e ar
ea f
or f
urth
er
rese
arch
. Thi
s nu
blic
atio
n la
ys th
e fo
unda
tions
for
futu
re r
esea
rch
by p
rese
ntin
g in
Par
t Fou
r ra
w d
ata
with
lim
ited
com
men
tary
. It a
ims
to r
aise
mor
equ
estio
ns th
an p
rovi
de a
nsw
ers
and
shou
ld b
e se
enas
a `
pref
ace'
to f
utur
e, m
ore
subs
tant
ial w
ork
inth
e fi
eld.
A s
econ
d re
ason
for
und
erta
king
the
CO
RE
Proj
ect w
as b
ased
on
the
unde
rsta
ndin
g th
at c
om-
mun
ity o
rgan
isat
ions
, or
volu
ntar
y as
soci
atio
ns, a
rekn
own
to 'r
ise
and
fall'
at t
imes
of
soci
al c
risi
sw
ithin
soc
ietie
s. T
hey
ofte
n pr
olif
erat
e in
res
pons
eto
gre
ater
eth
nic
or s
ocia
l con
scio
usne
ss a
t par
-tic
ular
'mom
ents
' in
hist
ory.
The
stu
dy o
f co
m-
mun
ity o
rgan
isat
ions
, the
refo
re, p
rovi
des
inte
rest
ing
pers
pect
ives
on
cont
empo
rary
his
tory
.T
hese
per
spec
tives
hav
e on
ly b
egun
to b
e ex
plor
edin
Sou
th A
fric
a. T
he in
form
atio
n co
ncer
ning
loca
lco
mm
unity
org
anis
atio
ns is
exc
eedi
ngly
spa
rse.
Thi
s pu
blic
atio
n ho
pes
to il
lust
rate
the
pote
ntia
lhi
stor
ical
rel
evan
ce o
f a
stud
y of
com
mun
ity o
r-ga
nisa
tions
.T
he th
ird
reas
on f
or th
e C
OR
E P
roje
ct r
elat
esto
pop
ular
edu
catio
nal r
athe
r th
an a
cade
mic
con
-ce
rns.
As
the
data
in P
art F
our
of th
is p
ublic
ajon
test
ifie
s, 1
985-
1988
has
see
n ye
t ano
ther
pro
lifer
a-tio
n of
com
mun
ity o
rgan
isat
ions
in r
espo
nse
to m
e's
ocia
l cri
sis'
. The
pro
ject
, thr
ough
edu
catio
nal
even
ts a
nd th
roug
h pu
blic
atio
ns, a
ims
to a
ssis
tm
embe
rs o
f co
mm
unity
org
anis
atio
ns to
con
tex-
tual
ise
and
refl
ect o
n th
eir
wor
k in
ord
er to
bec
ome
mor
e ef
fect
ive
in th
e st
rugg
le f
or a
non
raci
al, j
ust
and
dem
ocra
tic f
utur
e in
Sou
th A
fric
a.T
he p
lann
ed s
eque
nce
of th
e st
udy
is a
s fo
l-lo
ws: T
he s
tudy
beg
ins
with
bac
kgro
und
to c
om-
mun
ity o
rgan
isat
ions
in S
outh
Afr
ica.
7
0
-
8
It th
en p
rovi
des
an o
verv
iew
of
com
mun
ityor
gani
satio
ns a
nd th
eir
prim
ary
char
acte
rist
ics,
as d
escr
ibed
in th
e lit
erat
ure.
The
thir
d se
ctio
n pr
esen
ts tw
o ca
se s
tudi
es o
fco
mm
unity
org
anis
atio
ns in
Cap
e T
own.
The
firs
t foc
uses
on
the
earl
y 19
80's
. Tw
o qu
estio
nsar
e ad
dres
sed:
why
did
com
mun
ity o
rgan
isa-
tions
pro
lifer
ate
at th
at p
artic
ular
his
tori
cal
'mom
ent'?
Why
did
'dem
ocra
cy' b
ecom
e su
chan
impo
rtan
t ide
olog
ical
con
cept
for
the
emer
-ge
nt o
rgan
isat
ions
and
wha
t did
it m
ean?
The
seco
nd f
ocus
es o
n de
velo
pmen
ts w
ithin
and
arou
nd c
omm
unity
org
anis
atio
ns f
rom
198
519
88.
The
fin
al, s
ubst
antia
l sec
tion
pres
ents
dat
a on
the
com
mun
ity o
rgan
isat
ions
that
we
wer
e ab
leto
loca
te f
rom
the
1960
's to
198
8. T
he d
ata
ispr
esen
ted
with
ver
y lim
ited
com
men
tary
. Ad-
ditio
nal r
esea
rch
is r
equi
red
befo
re in
dep
thdi
scus
sion
of
the
data
is p
ossi
ble.
HO
W T
O U
SE
TH
IS P
UB
LIC
AT
ION
The
fir
st e
ditio
n of
this
pub
licat
ion
has
been
use
dby
a r
ange
of
peop
le f
rom
aca
dem
ic r
esea
rche
rs to
stud
ents
and
mem
bers
of
com
mun
ity o
rgan
isat
ions
.So
me
of th
e se
ctio
ns m
ay b
e m
ore
inte
rest
ing
toyo
u th
an o
ther
s. T
he f
irst
thre
e se
ctio
ns h
ave
been
wri
tten
in a
n ac
adem
ic s
tyle
. (W
e ha
ve a
t dif
fere
nttim
es p
repa
red
mor
e po
pula
r m
ater
ial o
n si
mila
ris
sues
.) W
e ha
ve w
ritte
n th
c se
ctio
ns s
o th
at c
ach
can
stan
d on
its
own.
We
ther
efor
e re
com
men
d th
atyo
u st
udy
the
inde
x pa
ge a
nd th
en tu
rn to
the
appr
opri
ate
sect
ion.
Req
uest
for
your
com
men
ts,
criti
cism
s an
d Id
eas
We
see
this
pub
licat
ion
as a
n at
tem
pt to
pre
sent
a's
naps
hot'
of c
omm
unity
org
anis
atio
ns in
the
grea
ter
Cap
e T
own
area
dur
ing
the
last
twen
ty-f
ive
year
s. I
t is
a pr
elim
inar
y st
udy.
We
wou
ld w
elco
me
addi
tiona
l inf
orm
atio
n an
d in
sigh
ts w
hich
you
may
be a
ble
to o
ffer
.
