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Chapter OneChapter One
Invitations toInvitations to
LinguisticsLinguistics
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1. Why Study Language?1. Why Study Language?
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1.1 Some myths about language1.1 Some myths about language
Language is only a means of communication.Language is only a means of communication.
Language has a formLanguage has a form--meaningmeaning
correspondence.correspondence.
The function of language is to exchangeThe function of language is to exchange
information.information.
English is more difficult to learn thanEnglish is more difficult to learn than
Chinese.Chinese.
BlackEnglish is not standard and should beBlackEnglish is not standard and should be
reformed.reformed.
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1.2 Some fundamental views about L1.2 Some fundamental views about L
Children learn their native language swiftly,Children learn their native language swiftly,
efficiently and without instruction.efficiently and without instruction.
Language operates by rules.Language operates by rules. All languages have three major components:All languages have three major components:
a sound system, a system of lexicogrammara sound system, a system of lexicogrammar
and a system of semantics.and a system of semantics.
Everyone speaks a dialect.Everyone speaks a dialect.
Language slowly changes.Language slowly changes.
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Speakers of all languages employ a range ofSpeakers of all languages employ a range of
styles and a set of jargons.styles and a set of jargons. Languages are intimately related to theLanguages are intimately related to the
societies and individuals who use them.societies and individuals who use them.
Writing is derivative of speech.Writing is derivative of speech.
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2. What is Language?2. What is Language?
LanguageLanguage is not to be confused withis not to be confused withhuman speech, of which it is only ahuman speech, of which it is only a
definite part, though certainly an essentialdefinite part, though certainly an essential
one. It is both a social product of theone. It is both a social product of thefaculty of speech and a collection offaculty of speech and a collection of
necessary conventions that have beennecessary conventions that have been
adopted by a social body to permitadopted by a social body to permit
individuals to exercise that facultyindividuals to exercise that faculty..
----Ferdinand de Saussure (1857Ferdinand de Saussure (1857--1913):1913): CourseCourse
in General Linguisticsin General Linguistics(1916)(1916)
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Language is a purely human andLanguage is a purely human and
nonnon--instinctive method ofinstinctive method of
communicating ideas, emotionscommunicating ideas, emotions
and desires by means of voluntarilyand desires by means of voluntarily
produced symbols.produced symbols.
----Edward Sapir (1884Edward Sapir (1884--1939):1939):
Language: An Introduction to theLanguage: An Introduction to the
Study of SpeechStudy of Speech(1921)(1921)
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Alanguage is a system of arbitrary vocalAlanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal
symbols by means of which a social group cosymbols by means of which a social group co--
operates.operates.
----Bernard Bloch (1907Bernard Bloch (1907--1965)1965) & George Trager& George Trager
(1906(1906--1992):1992): Outline of Linguistic AnalysisOutline of Linguistic Analysis(1942)(1942)
Alanguage is a system of arbitrary vocalAlanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal
symbols by means of which the members of asymbols by means of which the members of a
society interact in terms of their total culture.society interact in terms of their total culture.
----GeorgeTrager:GeorgeTrager: The Field of LinguisticsThe Field of Linguistics(1949)(1949)
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From now on I willFrom now on I willconsider language to be aconsider language to be a
set (finite or infinite) ofset (finite or infinite) of
sentences, each finite insentences, each finite inlength and constructed outlength and constructed out
of a finite set of elements.of a finite set of elements.
----Noam Chomsky (1928Noam Chomsky (1928-- ):):
Syntactic StructuresSyntactic Structures(1957)(1957)
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Language isLanguage is the institution whereby humansthe institution whereby humanscommunicate and interact with each other bycommunicate and interact with each other by
means of habitually used oralmeans of habitually used oral--auditory arbitraryauditory arbitrarysymbols.symbols.
----RobertA. Hall (1911RobertA. Hall (1911--1997):1997): Introductory LinguisticsIntroductory Linguistics
(1964)(1964)
Language is a system of arbitrary vocalLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocalsymbols used for human communication.symbols used for human communication.
----Ronald Wardhaugh:Ronald Wardhaugh: Introduction to LinguisticsIntroduction to Linguistics(1977)(1977)
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... in a sense all definitions... in a sense all definitions
[of language] are, by[of language] are, by
themselves, inadequate, since,themselves, inadequate, since,
if they are to be more thanif they are to be more than
trivial and uninformative,trivial and uninformative,
they must presuppose ...they must presuppose ...some general theory ofsome general theory of
language and of linguisticlanguage and of linguistic
analysis.analysis.
----R. H. Robins (1921R. H. Robins (1921--2000):2000):
General LinguisticsGeneral Linguistics(1989)(1989)
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Language is a form of humanLanguage is a form of humancommunication by means of acommunication by means of a
system of symbols principallysystem of symbols principally
transmitted by vocal sounds.transmitted by vocal sounds.
----Stuart C. Poole:Stuart C. Poole:An IntroductionAn Introduction
to Linguisticsto Linguistics(1999)(1999)
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Language is a means of verbalLanguage is a means of verbalcommunication.communication. It is instrumental in that communicatingIt is instrumental in that communicating
by speaking or writing is a purposeful act.by speaking or writing is a purposeful act.
It is social and conventional in thatIt is social and conventional in thatlanguage is a social semiotic andlanguage is a social semiotic andcommunication can only take placecommunication can only take placeeffectively if all the users share a broadeffectively if all the users share a broadunderstanding of human interactionunderstanding of human interactionincluding such associated factors asincluding such associated factors as
nonverbal cues, motivation, and sociononverbal cues, motivation, and socio--cultural roles.cultural roles.
