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8/3/2019 01Chapter 1 Intro

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Chapter OneChapter One

Invitations toInvitations to

LinguisticsLinguistics


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1. Why Study Language?1. Why Study Language?


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1.1 Some myths about language1.1 Some myths about language

Language is only a means of communication.Language is only a means of communication.

Language has a formLanguage has a form--meaningmeaning

correspondence.correspondence.

The function of language is to exchangeThe function of language is to exchange

information.information.

English is more difficult to learn thanEnglish is more difficult to learn than

Chinese.Chinese.

BlackEnglish is not standard and should beBlackEnglish is not standard and should be

reformed.reformed.


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1.2 Some fundamental views about L1.2 Some fundamental views about L

Children learn their native language swiftly,Children learn their native language swiftly,

efficiently and without instruction.efficiently and without instruction.

Language operates by rules.Language operates by rules. All languages have three major components:All languages have three major components:

a sound system, a system of lexicogrammara sound system, a system of lexicogrammar

and a system of semantics.and a system of semantics.

Everyone speaks a dialect.Everyone speaks a dialect.

Language slowly changes.Language slowly changes.


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Speakers of all languages employ a range ofSpeakers of all languages employ a range of

styles and a set of jargons.styles and a set of jargons. Languages are intimately related to theLanguages are intimately related to the

societies and individuals who use them.societies and individuals who use them.

Writing is derivative of speech.Writing is derivative of speech.


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2. What is Language?2. What is Language?

LanguageLanguage is not to be confused withis not to be confused withhuman speech, of which it is only ahuman speech, of which it is only a

definite part, though certainly an essentialdefinite part, though certainly an essential

one. It is both a social product of theone. It is both a social product of thefaculty of speech and a collection offaculty of speech and a collection of

necessary conventions that have beennecessary conventions that have been

adopted by a social body to permitadopted by a social body to permit

individuals to exercise that facultyindividuals to exercise that faculty..

----Ferdinand de Saussure (1857Ferdinand de Saussure (1857--1913):1913): CourseCourse

in General Linguisticsin General Linguistics(1916)(1916)


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Language is a purely human andLanguage is a purely human and

nonnon--instinctive method ofinstinctive method of

communicating ideas, emotionscommunicating ideas, emotions

and desires by means of voluntarilyand desires by means of voluntarily

produced symbols.produced symbols.

----Edward Sapir (1884Edward Sapir (1884--1939):1939):

Language: An Introduction to theLanguage: An Introduction to the

Study of SpeechStudy of Speech(1921)(1921)


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Alanguage is a system of arbitrary vocalAlanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal

symbols by means of which a social group cosymbols by means of which a social group co--

operates.operates.

----Bernard Bloch (1907Bernard Bloch (1907--1965)1965) & George Trager& George Trager

(1906(1906--1992):1992): Outline of Linguistic AnalysisOutline of Linguistic Analysis(1942)(1942)

Alanguage is a system of arbitrary vocalAlanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal

symbols by means of which the members of asymbols by means of which the members of a

society interact in terms of their total culture.society interact in terms of their total culture.

----GeorgeTrager:GeorgeTrager: The Field of LinguisticsThe Field of Linguistics(1949)(1949)


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From now on I willFrom now on I willconsider language to be aconsider language to be a

set (finite or infinite) ofset (finite or infinite) of

sentences, each finite insentences, each finite inlength and constructed outlength and constructed out

of a finite set of elements.of a finite set of elements.

----Noam Chomsky (1928Noam Chomsky (1928-- ):):

Syntactic StructuresSyntactic Structures(1957)(1957)


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Language isLanguage is the institution whereby humansthe institution whereby humanscommunicate and interact with each other bycommunicate and interact with each other by

means of habitually used oralmeans of habitually used oral--auditory arbitraryauditory arbitrarysymbols.symbols.

----RobertA. Hall (1911RobertA. Hall (1911--1997):1997): Introductory LinguisticsIntroductory Linguistics

(1964)(1964)

Language is a system of arbitrary vocalLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocalsymbols used for human communication.symbols used for human communication.

----Ronald Wardhaugh:Ronald Wardhaugh: Introduction to LinguisticsIntroduction to Linguistics(1977)(1977)


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... in a sense all definitions... in a sense all definitions

[of language] are, by[of language] are, by

themselves, inadequate, since,themselves, inadequate, since,

if they are to be more thanif they are to be more than

trivial and uninformative,trivial and uninformative,

they must presuppose ...they must presuppose ...some general theory ofsome general theory of

language and of linguisticlanguage and of linguistic

analysis.analysis.