1 2
-
BA
CK
GR
OU
ND
TO
CO
MM
UN
ITY
OR
GA
NIS
AT
ION
S IN
SO
UT
HA
FR
ICA
Intr
oduc
tion
Com
mun
ity o
rgan
isat
ions
are
for
ms
of v
olun
tary
asso
ciat
ions
. In
this
pub
licat
ion
thes
e te
rms
are
used
inte
rcha
ngea
bly.
In
the
liter
atur
e th
e te
rm'v
olun
tary
ass
ocia
tions
', 'N
G O
s' (
non-
gove
rnm
enta
l org
anis
atio
ns),
TV
Os'
(pr
ivat
evo
lunt
ary
orga
nisa
tions
) an
d SM
Os
' (so
cial
mov
e-m
ent o
rgan
isat
ions
) ar
e so
me
of n
ames
use
d to
desc
ribe
thes
e or
gani
satio
ns w
hich
for
m p
art o
fci
vil s
ocie
ty.
Gra
msc
i, as
ela
bora
ted
by S
imon
2, d
efin
edci
vil s
ocie
ty a
s co
mpr
isin
g al
l the
'so-
calle
dpr
ivat
e' o
rgan
isat
ions
suc
h as
chu
rche
s, tr
ade
unio
ns, p
oliti
cal p
artie
s, c
ultu
ral a
nd v
olun
tary
as-
soci
atio
ns w
hich
are
dis
tinct
fro
m th
e pr
oces
ses
ofpr
oduc
tion
and
from
the
publ
ic a
ppar
atus
es o
f th
est
ate.
Gra
msc
i sta
tes
that
:
all t
he o
rgan
isat
ions
whi
ch m
ake
up c
ivil
soci
ety
are
the
resu
lt of
a c
ompl
ex n
etw
ork
ofso
cial
pra
ctic
es a
nd s
ocia
l rel
atio
ns, i
nclu
ding
the
stru
ggle
bet
wee
n th
e tw
o fu
ndam
enta
l cla
s-se
s, c
apita
l and
labo
ur...
. Thu
s a
capi
talis
tso
ciet
y is
com
pose
d of
thre
e se
ts o
f so
cial
rela
tions
: the
rel
atio
ns o
f pr
oduc
tion,
the
basi
cre
latio
n be
twee
n la
bour
and
cap
ital;
the
coer
-ci
ve r
elat
ions
whi
ch c
hara
cter
ise
thc
Stat
e; a
ndal
l oth
er s
ocia
l rel
atio
ns w
hich
mak
e up
civ
ilso
ciet
y.
13
Civ
il so
ciet
y is
the
sphe
re w
here
cap
italis
ts,
wor
kers
and
oth
ers
enga
ge in
pol
itica
l and
ideo
logi
cal i
t....,
ggle
s an
d w
here
pol
itica
l par
-tie
s, tr
ade
unio
ns, r
elig
ious
bod
ies
and
a gr
eat
vari
ety
of o
ther
org
anis
atio
ns c
ome
into
exi
st-
ence
. It i
s no
t onl
y th
e sp
here
of
clas
s st
rugg
les:
it is
als
o th
e sp
here
of
all p
opul
ar-d
emoc
ratic
stru
ggle
s w
hich
ari
se o
ut o
f th
e di
ffer
ent w
ays
in w
hich
peo
ple
are
grou
ped
toge
ther
by
sex,
race
, gen
erat
ion,
loca
l com
mun
ity, r
egio
n, n
a-tio
n an
d so
on.
Thu
s it
is in
civ
il so
ciet
y th
at th
est
rugg
le f
or h
egem
ony
betw
een
the
two
fun-
dam
enta
l cla
sses
take
s pl
ace.
...
The
dis
tinct
ion
betw
een
civi
l soc
iety
and
the
Stat
e sh
ould
not
, acc
ordi
ng to
Gra
msc
i, be
und
er-
stoo
d as
bei
ng p
hysi
cally
div
ided
into
sep
arat
ear
eas
with
cle
arly
def
ined
bou
ndar
ies
betw
een
the
two.
It i
s po
ssib
le f
or a
n or
gani
satio
n to
em
body
rela
tions
bel
ongi
ng to
bot
h ci
vil s
ocie
ty a
nd th
eSt
ate.
Thi
s po
int i
s im
port
ant f
or th
e di
scus
sion
of
volu
ntar
y as
soci
atio
ns in
con
tem
pora
ry S
outh
Afr
ica.
The
bes
t illu
stra
tion
of th
is is
to b
e fo
und
ince
rtai
n of
the
univ
ersi
ties,
par
ticul
arly
the
UW
C.
The
UW
C is
a S
tate
inst
itutio
n bu
t is
also
an
impo
r-ta
nt s
ite f
or c
ount
er-h
egem
onic
act
ivity
. It c
ould
thus
b.:
seen
to e
mbo
dy f
orm
s of
bot
h ci
vil s
ocie
tyan
d th
e St
ate.
The
com
mun
ity o
rgan
isat
ions
whi
ch a
re th
efo
cus
of th
is s
tudy
, for
the
mos
t par
t, fo
rm p
art o
fth
e co
unte
r-he
gem
onic
mov
emen
t in
Gre
ater
Cap
eT
own.
The
cri
teri
a w
hich
wer
e us
ed f
or in
clud
ing
orga
nisa
tions
in th
e su
rvey
wer
e th
at th
ey b
e:
priv
ate,
non
-gov
ernm
enta
l com
mun
ity o
r-ga
nisa
tions
whi
ch w
ere
not d
irec
tly s
ubsi
dise
dby
the
Stat
e in
any
way
;9
-
orga
nisa
tions
con
cern
ed w
ith s
ocia
l and
pol
iti-
cal i
ssue
s, r
athe
r th
an e
xclu
sive
ly w
ith r
ecre
a-tio
n or
leis
ure;
orga
nisa
tions
con
cern
ed w
ith in
form
al o
r no
n-fo
rmal
edu
catio
n w
ithin
thei
r fi
elds
of
inte
rest
.
The
se c
rite
ria
wer
e di
ffic
ult t
o im
plem
ent p
reci
sely
- th
ey w
ere
used
mor
e as
a g
uide
. In
cert
ain
case
s,as
with
the
rece
nt s
pate
of
proj
ects
with
in th
eun
iver
sitie
s, th
e co
mpl
exity
of
defm
ing
'vol
unta
ryas
soci
atio
ns' a
nd 'c
ivil
soci
ety'
was
man
ifes
t. W
ech
ose
to in
clud
e ce
rtai
n pr
ojec
ts r
ecen
tly e
stab
-lis
hed
in th
e un
iver
sitie
s w
hich
mat
ched
mos
t of
the
crite
ria,
eve
n th
ough
som
e of
them
may
rec
eive
afo
rm o
f St
ate
subs
idy.