---- Our textbook (2006)Our textbook (2006)
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3. Design Features of Language3. Design Features of Language
Language distinguishes human beings fromLanguage distinguishes human beings from
animals in that it is far more sophisticatedanimals in that it is far more sophisticated
than any animal communication system.than any animal communication system.
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Human language isHuman language is uniqueunique
ArbitrarinessArbitrariness
DualityDuality
CreativityCreativity
DisplacementDisplacement
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3.1Arbitrarines3.1Arbitrarines
Saussure: the forms of linguistic signs bearSaussure: the forms of linguistic signs bear
no natural relationship to their meaningno natural relationship to their meaning
Arbitrary relationship between the sound ofArbitrary relationship between the sound of
a morpheme and its meaning, even witha morpheme and its meaning, even withonomatopoeic words:onomatopoeic words:
The dog barksThe dog barks wowwowwowwow in English butin English but
in Chinese.in Chinese.
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Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: languageArbitrariness at the syntactic level: language
is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.is not arbitrary at the syntactic level. He came in and sat down.He came in and sat down.
He sat down and came in.He sat down and came in.
He sat down after he came in.He sat down after he came in.
The link between a linguistic sign and itsThe link between a linguistic sign and its
meaning is a matter of convention.meaning is a matter of convention.
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3.2 Duality3.2 Duality
The property of having two levels ofThe property of having two levels of
structures, such that units of the primarystructures, such that units of the primary
level are composed of elements of thelevel are composed of elements of the
secondary level and each of the two levelssecondary level and each of the two levels
has its own principles of organization:has its own principles of organization:
Primary unitsPrimary units wordswords (meaningful) consist of(meaningful) consist of
secondary unitssecondary units soundssounds (meaningless).(meaningless).
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Hierarchy of language: stratification asHierarchy of language: stratification as thethe
infinite use of finite meansinfinite use of finite means..
Sounds > syllables > morphemes > wordsSounds > syllables > morphemes > words> phrases > clauses >> phrases > clauses >
sentences/utterances > texts/discoursessentences/utterances > texts/discourses
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3.3 Creativity3.3 Creativity
Language is resourceful because of itsLanguage is resourceful because of its
duality and its recursiveness. We can use itduality and its recursiveness. We can use it
to create new meanings.to create new meanings.
Words can be used in new ways to meanWords can be used in new ways to mean
new things, and can be instantly understoodnew things, and can be instantly understood
by people who have never come across thatby people who have never come across that
usage before.usage before.
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Birds, bees, crabs, spiders, and most otherBirds, bees, crabs, spiders, and most other
creatures communicate in some way, but thecreatures communicate in some way, but the
information imparted is severely limited andinformation imparted is severely limited and
confined to a small set of messages.confined to a small set of messages.
Because of duality the human speaker isBecause of duality the human speaker isable to combine the basic linguistic units toable to combine the basic linguistic units to
form an infinite set of sentences, most ofform an infinite set of sentences, most of
which are never before produced or heard.which are never before produced or heard.
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3.4 Displacement3.4 Displacement
Human languages enable their usersHuman languages enable their usersto symbolize objects, events andto symbolize objects, events and
concepts which are not present (inconcepts which are not present (in
time and space) at the moment oftime and space) at the moment ofcommunication.communication.
Thus, we can refer to Confucius, or theThus, we can refer to Confucius, or the
North Pole, even though the first hasNorth Pole, even though the first has
been dead for over 2550 years and thebeen dead for over 2550 years and thesecond is situated far away from us.second is situated far away from us.
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Animal communication isAnimal communication is
normally undernormally under immediateimmediatestimulus controlstimulus control. For instance,. For instance,
a warning cry of a bird instantlya warning cry of a bird instantly
announces danger.announces danger. Human language isHuman language is stimulusstimulus--
free. What we are talking aboutfree. What we are talking about
need not be triggered by anyneed not be triggered by any
external stimulus in the worldexternal stimulus in the world
or any internal state.or any internal state.
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The honeybee's dance exhibitsThe honeybee's dance exhibits
displacement a little bit: he can refer to adisplacement a little bit: he can refer to a
source of food, which is remote in time andsource of food, which is remote in time and
space when he reports on it.space when he reports on it.
Adog cannot tell people that its master willAdog cannot tell people that its master willbe home in a few days.be home in a few days.
Our language enables us to communicateOur language enables us to communicate
about things that do not exist or do not yetabout things that do not exist or do not yetexist.exist.
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Displacement benefits humanDisplacement benefits humanbeings by giving us the power tobeings by giving us the power tohandle generalizations andhandle generalizations andabstractions. Once we can talkabstractions. Once we can talk
about physically distant thing,about physically distant thing,we acquire the ability towe acquire the ability tounderstand concepts whichunderstand concepts whichdenotedenote nonnon--thingsthings, such as, such as
truth and beauty.truth and beauty.
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4. Origin of language4. Origin of language
TheThe DivineDivine origin:origin:
In the beginning was theIn the beginning was theWord, and the Word was withWord, and the Word was with
God, and the Word was God.God, and the Word was God.
