Double Beam spectrometer

• Provides a signal that is largely free of drift in the source and detector without requiring really expensive components

• Beam alternates very fast between sample and reference cells.

• Don’t need to keep zeroing

Sample Cells

• Usually 1 cm pathlength• Glass – visible• Quartz – UV• Plastic disposable – beware solvents• 5 cm or 10 cm for dilute samples• Smaller cells for small samples• Flow through cells• Temperature control• Gas cells – longer• Fibre optic probes

Fibre Optics

• Fibres of glass, usually about 120 µm in diameter.

Fibre Optic Probe

Derivative Spectroscopy

• Can determine flat maxima more precisely

• Isolate shoulders

• Distinguish weak signals from background

Photometric Titration

Solution: 2 x 10-3 M in Bi3+ and Cu2+

Titrant: EDTA

At 745 nm, neither cation, nor reagent, absorbs

Bi complex forms first –more stable – but doesn’t absorb

The cu complex does absorb at 745 nm

Reaction rates

• Following enzyme kinetics

• Determine enzymes

• Determine substrates

Stop Flow Methods

• For fast reactions

• Two syringes driven at same rate

• Solutions flow into mixing chamber

• When plunger hits stop, measurement starts

• Generally measure initial rates of reactions

Absorbance ratios and differences

• Measure A at two • Use A1/A2 or A1 – A 2

• Plot versus concentration

• Use to asses purity of samples – to check just one component is present

• Eg ratio of A 260 nm: A 280 nm indicates how pure A sample of DNA you have.

Applications• Metal ion analysis• eg iron II or III• React with ligands to get intense colours• Reduce Fe III with hydroxylamine or

hydroquinone etc• Can extract the complexes into isoamyl

alcohol for a cleanup/preconcentration step

• 0.1 - 0.005 µg/mL are typical LOD’s

Organic/Biologicals

• Most common application

• Many absorb strongly

• May need to derivatize

• eg alcohol with phenyl isocyanate to give alkyl carbamates – 280 nm

• Free amino acids react with ninhydrin – blue/purple – 575 nm – aa analyzers

Automated clinical methods

• Many samples/hour

• Expensive to buy

• Can run many samples unattended

Centrifugal Analysis

• Combines robotic pipettors

• Centrifuge

• Spectrophotometer

• Computer

• Increases sample throughput

• Reduces volume of sample and reagents

• Eliminates chemistry changeover time

• No set-up equilibrium time

• Used for water quality measurements

• Based on standard procedures

• Liquids are dispensed into separate compartments attached to the cuvettes

• Cuvettes are round a rotor. When rotor is spun, reagents are propelled into cuvettes.

• All reactions start together – good for kinetics

• Samples and standards are mixed and run in parallel.

• Identical conditions are ensured for all cuvettes

• Can analyze 110 samples/hour

• Rotor spins at 2000 revolutions /min

• Get an average of ~ 7 readings/sample

Water Pollution Analysis

• Molybdenum blue method• (NH4)3 P (Mo3O10)4 yellow• Reduce with hydroquinone, Sn II or Fe II• Get a polymer of Mo of different oxidation

states• Not stoichiometrically well-defined but is

blue• As, Si interfere – so they can also be

determined this way

Air Pollution Analysis- SO2

• Collect by bubbling through 0.1 M sodium tetrachloromercurate

• HgCl42- + 2SO2 + 2H2O Hg(SO3)22- +

4Cl- + 4H+

• Treat with formaldehyde and p-rosaniline to give red-violet colour 569 nm

• 0.005 ppm by volume

• NO2 interferes above 2 ppm

Advantages Visible

• Less interferences

• Often higher molar absorptivities