DE
FIN
ITIO
NS
OF
VO
LU
NT
AR
YA
SS
OC
IAT
ION
ST
he d
efin
ition
of
a 'v
olun
tary
ass
ocia
tion'
is n
otcl
earc
ut T
here
are
num
erou
s de
fmiti
ons
in th
elit
erat
ure3
and
as J
ohns
on4
conc
lude
s, th
e de
fini
-tio
n of
a v
olun
tary
ass
ocia
tion
turn
s on
fou
r fa
ctor
s:
1.M
etho
d of
form
atio
nT
he o
rgan
isat
ion
does
not
ow
e its
exi
sten
ce to
stat
utor
y au
thor
ity b
ut c
onsi
sts
of a
gro
up o
f pe
ople
who
hav
e co
me
toge
ther
vol
unta
rily
.
2.M
etho
d of
gov
ernm
ent
The
org
aniz
atio
n is
sel
f-go
vern
ing
and
deci
des
onits
ow
n co
nstit
utio
n an
d its
ow
n po
licy.
The
mem
-be
rs d
eter
min
e th
e ac
tiviti
es, t
he s
ervi
ces
to b
epr
ovid
ed a
nd th
e m
etho
ds to
be
adop
ted.
The
y ar
eun
der
no le
gal o
blig
atio
n to
pro
vide
a s
ervi
ce, a
ndth
ey c
an s
elec
t the
ir o
wn
clie
nts.
3.M
etho
d of
fin
ance
At l
east
som
e of
the
orga
niza
tion'
s m
oney
sho
uld.
com
e fr
om v
olun
tary
sou
rces
.
4.M
otiv
eT
he o
rgan
izat
ion
shou
ld b
e no
n-pr
ofit-
mak
ing.
It s
houl
d be
not
ed th
at th
ese
fact
ors
are
not
abso
lute
, and
in c
erta
in c
ount
ries
like
Bri
tain
, the
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
volu
ntar
y as
soci
atio
ns a
ndth
e st
atut
ory
auth
oriti
es is
not
cle
arcu
t. M
uch
of th
efi
nanc
ing
for
the
volu
ntar
y as
soci
atio
ns in
fac
tof
ten
com
es f
rom
the
cent
ral o
r lo
cal g
over
nmen
t.T
he r
elat
ions
hips
bet
wee
n vo
lunt
ary
asso
ciat
ions
and
gove
rnm
ents
var
y su
bsta
ntia
lly in
dif
fere
ntpa
rts
of th
e w
orld
.5 T
he f
ocus
for
this
stu
dy,h
ow-
ever
, is
on v
olun
tary
ass
ocia
tions
whi
ch d
o no
tob
tain
any
fun
ding
fro
m th
e st
atut
ory
auth
oriti
es.
The
re a
re v
ario
us ty
polo
gies
of
volu
ntag
as-
soci
atio
ns th
at h
ave
been
dev
elop
ed. M
orri
e di
s-tin
guis
hes
betw
een
Lw
o br
oad
cate
gori
es, t
hose
orga
nisa
tions
who
se p
rim
ary
purp
ose
is s
ocia
l ser
-vi
ce, a
nd th
ose
whi
ch a
re c
once
rnfi
d w
ith th
epr
ovis
ion
of le
isur
e fa
cilit
ies.
Mur
ray
elab
orat
eson
the
soci
al s
ervi
ce c
ateg
ory
by id
entif
ying
thre
eki
nds
of o
rgan
isat
ions
in th
is a
rea.
Fir
st th
ere
are
wha
t he
calls
car
ing
orga
nisa
tions
: org
anis
atio
nsw
hose
ser
vice
s ar
e pr
ovid
ed b
y on
e gr
oup
for
anot
her
grou
p. S
econ
d, th
ere
are
the
pres
sure
grou
ps, s
ome
of w
hich
com
bine
pre
ssur
e gr
oup
activ
ity w
ith th
e pr
ovis
ion
of s
ervi
ces.
Fin
ally
ther
ear
e or
gani
satio
ns o
f th
e se
lf-h
elp
cate
gory
who
conc
entr
ate
on h
elpi
ng th
eir
own
mem
bers
hip.
He
argu
es th
at th
e th
ree
kind
s of
org
anis
atio
ns d
iffe
rsi
gnif
ican
tly in
cha
ract
er a
nd p
urpo
ses.
The
cha
r-ac
teri
stic
rel
atio
nshi
p in
a s
ervi
ce-p
rovi
ding
or-
gani
satio
n is
bet
wee
n vo
lunt
ary
or p
rofe
ssio
nal
wor
ker
and
the
clie
nt; t
he p
rovi
ders
and
rec
eive
rsof
the
seiv
ice
are
two
dist
inct
gro
ups.
The
cha
rac-
teri
stic
rel
atio
nshi
p in
the
self
-hel
p or
gani
satio
n is
lb
-
that
bet
wee
n m
embe
rs w
ho s
hare
a s
ocia
l, ph
ysic
alor
men
tal d
isab
ility
or
who
hav
e a
prob
lem
or
need
in c
omm
on; t
he r
elat
ions
hip
is o
ne o
f m
utua
l aid
,an
d th
ere
is n
o sh
arp
dist
inct
ion
betw
een
prov
ider
san
d re
ceiv
ers
of th
e se
rvic
es. P
ress
ure
grou
ps a
repr
imar
ily c
once
rned
with
rel
atio
nshi
ps th
at g
obe
yond
the
conf
ines
of
the
orga
nisa
tion
and
itsm
embe
rs o
r cl
ient
s.In
this
stu
dy th
e co
ncer
n is
with
'soc
ial s
ervi
ce'
rath
er th
an 'l
eisu
re' o
rien
tate
d vo
lunt
ary
asso
cia-
tions
.8
VO
LUN
TA
RY
AS
SO
CIA
TIO
NS
INS
OU
TH
AF
RIC
AIn
Sou
th A
fric
a so
cial
ser
vice
s ar
e su
pplie
d by
ara
nge
of s
tatu
tory
and
non
-sta
tuto
ry b
odie
s. T
hevo
lunt
ary
asso
ciat
ions
whi
ch a
re th
e fo
cus
of th
isst
udy
are
not r
egis
tere
d as
wel
fare
org
anis
atio
ns'
unde
r th
e N
atio
nal W
elfa
re A
ct, a
nd th
ey d
o no
tob
tain
ed a
ny f
undi
ng f
rom
the
gove
rnm
ent.