(Gospel, John 1: 1)(Gospel, John 1: 1)
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And the Lord said, Behold, the people is one, andAnd the Lord said, Behold, the people is one, andthey have all one language; and this they begin tothey have all one language; and this they begin to
do; and now nothing will be restrained from them,do; and now nothing will be restrained from them,which they have imagined to do.which they have imagined to do. (Genesis, 11: 6)(Genesis, 11: 6)
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4.1The4.1The bowbow--wowwow theorytheory
In primitive times people imitated theIn primitive times people imitated the
sounds of the animal calls in the wildsounds of the animal calls in the wild
environment they lived and speechenvironment they lived and speech
developed from that.developed from that. OnomatopoeicOnomatopoeicwords seem to be a convenientwords seem to be a convenient
evidence for this theory.But they are veryevidence for this theory.But they are very
different in the degree of resemblance theydifferent in the degree of resemblance theyexpress with the natural sounds.express with the natural sounds.
This theory lacks supportive evidence.This theory lacks supportive evidence.
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4.2The4.2The poohpooh--poohpooh theorytheory
In the hard life of our primitive ancestors,In the hard life of our primitive ancestors,
they utter instinctive sounds of pain, angerthey utter instinctive sounds of pain, anger
and joy.As for evidence, we can only cite theand joy.As for evidence, we can only cite the
universal use of sounds as interjections.universal use of sounds as interjections.What makes the theory problematic is that thereWhat makes the theory problematic is that there
is only a limited number of interjections inis only a limited number of interjections in
almost all languages.almost all languages.
Besides, interjections such asBesides, interjections such as Oh, Ah, OopsOh, Ah, Oopsbearbear
little relationship with the sound system of alittle relationship with the sound system of a
language and therefore are not good evidence.language and therefore are not good evidence.
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4.3The4.3The yoyo--hehe--hoho theorytheory
As primitive people workedAs primitive people workedtogether, they produced sometogether, they produced somerhythmic grunts whichrhythmic grunts whichgradually developed intogradually developed intochants and then into language.chants and then into language.
We do have prosodic use ofWe do have prosodic use ofrhythms in languages, butrhythms in languages, butrhythmic grunts are far differentrhythmic grunts are far differentfrom language in its presentfrom language in its presentsense.The theory is again atsense.The theory is again atmost a speculation.most a speculation.
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The byThe by--now fruitless search for the origin ofnow fruitless search for the origin of
languages reflects people's concern with thelanguages reflects people's concern with theorigin of humanity and may come up withorigin of humanity and may come up with
enlightening findings in future.enlightening findings in future.
One thing we can say for certain is thatOne thing we can say for certain is thatlanguage evolves within specific historical,language evolves within specific historical,
social and cultural contexts.social and cultural contexts.
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5. Functions of language5. Functions of language
Linguists talk about the functions ofLinguists talk about the functions of
language in an abstract sense, that is, not inlanguage in an abstract sense, that is, not in
terms of using language to chat, to think, toterms of using language to chat, to think, to
buy and sell, to read and write, to greet,buy and sell, to read and write, to greet,
praise and condemn people, etc.praise and condemn people, etc.
They summarize these practical functionsThey summarize these practical functions
and attempt some broad classifications ofand attempt some broad classifications ofthe basic functions of language.the basic functions of language.
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For Jakobson, language isFor Jakobson, language is
above all for communication.above all for communication.While for many people, theWhile for many people, the
purpose of communication ispurpose of communication is
referential, for him (and thereferential, for him (and the
Prague school structuralists),Prague school structuralists),
reference is not the only, notreference is not the only, not
even the primary goal ofeven the primary goal of
communication.communication
.
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In his famous article,In his famous article, Linguistics and PoeticsLinguistics and Poetics, he, he
defined six primary factors of any speech event,defined six primary factors of any speech event,
namely:namely:
speaker, addressee, context, message, code,speaker, addressee, context, message, code,
contact.contact.
In conjunction with these, JakobsonIn conjunction with these, Jakobson
established a wellestablished a well--known framework ofknown framework of
language functions based on the six keylanguage functions based on the six keyelements of communication, namely:elements of communication, namely:
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referentialreferential (to convey message and(to convey message andinformation),information),
poeticpoetic (to indulge in language for its own(to indulge in language for its ownsake),sake),
emotiveemotive (to express attitudes, feelings and(to express attitudes, feelings and
emotions),emotions), conativeconative (to persuade and influence others(to persuade and influence others
through commands and requests),through commands and requests),
phaticphatic (to establish communion with others)(to establish communion with others)
metalingualmetalingual (to clear up intentions and(to clear up intentions andmeanings).meanings).
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They correspond to such communicationThey correspond to such communication
elements aselements as contextcontext,, messagemessage,, addresseraddresser,, addresseeaddressee,,contactcontactandand codecoderespectively.respectively.
Jakobson's views of the functions ofJakobson's views of the functions of
language are still of great importance.language are still of great importance.
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Halliday proposes a theory ofHalliday proposes a theory of
metafunctions of language,metafunctions of language,that is, language hasthat is, language has ideationalideational,,
interpersonalinterpersonalandand textualtextualfunctions.functions.
IdeationalIdeational function constructs a model offunction constructs a model ofexperience as well as logical relations,experience as well as logical relations,interpersonalinterpersonal function enacts socialfunction enacts socialrelationships andrelationships and textualtextual function createsfunction createsrelevance to context.relevance to context.
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In his earlier works, Halliday proposedIn his earlier works, Halliday proposed
seven categories of language functions byseven categories of language functions by
observing child language development:observing child language development:
InstrumentalInstrumental
RegulatoryRegulatory
RepresentationalRepresentational
InteractionalInteractional
PersonalPersonal
HeuristicHeuristic ImaginativeImaginative
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Still other classifications employ differentStill other classifications employ different
categories and use different terms, but allcategories and use different terms, but allshare a lot in common about the basicshare a lot in common about the basic
functions of language.functions of language.