The
yar
e us
ually
fun
ded
from
pri
vate
, loc
al o
r in
tern
a-tio
nal s
ourc
es, a
nd a
re n
ot n
eces
sari
ly r
egis
tere
dun
der
the
Fund
rais
ing
Act
.T
here
am
no
law
s w
hich
dir
ectly
aff
ect t
hem
embe
rshi
p or
act
iviti
es o
f in
depe
nden
t org
anis
a-tio
ns, y
et, a
s W
ollh
eim
9 po
ints
out
, the
re a
re m
any
whi
ch a
ffec
t the
m in
dire
ctly
. The
se in
clud
e, f
orex
ampl
e, th
e G
roup
Are
as A
ct, t
he M
ovem
ent o
fB
lack
Per
sons
Act
, and
man
y ot
hers
whi
ch c
anm
obili
se th
e St
ate
repr
essi
ve a
ppar
atus
es in
ord
erto
sto
p or
gani
satio
nal a
ctiv
ities
. Exa
mpl
es o
f th
ela
tter,
are
the
Supp
ress
ion
of C
omm
unis
m A
ct(r
enam
ed th
e In
tern
al S
ecur
ity A
ct in
197
6, w
hich
incl
uded
with
in th
e ca
tego
ry o
f 'c
omm
unis
t' an
ydo
ctri
ne a
dvoc
atin
g po
litic
al, s
ocia
l and
eco
nom
icch
ange
by
diso
rder
ly m
eans
. The
Act
als
o cr
eate
dth
e ca
tego
ry o
f 'u
nlaw
ful o
rgan
isat
ion'
and
per
-
min
ed th
e ba
nnin
g of
per
sons
.10
The
re a
re v
ery
few
stu
dies
of
volu
ntar
y as
soci
a-tio
ns in
Sou
th A
fric
a, a
nd m
ore
spec
ific
ally
Cap
eT
own.
11 F
rom
an
anal
ysis
of
avai
labl
e di
rect
orie
sof
vol
unta
ry a
ssoc
iatio
ns, w
hich
are
ver
y lim
ited
inth
eir
scop
e an
d co
mpi
led
by d
iffe
rent
sou
rces
and
at d
iffe
rent
tim
es, f
rom
stu
dyin
g th
e lo
cal c
om-
mun
ity n
ewsl
ette
rs, t
he lo
cal n
ewsp
aper
s i.e
. Mus
-lim
New
s, T
he H
eral
d, T
he A
rgus
, the
Cap
e T
imes
,G
rass
root
s, S
outh
and
the
Wee
kly
Mai
l, th
e So
uth
Afr
ican
Ins
titut
e of
Rac
e R
elat
ions
(SA
IRR
) Su
r-ve
ys, f
rom
que
stio
nnai
res
sent
out
to 1
65 k
now
nvo
lunt
ary
asso
ciat
ions
in 1
985
and
287
in 1
988,
and
from
per
sona
l int
ervi
ews
with
36
peop
le in
198
5an
d an
add
ition
al 2
0 in
terv
iew
s in
198
8 w
ith p
eopl
ew
ho h
ave
been
act
ive
in v
olun
tary
ass
ocia
tions
inC
ape
Tow
n, it
has
bee
n po
ssib
le to
com
pile
apr
elim
inar
y lis
t of
volu
ntar
y as
soci
atio
ns w
hich
wer
e es
tabl
ishe
d in
the
1960
s up
unt
il 19
88. T
his
over
view
of
volu
ntar
y as
soci
atio
ns, w
ith s
ome
com
men
tary
, is
pres
ente
d in
Sec
tion
Four
of
this
publ
icat
ion.
One
gla
ring
gap
in th
e in
fonn
atio
n on
vol
un-
tary
ass
ocia
tions
, is
the
lack
of
avai
labl
e da
ta o
n th
eor
gani
satio
ns in
the
Afr
ican
tow
nshi
ps. I
t is
for
this
reas
on th
at a
wid
er s
prea
d of
vol
unta
ry a
ssoc
iatio
nsin
the
Afr
ican
tow
nshi
ps o
f C
ape
Tow
n is
incl
uded
in S
ectio
n Fo
ur.
Web
ster
12ha
s fo
und
in S
owet
o th
at th
e w
ork-
ing
clas
s de
vise
s al
l sor
ts o
f st
rate
gies
to c
ope
with
thei
r po
vert
y an
d op
pres
sion
. Man
y pe
ople
are
enga
ged
in in
form
al s
ecto
r ac
tiviti
es s
uch
as b
rew
-in
g be
er,a
nd h
awki
ng f
ood,
and
they
fle
sh o
ut th
eir
inad
equa
te in
com
e th
roug
h sm
all s
elf-
help
gro
ups;
like
buri
al s
ocie
ties
and
cred
it so
ciet
ies.
Dlu
dla1
"al
so f
ound
in h
is s
urve
y of
Nya
nga
in C
ape
Tow
n,11
-
12
that
a h
igh
perc
enta
ge o
f pe
ople
wer
e in
volv
ed in
ara
nge
of s
ocia
l ins
titut
ions
whi
ch h
elpe
d to
mee
tth
eir
vari
ous
need
s. A
s he
poi
nts
out '
Eve
n a
prac
-tic
e lik
e a
bus
boyc
ott c
an b
ecom
e in
stitu
tion-
aliz
ed'.
All
thes
e or
gani
satio
ns a
re, a
s W
ebst
erno
tes,
def
ensi
ve r
espo
nses
by
the
wor
king
cla
ss to
the
cris
is in
whi
ch th
ey f
ind
them
selv
es.
Mol
efe1
4el
abor
ates
on
som
e of
the
prob
lem
sw
hich
they
exp
erie
nce
in th
e es
tabl
ishm
ent o
f`o
ffen
sive
' typ
e or
gani
satio
ns in
Afr
ican
are
as.
Firs
tly, h
e be
lieve
s th
at `
firs
t lev
el g
rass
root
sor
gani
satio
n', w
hich
had
ear
ly in
the
1980
'spr
olif
erat
ed p
artic
ular
ly in
col
oure
d an
d In
dian
area
s, a
te d
epen
dent
on
a de
gree
of
skill
and
exp
er-
tise
whi
ch is
ava
ilabl
e to
pro
fess
iona
ls a
nd in
telle
c-tu
als.
The
re a
re f
ar f
ewer
pro
fess
iona
ls in
Afr
ican
area
s, a
nd th
eref
ore,
he
argu
es, `
we
see
less
of
ana
tura
l dri
ft to
war
ds c
omm
ittee
s or
for
mal
sty
les
ofor
gani
satio
n'. H
is s
econ
d po
int i
s th
at th
ere
is a
far
low
er le
vel o
f re
pres
sion
in th
e In
dian
and
col
oure
dar
eas,
than
has
cha
ract
eris
ed th
e A
fric
an a
reas
.O
rgan
isat
ions
are
ther
efor
e le
ss v
ulne
rabl
e el
se-
whe
re. T
he le
vel o
f re
pres
sion
als
o fo
rces
man
yA
fric
ans
to th
e po
int o
f be
lievi
ng th
at th
e on
lyvi
able
for
m o
f st
rugg
le is
a m
ilita
ry o
ne. T
his
lend
sits
elf
to r
ecru
iting
for
the
liber
atio
n ar
my,
rat
her
than
to r
ecru
iting
peo
ple
for
`sm
all s
cale
, rel
ativ
ely
refo
rmis
t com
mun
ity w
ork'
. His
thir
d po
int i
s th
atth
e re
lativ
ely
grea
ter
degr
ee o
f m
ater
ial d
epri
vatio
nef
fect
s or
gani
satio
nal p
ossi
bilit
ies.
The
re a
relim
ited
reso
urce
s fo
r pe
ople
to d
raw
on,
and
peo
ple
who
are
str
uggl
ing
for
surv
ival
may
fin
d it
diff
icul
tto
con
cern
them
selv
es w
ith p
oliti
cal s
trug
gles
.Pe
ople
who
hav
e ov
erco
me
the
stru
ggle
for
sur
-vi
val h
ave
mor
e tim
e an
d in
clin
atio
n to
eng
age
inot
her
stru
ggle
s. T
his
argu
men
t con
curs
with
the
liter
atur
e, w
hich
will
be
disc
usse
d la
ter,
and
whi
ch
note
s th
e pr
epon
dera
nce
of th
e pe
tit b
ourg
eois
ie in
volu
ntar
y as
soci
atio
ns. I
t als
o ec
hoes
sen
timen
tsex
pres
sed
by c
erta
in tr
ade
unio
nist
s in
rel
atio
n to
thei
r pa
rtic
ipat
ion
in th
e U
nite
d D
emoc
ratic
Fro
nt(U
DF)
str
uctu
res
whe
n th
ey w
ere
firs
t est
ablis
hed
in 1
983.
The
se w
ill b
e di
scus
sed
mor
e fu
lly la
ter.
-
CH
AR
AC
TE
RIS
TIC
S O
FC
ER
TA
IN V
OLU
NT
AR
YA
SS
OC
IAT
ION
S
The
lite
ratu
re o
n vo
lunt
ary
asso
ciat
ions
is v
ery
dive
rse,
and
is d
raw
n fr
om th
e fi
elds
of
polit
ical
scie
nce,
pub
lic a
dmin
istr
atio
n, s
ocio
logy
2an
thro
polo
gy, s
ocia
l wor
k an
d ad
ult e
duca
tion.
"E
ach
disc
iplin
e ha
s a
part
icul
ar s
lant
: for
exa
mpl
eso
ciol
ogis
ts h
ave
trad
ition
ally
foc
usse
d on
the
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
volu
ntar
y as
soci
atio
ns a
ndso
cial
str
atif
icat
ion;
pol
itica
l sci
entis
ts h
ave
show
nco
ncer
n w
ith p
roce
sses
that
pre
serv
e an
d en
hanc
epl
ural
ist d
emoc
racy
, and
this
has
led
to a
n in
tere
stin
the
way
vol
unta
ry a
ssoc
iatio
ns m
obili
se p
eopl
efo
r de
moc
ratic
invo
lvem
ent a
nd p
artic
ipat
ion.
The
re h
ave
been
few
stu
dies
of
volu
ntar
y or
-ga
nisa
tions
in th
eir
own
righ
t.16
Perh
aps
ther
e is
good
rea
son
for
this
, bec
ause
vol
unta
ry a
ssoc
ia-
tions
ris
e an
d fa
ll in
res
pons
e to
a r
ange
of
soci
alim
puls
es. T
hey
seem
to h
ave
mor
e pe
rmea
ble
boun
dari
es th
an o
ther
org
anis
atio
ns in
that
they
are
mor
e di
rect
ly a
ffec
ted
by th
eir
envi
ronm
ent.1
7 In
stud
ying
the
orga
nisa
tions
, the
refo
re, i
t is
nece
ssar
yto
foc
us b
oth
on in
tern
al m
icro
pro
cess
es a
nd e
x-te
rnal
mac
ro f
orce
s. T
here
are
few
stu
dies
whi
char
e ab
le to
do
full
just
ice
to b
oth
aspe
cts
sim
ul-
tane
ousl
y. I
n th
is d
iscu
ssio
n ch
arac
teri
stic
s w
ill b
edi
still
ed f
rom
the
liter
atur
e w
hich
des
crib
e bo
thin
tern
al a
nd e
xter
nal f
acto
rs w
hich
app
ear
to in
-fl
uenc
e th
e fu
nctio
ning
of
part
icul
arly
sel
f-he
lpgr
oups
, com
mun
ity d
evel
opm
ent a
genc
ies
and
col-
lect
ives
.T
here
are
a n
umbe
r of
rec
urri
ng d
iscu
ssio
ns in
the
liter
atur
e w
hich
rel
ate
to th
e fu
nctio
ning
of
the
2 I
orga
nisa
tions
. The
y co
ver
lead
ersh
ip, m
embe
rshi
p,in
tern
al d
emoc
racy
, str
ateg
ies,
goa
ls, a
nd a
ccou
nt-
abili
ty. A
n ov
ervi
ew o
f th
e m
ain
poin
ts w
ill b
epr
esen
ted
brie
fly.
ME
MB
ER
SH
IPPa
rtic
ipat
ion
in v
olun
tary
ass
ocia
tions
has
bee
n th
efo
cus
of s
ever
al s
tudi
es. T
here
see
ms
to b
e a
degr
eeof
con
sens
us th
at th
e m
ajor
ity o
f m
embe
rs a
rem
id-
dle
clas
s'. L
iebe
rman
n an
d B
ond1
8 fo
und
that
the
maj
ority
of
mem
bers
of
fem
inis
t con
scio
usne
ss-
ra:s
ing
grou
ps in
the
U.S
.A. w
ere
pred
omin
antly
'whi
te, l
iber
al, e
duca
ted,
upp
er m
iddl
e cl
ass
wom
en'.