Below is a summary of the major functions ofBelow is a summary of the major functions oflanguage.language.
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5.1 Informative5.1 Informative functionfunction
Language is the instrument of thought andLanguage is the instrument of thought and
people often feel need to speak theirpeople often feel need to speak their
thoughts aloud.The use of language tothoughts aloud.The use of language to
record the facts is a prerequisite of socialrecord the facts is a prerequisite of social
development.Thedevelopment.The informativeinformative function isfunction is
indeed a crucial function of language.indeed a crucial function of language.
It is also calledIt is also called ideationalideational function in thefunction in theframework of functional grammar.framework of functional grammar.
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Halliday notes thatHalliday notes that
Language serves for the expression ofLanguage serves for the expression of
contentcontent
::
that is, of the speaker's experience of the realthat is, of the speaker's experience of the real
world, including the inner world of his ownworld, including the inner world of his own
consciousness.... In serving this function,consciousness.... In serving this function,
language also gives structure to experience, andlanguage also gives structure to experience, andhelps to determine our way of looking at things,helps to determine our way of looking at things,
so that it requires some intellectual effort to seeso that it requires some intellectual effort to see
them in any other way than that which ourthem in any other way than that which our
language suggests to uslanguage suggests to us
..
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5.2 Interpersonal function5.2 Interpersonal function
By far the most important sociological use ofBy far the most important sociological use of
language, and by which people establish andlanguage, and by which people establish and
maintain their status in a society.maintain their status in a society.
In the framework of functional grammar, theIn the framework of functional grammar, the
interpersonalinterpersonal function is concerned withfunction is concerned with
interaction between the addresser andinteraction between the addresser and
addressee in the discourse situation and theaddressee in the discourse situation and theaddresser's attitude toward what he speaksaddresser's attitude toward what he speaks
or writes about.or writes about.
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For example, the ways inFor example, the ways inwhich people addresswhich people address
others and refer toothers and refer to
themselves (e.g.themselves (e.g.Dear Sir,Dear Sir,
Dear Professor, Johnny, yours,Dear Professor, Johnny, yours,your obedient servantyour obedient servant))
indicate the variousindicate the various
grades of interpersonalgrades of interpersonalrelations.relations.
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Attached to the interpersonal function is itsAttached to the interpersonal function is itsfunction of expressing identity. For example,function of expressing identity. For example, the chanting of a crowd at a football match,the chanting of a crowd at a football match,
the shouting of names or slogans at publicthe shouting of names or slogans at publicmeetings,meetings,
the stagethe stage--managed audience reactions toT
Vmanaged audience reactions toT
Vgame showsgame shows
They all signal who we are and where we belong.They all signal who we are and where we belong.
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Language marks ourLanguage marks our
identity, physically in termsidentity, physically in termsof age, sex, and voiceprints;of age, sex, and voiceprints;
psychologically in terms ofpsychologically in terms of
language, personality andlanguage, personality and
intelligence; geographicallyintelligence; geographically
in terms of accents andin terms of accents and
dialects; ethnically anddialects; ethnically and
socially in terms of socialsocially in terms of socialstratification, class, status,stratification, class, status,
role, solidarity and distance.role, solidarity and distance.
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The interpersonal function is such a broadThe interpersonal function is such a broad
category that it is often discussed undercategory that it is often discussed under
various other terms as in the followingvarious other terms as in the following
performative, emotive, expressive and phaticperformative, emotive, expressive and phatic
functions of language.They seem tofunctions of language.They seem to
emphasize different aspects of theemphasize different aspects of theinterpersonal function.interpersonal function.
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5.3 Performative function5.3 Performative function
This concept originates from theThis concept originates from the
philosophical study of language representedphilosophical study of language represented
by Austin and Searle, whose theory nowby Austin and Searle, whose theory now
forms the backforms the back--bone of pragmatics (Chapterbone of pragmatics (Chapter
8). For example,8). For example,
I now declare the meeting open.I now declare the meeting open.
I bet you two pounds it will rain tomorrow.I bet you two pounds it will rain tomorrow.
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TheTheperformativeperformative function of language isfunction of language is
primarily to change the social status ofprimarily to change the social status ofpersons, as in marriage ceremonies, thepersons, as in marriage ceremonies, the
sentencing of criminals, the blessing ofsentencing of criminals, the blessing of
children, the naming of a ship at a launchingchildren, the naming of a ship at a launching
ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.
The kind of language employed in performativeThe kind of language employed in performative
verbal acts is usually quite formal and evenverbal acts is usually quite formal and even
ritualized.ritualized.
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For example, in Chinese whenFor example, in Chinese when
someone breaks a bowl or a platesomeone breaks a bowl or a plate
the host or the people present arethe host or the people present arelikely to saylikely to say as a meansas a meansof controlling the invisible forcesof controlling the invisible forces
which the believers feel mightwhich the believers feel might
affect their lives adversely.affect their lives adversely.
The performative function can extend to theThe performative function can extend to the
control of reality as on some magical orcontrol of reality as on some magical orreligious occasions.religious occasions.
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5.4Emotive function5.4Emotive function
TheThe emotiveemotive function of language is one offunction of language is one ofthe most powerful uses of language becausethe most powerful uses of language becauseit is crucial in changing the emotional statusit is crucial in changing the emotional statusof an audience for or against someone orof an audience for or against someone or
something.something. It is a means of getting rid of our nervousIt is a means of getting rid of our nervous
energy when we are under stress, e.g. swearenergy when we are under stress, e.g. swearwords, obscenities, involuntary verbalwords, obscenities, involuntary verbal
reactions to a piece of art or scenery;reactions to a piece of art or scenery;conventional words/phrases, e.g.conventional words/phrases, e.g. God, My, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh, Oh.God, My, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh, Oh.