The
y fo
und
that
in s
ever
al ty
pes
of s
elf-
help
gro
ups
this
seg
men
t of
the
popu
latio
n w
ho'p
lace
hig
h va
lue
on g
row
th a
nd c
hang
e', w
ere
wel
lre
pres
ente
d. I
n th
e st
udy
by R
oths
child
-Whi
tt19
ofal
tern
ativ
e co
llect
ivis
t org
anis
atio
ns in
the
U.S
.A.,
she
foun
d th
at th
e m
embe
rs te
nded
to c
ome
from
wel
l-ed
ucat
ed, f
inan
cial
ly p
rivi
lege
d fa
mili
es. I
n a
surv
ey o
f vo
lunt
ary
asso
ciat
ions
in B
rita
in, t
heW
olfe
nden
com
mitt
ee f
ound
that
a h
ighe
r pe
rcen
t-ag
e of
mid
dle
rath
er th
an w
orki
ng c
lass
peo
ple
belo
nged
to v
olun
tary
ass
ocia
tions
. Alth
ough
the
prop
ensi
ty to
be
invo
lved
in m
ore
info
rmal
, uno
r-ga
nise
d w
ays
of p
rovi
ding
ser
vice
s w
as f
ound
to b
em
uch
mor
e ev
enly
dis
trib
uted
ove
r di
ffer
ent c
las-
ses.
Sin
ce th
e 19
60s
seve
ral r
esea
rche
rs h
ave
note
dan
incr
ease
in w
orki
ng c
lass
invo
lvem
ent i
n lo
cal
orga
nisa
tions
. Per
lman
20 a
nd G
itte1
121
both
iden
-tif
ied
a gr
owth
of
wor
king
cla
ss o
rgan
isat
ions
out
of th
e so
cial
mov
emen
ts o
f th
e 19
60s.
Lov
ett a
ndPe
rciv
al2
2 no
ted
an in
crea
se in
wor
king
cla
ss in
vol-
vem
ent i
n co
mm
unity
org
anis
atio
n in
Nor
ther
nIr
elan
d af
ter
1968
whe
n po
litic
al u
nrcs
t beg
an.
The
re w
as a
lso
a gr
owth
in th
e nu
mbe
r of
eth
nic
orga
nisa
tions
with
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f bl
ack
con-
2 "
13
-
scio
usne
ss in
Bri
tain
and
the
U.S
.A. I
t app
ears
that
at ti
mes
of
soci
al u
phea
val a
nd g
reat
er e
thni
c co
n-sc
ious
ness
the
num
ber
and
the
clas
s co
mpo
sitio
n of
volu
ntar
y as
soci
atio
ns d
oes
chan
ge.
Gitt
ell b
elie
ves
that
cla
ss d
iffe
rent
iatio
n ca
nnot
be u
nder
estim
ated
as
a si
gnif
ican
t inf
luen
ce o
n th
ech
arac
ter,
goa
ls a
nd f
unct
ions
of
volu
ntar
y or
-ga
nisa
tions
. Tho
se w
ith w
orki
ng c
lass
mem
bers
hip
will
lack
acc
ess
to th
e po
wer
ful a
nd w
ill la
ckm
ater
ial r
esou
rces
. One
of
thei
r pr
imar
y re
sour
ces
is th
eir
pote
ntia
l num
eric
al s
tren
gth.
Thi
s is
why
Pive
n an
d C
low
ard2
3 ar
gue
that
inst
itutio
naliz
atio
nof
a s
ocia
l mov
emen
t is
itsel
f th
e ca
use
of th
ede
clin
e in
the
effe
ctiv
enes
s of
wor
king
cla
ss m
ove-
men
ts. T
hey
belie
ve th
at th
e ve
ry a
ct o
f cr
eatin
gor
gani
satio
ns, c
hann
els
ener
gy a
way
fro
m is
sues
and
polit
ical
act
ion,
and
tow
ard
orga
nisa
tiona
lm
aint
enan
ce. (
Thi
s is
not
unl
ike
the
argu
men
tw
hich
was
use
d by
gov
ernm
ents
in th
eir
acce
ptan
ceof
the
idea
of
the
need
for
mor
e vo
lunt
ary
asso
cia-
tions
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f or
gani
satio
ns w
illpr
omot
e st
abili
ty).
Gitt
ell f
ound
that
mid
dle
clas
sor
gani
satm
s ha
d m
ore
flex
ibili
ty in
thei
r ch
oice
of
stra
tegi
es, A
nd th
ey s
how
ed s
igni
fica
nt d
iffe
renc
esin
org
anis
at-o
nal c
hara
cter
istic
s. P
erlm
an24
not
esan
incr
ease
of
orga
nisa
tions
in th
e 19
70s
whe
reth
ere
is a
n at
tem
pt to
fin
d is
sues
whi
ch w
ill u
nite
low
and
mod
erat
e in
com
e pe
ople
, and
peo
ple
of a
diff
eren
t col
our.
How
ever
exa
mpl
es o
f th
e in
tern
alfu
nctio
ning
of
orga
nisa
tions
whi
ch h
ave
a su
bsta
n-tia
l num
ber
of th
eir
mem
bers
fro
m d
iffe
rent
soc
ial
clas
ses
wer
e di
ffic
ult t
o fi
nd.
LEA
DE
RS
HIP
The
theo
ry a
nd p
ract
ice
rega
rdin
g le
ader
ship
with
ii vo
lunt
ary
asso
ciat
ions
pro
vide
s ir
apor
tant
insi
ghts
into
thei
r fu
nctio
ning
. But
cher
" st
ates
that
: Man
y co
mm
unity
gro
ups
tend
to r
ejec
t tra
di-
tiona
l ass
umpt
ions
abo
ut th
e va
lue
of, o
r ne
edfo
r, le
ader
ship
rol
es a
nd p
ositi
ons.
The
y qu
es-
tion
trad
ition
al b
elie
fs th
at c
erta
in p
eopl
e ar
elik
ely
to b
e bl
esse
d w
ith le
ader
ship
cha
rac-
teri
stic
s w
hile
oth
ers
are
not.
If a
ny m
embe
rsbe
com
e de
sign
ated
as
lead
ers,
it is
ass
umed
then
, all
shou
ld h
ave
equa
l and
fre
quen
t opp
or-
tuni
ty to
atta
in s
uch
posi
tions
.
How
ever
in h
is s
tudy
of
four
gro
ups
ther
e w
asco
ntin
uity
and
con
stan
cy o
f le
ader
ship
thro
ugh
dif-
fere
nt s
tage
s of
the
orga
nisa
tions
' dev
elop
men
t;th
ere
was
a te
nden
cy f
or th
ose
who
alr
eady
had
lead
ersh
ip p
ositi
ons
in o
ther
org
anis
atio
ns to
be-
com
e le
ader
s in
new
bod
ies.
Vol
unta
ry o
rgan
isat
ions
hav
e hi
stor
ical
ly b
een
view
ed a
s tr
aini
ng g
roun
ds f
or th
e de
velo
pmen
t of
lead
ersh
ip s
kills
." I
n m
iddl
e in
com
e co
mm
uniti
es,
a le
ader
ship
rol
e in
a v
olun
tary
ass
ocia
tion
has
been
cons
ider
ed a
val
uabl
e cr
eden
tial.
In lo
wer
inco
me
com
mun
ities
, vol
unta
ry in
stitu
tions
are
oft
en th
eon
ly in
stitu
tions
thro
ugh
whi
ch in
divi
dual
s ca
nga
in le
ader
ship
exp
erie
nce.
In
Gitt
ell's
stu
dy f
our
lead
ersh
ip p
atte
rns
emer
ged:
1.R
otat
ing
lead
ersh
ip w
as g
ener
ally
ass
ocia
ted
with
vol
unta
ry o
rgan
isat
ions
whe
re a
dvoc
acy
was
use
d as
a s
trat
egy.
Thi
s oc
curr
ed m
ost
freq
uent
ly in
mid
dle
inco
me
orga
nisa
tions
.
2.E
xter
nally
impo
sed
lead
ersh
ip, f
or e
xam
ple
bya
fund
er o
r a
stat
utor
y au
thor
ity.
3.St
aff
lead
ersh
ip
4.C
onst
ant l
eade
rshi
p w
here
the
orga
nisa
tion
and
the
lead
er b
ecom
e on
e an
d th
e sa
me.
2q
-
She
foun
d th
at th
e m
ost i
mpo
rtan
t cha
ract
eris
tics
of le
ader
s in
low
er in
com
e or
gani
satio
ns w
ere
that
they
wer
e st
rong
, hig
hly
visi
ble,
cha
rism
atic
peo
ple
who
wer
e ab
le to
dra
mat
ise
issu
es to
ral
ly s
uppo
rtof
larg
e nu
mbe
rs o
f pe
ople
the
basi
c re
sour
ce o
flo
wer
inco
me
com
mun
ities
. How
ever
this
type
of
lead
er w
as n
ot g
ener
ally
inte
rest
ed in
spe
ndin
g tim
ede
velo
ping
a ti
ghtly
adm
inis
tere
d or
gani
satio
n.G
ittel
l and
oth
eis
have
iden
tifie
d a
basi
c co
ntra
dic-
tion
in th
e ne
eds
of le
ader
ship
bet
wee
n m
obili
zing
peop
le a
nd d
evel
opin
g le
ader
ship
.Per
lman
27 s
ays:
The
pro
blem
is c
lass
ic: a
str
ong
lead
er is
oft
enon
e of
the
key
ingr
edie
nts
for
a su
cces
sful
orga
nisa
tion;
yet
oft
en th
e in
divi
dual
s w
ith s
uf-
fici
ent d
rive
and
ego
to p
lay
that
rol
e w
ell a
rein
capa
ble
of s
hari
ng p
ower
or
dele
gatin
gre
spon
sibi
lity
to o
ther
s.
AU
TH
OR
ITY
The
que
stio
n of
lead
ersh
ip r
elat
es d
irec
tly to
that
of
auth
ority
. Doe
s th
e au
thor
ity li
e w
ith th
e in
-di
vidu
als,
with
the
desi
gnat
ed le
ader
, with
all
the
mem
bers
of
the
orga
nisa
tion,
or
with
som
e ou
tsid
egr
oupi
ng (
or d
octr
ine)
whi
ch c
ould
be
the
fund
ers,
the
stat
utor
y au
thor
ity, t
he p
oliti
cal p
arty
or
soci
alcl
ass?
Rot
hsch
ild-W
hitt2
8 in
her
stu
dy o
f al
tern
a-tiv
e co
llect
ivis
t org
anis
atio
ns in
the
U.S
.A.,
foun
dth
at th
e or
gani
satio
ns r
ejec
ted
the
ratio
nal-
bure
aucr
atic
just
ific
atio
ns f
or a
utho
rity
. Aut
hori
tyre
side
d in
the
colle
ctiv
ity a
s a
who
le r
athe
r th
anw
ith th
e in
divi
dual
who
hel
d au
thor
ity th
roug
h a
desi
gnat
ed p
ositi
on. T
his
notio
n, s
he e
xpla
ins,
stem
s fr
om th
e an
cien
t ana
rchi
st id
eal o
f `n
oau
thor
ity'.
It is
pre
mis
ed o
n th
e be
lief
that
soc
ial
orde
r ca
n be
ach
ieve
d w
ithou
t rec
ours
e to
aut
hori
tyre
latio
ns. T
hus
it pr
esup
pose
s th
e ca
paci
ty o
f in
-
divi
dual
s fo
r se
lf-d
isci
plin
ed, c
oope
rativ
e be
-ha
viou
r. C
olle
ctiv
ist o
rgan
isat
ions
rou
tinel
y em
-ph
asis
e th
ese
aspe
t s o
f hu
man
bei
ngs.
Lik
eA
narc
hist
s, th
eir
aim
is n
ot th
e tr
ansf
eren
ce o
fpo
wer
fro
m o
ne o
ffic
ial t
o an
othe
r, b
ut th
eab
oliti
onof
the
pyra
mid
in to
to: o
rgan
isat
ion
with
out h
iera
r-ch
y. L
iebe
rman
n an
d B
orm
an a
lso
foun
d th
is te
n-de
ncy
in s
elf-
help
gro
ups
of v
ario
us k
inds
, whe
reth
e sh
arin
g an
d ro
tatio
n of
lead
ersh
ip w
as c
omm
on.