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It is also discussed under the termIt is also discussed under the term
expressive function.The expressive functionexpressive function.The expressive functioncan often be entirely personal and totallycan often be entirely personal and totally
without any implication of communicationwithout any implication of communication
to others.to others. For example, a man may sayFor example, a man may say Ouch!Ouch!after strikingafter striking
a fingernail with a hammer, or he may muttera fingernail with a hammer, or he may mutter
DamnDamnwhen realizing that he has forgotten anwhen realizing that he has forgotten an
appointment.appointment.
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Exclamations such asExclamations such as Man!Oh boy!Man!Oh boy!andand Hurrah!Hurrah!
are usually uttered without any purpose ofare usually uttered without any purpose ofcommunicating to others, but as essentiallycommunicating to others, but as essentially
a verbal response to a person's own feelings.a verbal response to a person's own feelings.
Such expressive utterances can also be aSuch expressive utterances can also be acommunal response of a group of people whocommunal response of a group of people who
reinforce one another's expressive use ofreinforce one another's expressive use of
language to show their solidarity.language to show their solidarity.
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5.5 Phatic communion5.5 Phatic communion
Phatic communion refers to thePhatic communion refers to thesocial interaction of language,social interaction of language,
originating from Malinowski'soriginating from Malinowski's
study of the functions of languagestudy of the functions of languageperformed by Trobriand Islanders.performed by Trobriand Islanders.
For example,For example,
M
rs. P sneezes violently.M
rs. P sneezes violently. Mrs. Q:Mrs. Q: Bless you.Bless you.
Mrs. P:Mrs. P:Thank you.Thank you.
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We all use such small, seeminglyWe all use such small, seemingly
meaningless expressions to maintain ameaningless expressions to maintain acomfortable relationship between peoplecomfortable relationship between people
without involving any factual content.without involving any factual content.
Ritual exchanges about health or weather suchRitual exchanges about health or weather suchasas Good morning, God bless you, Nice dayGood morning, God bless you, Nice dayoften stateoften state
the obvious. Yet they indicate that a channel ofthe obvious. Yet they indicate that a channel of
communication is open if it should be needed.communication is open if it should be needed.
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Different cultures have differentDifferent cultures have different
topics of phatic communion.topics of phatic communion. According to David Crystal, theAccording to David Crystal, the
weather is not a universalweather is not a universal
conversation filler as the Englishconversation filler as the English
might like to think.might like to think.
Rundi women (in Burundi, CentralRundi women (in Burundi, Central
Africa), upon taking leave, routinelyAfrica), upon taking leave, routinely
and politely sayand politely say I must go homeI must go home
now, or my husband will beat me.now, or my husband will beat me.
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Broadly speaking, this function refers toBroadly speaking, this function refers to
expressions that help define and maintainexpressions that help define and maintaininterpersonal relations, such as slang, jokes,interpersonal relations, such as slang, jokes,
jargons, ritualistic exchanges, switches tojargons, ritualistic exchanges, switches to
social and regional dialects.social and regional dialects.We have to learn a large repertoire of suchWe have to learn a large repertoire of such
usages if we are to interact comfortably withusages if we are to interact comfortably with
different people.different people.
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5.6 Recreational function5.6 Recreational function
TheThe recreationalrecreational function of a language isfunction of a language is
often overlooked because it seems sooften overlooked because it seems so
restrictive in purpose and supposedly sorestrictive in purpose and supposedly so
limited in usefulness.limited in usefulness. However, no one will deny the use ofHowever, no one will deny the use of
language for the sheer joy of using it, suchlanguage for the sheer joy of using it, such
as a baby's babbling or a chanter's chanting.as a baby's babbling or a chanter's chanting.
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In the Latin and Islamic worlds asIn the Latin and Islamic worlds as
well as in some areas of China,well as in some areas of China,there is widespread use of verbalthere is widespread use of verbaldueling, in which one singer beginsdueling, in which one singer beginsa song of usually few lines anda song of usually few lines and
challenges his opponent to continuechallenges his opponent to continuethe content or provide a rejoinder inthe content or provide a rejoinder ina similar rhythm and rhyme scheme.a similar rhythm and rhyme scheme. Such verbal duels may last for a fewSuch verbal duels may last for a few
hours and is performed for the sheerhours and is performed for the sheerjoy of playing on language.joy of playing on language.
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To take one example, the wellTo take one example, the well--known movieknown movie
features a scene offeatures a scene of(song dueling) mostly for the(song dueling) mostly for the
sheer joy of playing onsheer joy of playing onlanguage.language.
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If you observe a childrenIf you observe a childrens play, you will finds play, you will find
the power of sound. Sometimes eventhe power of sound. Sometimes even
nonsensical lyrics perform a recreationalnonsensical lyrics perform a recreationalfunction in the game:function in the game:
the repetitive rhythms help to control the game,the repetitive rhythms help to control the game,
and the children plainly take great delight in it.and the children plainly take great delight in it.Adults also have their way to appreciateAdults also have their way to appreciate
language for its own sake.language for its own sake.
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For instance, poetry writing gives them theFor instance, poetry writing gives them the
pleasure of using language for its sheerpleasure of using language for its sheer
beauty.beauty.
Very close here to Jakobson's poetic function.Very close here to Jakobson's poetic function.
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5.7Metalingual function5.7Metalingual function
Our language can be used to talk about itself.Our language can be used to talk about itself.