The
y fo
und2
9 th
at th
e m
ost f
requ
ently
occ
urri
ngac
tiviti
es in
the
grou
ps a
re 'e
mpa
thy,
mut
ual a
ffir
-m
atio
n, e
xpla
natio
g, s
hari
ng, m
oral
e bu
ildin
g, s
elf-
disc
losu
re, p
ositi
ve r
einf
orce
men
t, pe
rson
al g
oal
setti
ng a
nd c
atha
rsis
'. A
ctiv
ities
whi
ch h
uman
istic
psyc
holo
gist
s lik
e R
oger
s3u
wou
ld a
ppla
ud a
sce
ntra
l to
the
crea
tion
of a
non
-thr
eate
ning
ther
apeu
tic4
ilear
ning
env
iron
men
iL
ovet
el ta
kes
issu
e w
ith th
ose
who
rej
ect a
llau
thor
ity a
s be
ing
'at o
nce
a de
lusi
on a
nd a
dem
and
for
a ki
nd o
f to
tal f
reed
om th
at c
an o
nly
lead
ultim
atel
y to
the
law
of
the
jung
le, w
hich
wou
ldha
rdly
ben
efit
the
oppr
esse
d'. T
he r
eal q
uest
ion,
he
belie
ves,
is a
bout
the
deri
vatio
n of
aut
hori
ty.
The
deb
ate
in th
e lit
erat
ure
abou
t lea
ders
hip
invo
lunt
ary
asso
ciat
ions
is c
aptu
red
in th
e de
bate
arou
nd M
iche
ls' i
ron
law
ofo
ligar
chy3
2. M
iche
ls'
theo
ry w
as f
irst
pub
lishe
d in
191
1. H
e ex
amin
edth
e tr
ends
in p
oliti
cal p
artie
s an
d tr
ade
unio
ns a
ndca
me
up w
ith th
e la
w' t
hat '
dem
ocra
cy le
ads
tool
igar
chy,
and
nec
essa
rily
con
tain
s an
olig
arch
icnu
cleu
s'. B
y ol
igar
chy
in a
n or
gani
satio
n is
mea
ntco
ntro
l the
reof
by
a fe
w o
ffic
ials
in th
e to
p hi
erar
-ch
y of
that
org
anis
atio
n. M
iche
ls a
rgue
s th
at a
sor
gani
satio
ns g
row
in s
ize
they
bec
ome
mor
e co
m-
plex
and
sta
rt r
equi
ring
lead
ers
with
spe
cial
exp
er-
tise
to r
un th
em. A
div
isio
n of
labo
ur b
ecom
esne
cess
ary
and
suita
bly
qual
ifie
d le
ader
s ha
ve to
216
-
16
take
ove
r th
e ru
nnin
g of
the
orga
nisa
tion.
As
this
happ
ens
the
rank
and
file
lose
con
trol
of
the
or-
gani
satio
n. O
ther
fac
tors
whi
ch h
e be
lieve
s re
info
r-ce
s th
e te
nden
cy to
war
ds o
ligar
chy
are
that
lead
ers,
whe
ther
of
prol
etar
ian
or b
ourg
eois
ori
gin,
tena
-ci
ousl
y cl
ing
to o
ffic
e on
ce th
ey h
ave
acqu
ired
it.
Mic
hels
' log
ic m
eshe
s ni
cely
into
Web
er's
no-
tion
of c
hari
smat
ic le
ader
ship
and
bur
eauc
ratic
ratio
nalis
atio
n, a
nd h
is c
ompe
lling
vis
ion
has
be-
com
e th
e fo
unda
tion
for
man
y or
gani
satio
nal
theo
rist
s. H
owev
er th
ere
are
num
bers
of
theo
rist
sw
ho c
halle
nge
his
dete
rmin
istic
theo
ry, a
nd d
o no
tse
e ol
igar
chy
as in
evita
ble.
Rot
hsch
ild-W
hitt
ar-
gues
that
the
valu
e-ra
tiona
l, ra
ther
than
the
in-
stru
men
tally
ratio
nal o
rgan
isat
ions
poi
nt to
diff
eren
t pos
sibi
litie
s. M
aree
-'3 in
his
stu
dy o
f tr
ade
unio
ns p
oint
s ou
t tha
t the
his
tori
cal c
onte
xt, d
if-
fere
nt id
eolo
gies
, and
the
capa
citie
s of
the
mem
ber-
ship
, all
infl
uenc
e th
e ol
igar
chic
or
dem
ocra
ticte
nden
cies
with
in o
rgan
isat
ions
.
AC
CO
UN
TA
BIL
ITY
Ano
ther
rel
ated
con
cern
with
in v
olun
tary
ass
ocia
-tio
ns is
the
ques
tion
of a
ccou
ntab
ility
. Thi
s is
dis
-cu
ssed
in d
iver
gent
way
s de
pend
ing
on th
ede
moc
ratic
theo
ry th
at in
form
s th
e st
udy.
"4 O
n on
eha
nd a
ccou
ntab
ility
in th
e vo
lunt
ary
sect
or is
cor
n;pa
red
to th
at in
the
stat
utor
y so
cial
ser
vice
s.'
Whe
reas
ele
cted
off
icia
ls th
eore
tical
ly a
rc a
ccou
nt-
able
to th
eir
elec
tora
te, v
olun
tary
ass
ocia
tions
arc
min
imal
ly a
ccou
ntab
le th
roug
h, f
or e
xam
ple,
thei
ran
nual
fin
anci
al a
udit.
The
y ar
e un
repr
esen
tativ
ebo
dies
, the
refo
re, i
t is
argu
ed, t
hat a
ny tr
ansf
er o
fre
spon
sibi
lity
from
sta
tuto
ry to
vol
unta
ry a
genc
ies
mig
ht m
ean
a di
mun
ition
of
dem
ocra
tic a
ccou
nt-
abili
tyan
d co
ntro
l.36
The
re is
ack
now
ledg
emen
tth
ough
that
the
fund
er in
evita
bly
dem
ands
acc
ount
-
abili
ty, a
nd in
the
case
of
the
stat
utor
y au
thor
ities
,fu
ndin
g is
not
nor
mal
ly f
orth
com
ing
for
'unp
opul
arca
uses
'.So
me
grou
ps w
ho s
ubsc
ribe
to th
e th
eory
of
part
icip
ator
y de
moc
racy
are
mos
t con
cern
ed w
ithac
coun
tabi
lity
to th
e m
embe
rs o
f th
e co
llect
ive.
Free
man
37an
d L
iebe
rman
n an
d B
orm
an38
in th
eir
stud
ies
show
ed th
at th
e im
plic
atio
ns o
f th
e st
rong
inte
rnal
acc
ount
abili
ty w
ithin
the
cons
ciou
snes
s-ra
isin
g gr
oups
led
to th
e gr
oups
mov
ing
away
fro
mth
eir
initi
al p
oliti
cal o
bjec
tive.
The
y be
cam
e is
o-la
ted
and
wer
e no
t a