To organize any written text into a coherentTo organize any written text into a coherent
whole, writers employ certain expressions towhole, writers employ certain expressions to
keep their readers informed about wherekeep their readers informed about where
they are and where they are going.they are and where they are going.
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For instance, instead ofFor instance, instead of
sayingsaying The lion chased the unicornThe lion chased the unicorn
all round the town,all round the town,
they saythey say All around the town the lionAll around the town the lion
chased the unicorn.chased the unicorn.
Aunicorn
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This is theThis is the metalingualmetalingual function of languagefunction of language
and meshes with theand meshes with the thematicthematic function offunction oflanguage in functional grammar.language in functional grammar.
It makes the language infinitely selfIt makes the language infinitely self--reflexive:reflexive:
We human beings can talk about talk and thinkWe human beings can talk about talk and think
about thinking, and thus only humans can askabout thinking, and thus only humans can ask
what it means to communicate, to think, to bewhat it means to communicate, to think, to be
human.human.
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6. What is Linguistics?6. What is Linguistics?
The scientific study of human languageThe scientific study of human language
Aims of linguistic theory:Aims of linguistic theory:
What is knowledge of language? (What is knowledge of language? (CompetenceCompetence))
How is knowledge of language acquired?How is knowledge of language acquired?((AcquisitionAcquisition))
How is knowledge of language put to use?How is knowledge of language put to use?
((PerformancePerformance//languagelanguage processingprocessing))
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AAgrammargrammar includes everything one knowsincludes everything one knows
about the structure of oneabout the structure of ones language:s language:
Phonetics and PhonologyPhonetics and Phonology (the sounds and the(the sounds and the
sound system or patterns)sound system or patterns)
LexiconLexicon (the words or vocabulary in the mental(the words or vocabulary in the mental
dictionary)dictionary) MorphologyMorphology (the structure of words)(the structure of words)
SyntaxSyntax (the structure of phrases and sentences and(the structure of phrases and sentences and
the constraints on wellthe constraints on well--formedness of sentences)formedness of sentences)
SemanticsSemantics (the meaning of words and sentences)(the meaning of words and sentences)
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7.Main branches of linguistics7.Main branches of linguistics
PhoneticsPhonetics
PhonologyPhonology
MorphologyMorphology SyntaxSyntax
SemanticsSemantics
PragmaticsPragmatics
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7.1 Phonetics7.1 Phonetics
PhoneticsPhonetics studies speech sounds, includingstudies speech sounds, including
the production of speech, that is how speechthe production of speech, that is how speech
sounds are actually made, transmitted andsounds are actually made, transmitted and
received, the description and classificationreceived, the description and classificationof speech sounds, words and connectedof speech sounds, words and connected
speech, etc.speech, etc.
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We can approach it on various levels.We can approach it on various levels.
At one level, speech is a matter of anatomy andAt one level, speech is a matter of anatomy andphysiology. We can study organs such asphysiology. We can study organs such as
tongue and larynx and their functions in thetongue and larynx and their functions in the
production of speech.production of speech.
At another level, we can focus on the speechAt another level, we can focus on the speech
sounds produced by these organs bysounds produced by these organs by
identifying and classifying the individualidentifying and classifying the individual
sounds.This is the domain ofsounds.This is the domain ofarticulatoryarticulatory
phoneticsphonetics..
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We can also investigate the properties of theWe can also investigate the properties of thesound wavessound waves acoustic phoneticsacoustic phonetics..
As speech is intended to be heard orAs speech is intended to be heard or
perceived, it is therefore possible to focus onperceived, it is therefore possible to focus on
the way in which a listener analyses orthe way in which a listener analyses or
processes a sound waveprocesses a sound wave auditoryauditoryphoneticsphonetics..
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7.2 Phonology7.2 Phonology
PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing thestudies the rules governing the
structure, distribution, and sequencing ofstructure, distribution, and sequencing of
speech sounds and the shape of syllables. Itspeech sounds and the shape of syllables. It
deals with the sound system of a languagedeals with the sound system of a languageby treating phoneme as the point ofby treating phoneme as the point of
departure.departure.
AAphonemephoneme is the smallest linguistic unit ofis the smallest linguistic unit ofsound that can signal a difference in meaning.sound that can signal a difference in meaning.
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7.3Morphology7.3Morphology
MorphologyMorphology is concerned with the internalis concerned with the internal
organization of words. It studies theorganization of words. It studies the
minimal units of meaningminimal units of meaningmorphemesmorphemes
and wordand word--formation processes.formation processes. Although many people think of words as theAlthough many people think of words as the
basic meaningful elements of a languagebasic meaningful elements of a language
many words can be broken down into stillmany words can be broken down into stillsmaller units, calledsmaller units, called morphemesmorphemes..
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Morphemes serve different purposes. SomeMorphemes serve different purposes. Some
derive new words by changing the meaningderive new words by changing the meaningor the part of speech, others only refine andor the part of speech, others only refine and
give extra grammatical information aboutgive extra grammatical information about
the already existing meaning of a word.the already existing meaning of a word.
As morphemes are pairings of sounds withAs morphemes are pairings of sounds with
meanings, there are many complexities involved,meanings, there are many complexities involved,
forming a new field by the nameforming a new field by the name
morphophonologymorphophonology..
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7.4 Syntax7.4 Syntax
SyntaxSyntax is about principles of forming andis about principles of forming and
understanding correct sentences.understanding correct sentences.
The form or structure of a sentence is governedThe form or structure of a sentence is governed
by the rules of syntax, which specify word order,by the rules of syntax, which specify word order,sentence organization, and the relationshipssentence organization, and the relationships
between words, word classes and other sentencebetween words, word classes and other sentence
elements.elements.
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We know that words are organized intoWe know that words are organized into
structures more than just word order.structures more than just word order.
The children watched [the firework from theThe children watched [the firework from the
hill ].hill ].
The children watched [the firework ] [from theThe children watched [the firework ] [from thehill ].hill ].
The chicken is too hot to eat.The chicken is too hot to eat.
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7.5 Semantics7.5 Semantics
SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning isexamines how meaning is
encoded in a language.encoded in a language.
It is not only concerned with meanings of wordsIt is not only concerned with meanings of words
as lexical items, but also with levels of languageas lexical items, but also with levels of languagebelow the word and above it, e.g. meaning ofbelow the word and above it, e.g. meaning of
morphemes and sentences.morphemes and sentences.
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The following are what the key conceptsThe following are what the key concepts
look like:look like: semantic componentssemantic components
denotation of wordsdenotation of words
sense relationssense relations between words such asbetween words such asantonymyantonymy andand synonymysynonymy
sense relationssense relations between sentences such asbetween sentences such as
entailmententailment andandpresuppositionpresupposition and others.and others.
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7.6 Pragmatics7.6 Pragmatics
PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning inis the study of meaning incontext. It deals with particular utterances incontext. It deals with particular utterances in
particular situations and is especiallyparticular situations and is especiallyconcerned with the various ways in whichconcerned with the various ways in which
the many social contexts of languagethe many social contexts of languageperformance can influence interpretation.performance can influence interpretation. In other words, pragmatics is concerned withIn other words, pragmatics is concerned with
the way language is used to communicate ratherthe way language is used to communicate ratherthan with the way language is internallythan with the way language is internallystructured.structured.
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It regards speech performance as primarily aIt regards speech performance as primarily a
social act ruled by various socialsocial act ruled by various socialconventions.conventions.
Some key concepts such asSome key concepts such as referencereference,, forceforce,,
effecteffect, and, and cooperative principlescooperative principles maymayappear commonsensical, yet pragmatics isappear commonsensical, yet pragmatics is
just about one of the most promising fieldsjust about one of the most promising fields
of linguistic studies.of linguistic studies.
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Take conversation for example.Take conversation for example.
Since language is transmitted primarily via theSince language is transmitted primarily via thespeech mode, pragmatic rules govern a numberspeech mode, pragmatic rules govern a number
of conversational interactions, such asof conversational interactions, such as
sequential organizationsequential organization,, repair of errorsrepair of errors,, rolerole
andand speech actsspeech acts.. Organization of conversations includes takingOrganization of conversations includes taking
turns, opening, maintaining and closing aturns, opening, maintaining and closing a
conversation, establishing and maintaining aconversation, establishing and maintaining a
topic etc.topic etc.
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8.Macrolinguistics8.Macrolinguistics
Linguistics is not the only field concernedLinguistics is not the only field concerned
with language.with language.
Other disciplines such as psychology,Other disciplines such as psychology,
sociology, ethnography, the science of lawsociology, ethnography, the science of law
and artificial intelligence etc. are alsoand artificial intelligence etc. are also
preoccupied with language.preoccupied with language.
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Although Saussure's goal was to establishAlthough Saussure's goal was to establish
the autonomy of linguistics, giving it a wellthe autonomy of linguistics, giving it a well--defined subject of study and freeing it fromdefined subject of study and freeing it from
reliance on other disciplines, with its comingreliance on other disciplines, with its coming
of age linguistics is developing interactiveof age linguistics is developing interactive
links with other sciences.links with other sciences.
The central goal of describing the underlyingThe central goal of describing the underlying
system remains: this is the province of general,system remains: this is the province of general,
descriptive linguistics.descriptive linguistics.
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But since language has both individual andBut since language has both individual and
social aspects, it is naturally of interest tosocial aspects, it is naturally of interest topsychologists and sociologists among others.psychologists and sociologists among others.
Therefore it is not surprising that we have someTherefore it is not surprising that we have some
branches ofbranches ofmacrolinguisticsmacrolinguistics that show anthat show aninterdisciplinary nature from their very names:interdisciplinary nature from their very names:
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8.1 Psycholinguistics8.1 Psycholinguistics
PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates theinvestigates theinterrelation of language and mind, forinterrelation of language and mind, for
example, in processing and producingexample, in processing and producing
utterances and in language acquisition.utterances and in language acquisition. It also studies language development in theIt also studies language development in the
child, such as the theories of languagechild, such as the theories of language
acquisition, biological foundations of language,acquisition, biological foundations of language,
and a profound aspectand a profound aspect
the relationshipthe relationshipbetween language and cognition.between language and cognition.
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8.3Anthropological linguistics8.3Anthropological linguistics
AnthropologyAnthropology and linguistics became closelyand linguistics became closelyassociated in the early days ofassociated in the early days of
anthropological fieldwork whenanthropological fieldwork when
anthropologists enlisted the help of linguistsanthropologists enlisted the help of linguiststo study unwritten languages.to study unwritten languages.
In contrast with other linguists, then,In contrast with other linguists, then,
anthropological linguists are interestedanthropological linguists are interested
primarily in the history and structure of formerlyprimarily in the history and structure of formerlyunwritten languages.unwritten languages.
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Because an unwritten language must beBecause an unwritten language must be
heard in order to be studied, it does notheard in order to be studied, it does notleave any traces once its speakers died off.leave any traces once its speakers died off.
Anthropological linguists must begin in theAnthropological linguists must begin in the
present, with comparisons of contemporarypresent, with comparisons of contemporary
languages.languages.
Then they may draw inferences about the kindsThen they may draw inferences about the kinds
of change in language that may have occurredof change in language that may have occurred
in the past and that may account for similaritiesin the past and that may account for similaritiesand differences observed in the present.and differences observed in the present.
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8.4 Computational linguistics8.4 Computational linguistics
Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics centers aroundcenters aroundthe use of computers to process or producethe use of computers to process or produce
human language (also known ashuman language (also known as naturalnatural
languagelanguage
, to distinguish it from computer, to distinguish it from computerlanguages).languages).
To this field, linguistics contributes anTo this field, linguistics contributes an
understanding of the special properties ofunderstanding of the special properties of
language data, and provides theories andlanguage data, and provides theories anddescriptions of language structure and use.descriptions of language structure and use.
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Some current application areas includeSome current application areas includetranslating from one language to anothertranslating from one language to another
((Machine TranslationMachine Translation), storing and finding), storing and finding
relevant documents in large collections ofrelevant documents in large collections of
text (text (Corpus LinguisticsCorpus Linguistics andand InformationInformationRetrievalRetrieval), and carrying out various forms of), and carrying out various forms of
computer mediated communicationcomputer mediated communication..
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9. Important distinctions in linguistics9. Important distinctions in linguistics
Descriptive vs. prescriptiveDescriptive vs. prescriptive
Synchronic vs. diachronicSynchronic vs. diachronic
LangueLangue&&paroleparole Competence and performanceCompetence and performance
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9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptive9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptive
Don't say X.Don't say X.
People don't say X.People don't say X.
The first is aThe first is aprescriptiveprescriptive command, whilecommand, while
the second is athe second is a descriptivedescriptive statement.statement.
The distinction lies in prescribing how thingsThe distinction lies in prescribing how things
ought to be and describing how things are.ought to be and describing how things are.
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The reason why presentThe reason why present--day linguists are soday linguists are so
insistent about the distinction between theinsistent about the distinction between thetwo types of rules is simply that traditionaltwo types of rules is simply that traditional
grammar was very strongly normative ingrammar was very strongly normative in
character, e.g.character, e.g.You should never use a doubleYou should never use a double--negative;negative;
You should not split the infinitive; etc.You should not split the infinitive; etc.
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Humorous grammar rulesHumorous grammar rules
Never end a sentence with a preposition.Never end a sentence with a preposition.
And don't start a sentence with aAnd don't start a sentence with a
conjunction.conjunction.
It is wrong to ever split an infinitive.It is wrong to ever split an infinitive.
Avoid cliches like the plague. (They're oldAvoid cliches like the plague. (They're old
hat.)hat.)
Also, always avoid annoying alliteration.Also, always avoid annoying alliteration.
No sentence fragments.No sentence fragments.
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In the 18th century, all the main EuropeanIn the 18th century, all the main European
languages were studied prescriptively.languages were studied prescriptively. The grammarians tried to lay down rules for theThe grammarians tried to lay down rules for the
correct use of language and settle the disputescorrect use of language and settle the disputes
over usage once and for all.over usage once and for all.
Some usages were prescribed to be learned bySome usages were prescribed to be learned by
heart, followed accurately or avoided altogether.heart, followed accurately or avoided altogether.
It was a matter of black or white, right or wrong.It was a matter of black or white, right or wrong.
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These attitudes are still with us, thoughThese attitudes are still with us, though
people realize nowadays the facts of usagepeople realize nowadays the facts of usagecount more than the authoritycount more than the authority--mademade
standardsstandards..
The nature of linguistics as a scienceThe nature of linguistics as a sciencedetermines its preoccupation with descriptiondetermines its preoccupation with description
instead of prescription.instead of prescription.
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9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic
AAsynchronicsynchronic description takes a fixeddescription takes a fixed
instant (usually, but not necessarily, theinstant (usually, but not necessarily, the
present) as its point of observation.Mostpresent) as its point of observation.Most
grammars are of this kind.grammars are of this kind.
DiachronicDiachronic linguistics is the study of alinguistics is the study of a
language through the course of its history.language through the course of its history.
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9.39.3LangueLangue&&paroleparole
Saussure distinguished theSaussure distinguished the
linguistic competence of thelinguistic competence of the
speaker and the actualspeaker and the actual
phenomena or data ofphenomena or data oflinguistics (utterances) aslinguistics (utterances) as
languelangueandandparoleparole..
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WhileWhileparoleparoleconstitutes the immediatelyconstitutes the immediately
accessible data, the linguist's proper objectaccessible data, the linguist's proper objectis theis the languelangueof each community, the lexicon,of each community, the lexicon,
grammar, and phonology implanted in eachgrammar, and phonology implanted in each
individual by his upbringing in society andindividual by his upbringing in society andon the basis of which he speakson the basis of which he speaks
andand understands his language.understands his language.
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Chomsky points out that this distinction isChomsky points out that this distinction is
related to the languerelated to the langue--parole distinction ofparole distinction ofSaussure; but he does not accept the view ofSaussure; but he does not accept the view of
seeingseeing languelangueas a mere systematic inventoryas a mere systematic inventory
of items.of items.
Competence is closer to the famous GermanCompetence is closer to the famous Germanlinguist Humboldt's conception, that is, itlinguist Humboldt's conception, that is, it
should refer to theshould refer to the underlying competenceunderlying competence as aas a
system ofsystem ofgenerative processesgenerative processes..