----R. H. Robins (1921R. H. Robins (1921--2000):2000):

General LinguisticsGeneral Linguistics(1989)(1989)


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Language is a form of humanLanguage is a form of humancommunication by means of acommunication by means of a

system of symbols principallysystem of symbols principally

transmitted by vocal sounds.transmitted by vocal sounds.

----Stuart C. Poole:Stuart C. Poole:An IntroductionAn Introduction

to Linguisticsto Linguistics(1999)(1999)


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Language is a means of verbalLanguage is a means of verbalcommunication.communication. It is instrumental in that communicatingIt is instrumental in that communicating

by speaking or writing is a purposeful act.by speaking or writing is a purposeful act.

It is social and conventional in thatIt is social and conventional in thatlanguage is a social semiotic andlanguage is a social semiotic andcommunication can only take placecommunication can only take placeeffectively if all the users share a broadeffectively if all the users share a broadunderstanding of human interactionunderstanding of human interactionincluding such associated factors asincluding such associated factors as

nonverbal cues, motivation, and sociononverbal cues, motivation, and socio--cultural roles.cultural roles.

---- Our textbook (2006)Our textbook (2006)


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3. Design Features of Language3. Design Features of Language

Language distinguishes human beings fromLanguage distinguishes human beings from

animals in that it is far more sophisticatedanimals in that it is far more sophisticated

than any animal communication system.than any animal communication system.


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Human language isHuman language is uniqueunique

ArbitrarinessArbitrariness

DualityDuality

CreativityCreativity

DisplacementDisplacement


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3.1Arbitrarines3.1Arbitrarines

Saussure: the forms of linguistic signs bearSaussure: the forms of linguistic signs bear

no natural relationship to their meaningno natural relationship to their meaning

Arbitrary relationship between the sound ofArbitrary relationship between the sound of

a morpheme and its meaning, even witha morpheme and its meaning, even withonomatopoeic words:onomatopoeic words:

The dog barksThe dog barks wowwowwowwow in English butin English but

in Chinese.in Chinese.


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Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: languageArbitrariness at the syntactic level: language

is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.is not arbitrary at the syntactic level. He came in and sat down.He came in and sat down.

He sat down and came in.He sat down and came in.

He sat down after he came in.He sat down after he came in.

The link between a linguistic sign and itsThe link between a linguistic sign and its

meaning is a matter of convention.meaning is a matter of convention.


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3.2 Duality3.2 Duality

The property of having two levels ofThe property of having two levels of

structures, such that units of the primarystructures, such that units of the primary

level are composed of elements of thelevel are composed of elements of the

secondary level and each of the two levelssecondary level and each of the two levels

has its own principles of organization:has its own principles of organization:

Primary unitsPrimary units wordswords (meaningful) consist of(meaningful) consist of

secondary unitssecondary units soundssounds (meaningless).(meaningless).


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Hierarchy of language: stratification asHierarchy of language: stratification as thethe

infinite use of finite meansinfinite use of finite means..

Sounds > syllables > morphemes > wordsSounds > syllables > morphemes > words> phrases > clauses >> phrases > clauses >

sentences/utterances > texts/discoursessentences/utterances > texts/discourses


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3.3 Creativity3.3 Creativity

Language is resourceful because of itsLanguage is resourceful because of its

duality and its recursiveness. We can use itduality and its recursiveness. We can use it

to create new meanings.to create new meanings.

Words can be used in new ways to meanWords can be used in new ways to mean

new things, and can be instantly understoodnew things, and can be instantly understood

by people who have never come across thatby people who have never come across that

usage before.usage before.


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Birds, bees, crabs, spiders, and most otherBirds, bees, crabs, spiders, and most other

creatures communicate in some way, but thecreatures communicate in some way, but the

information imparted is severely limited andinformation imparted is severely limited and

confined to a small set of messages.confined to a small set of messages.

Because of duality the human speaker isBecause of duality the human speaker isable to combine the basic linguistic units toable to combine the basic linguistic units to

form an infinite set of sentences, most ofform an infinite set of sentences, most of

which are never before produced or heard.which are never before produced or heard.


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3.4 Displacement3.4 Displacement

Human languages enable their usersHuman languages enable their usersto symbolize objects, events andto symbolize objects, events and

concepts which are not present (inconcepts which are not present (in

time and space) at the moment oftime and space) at the moment ofcommunication.communication.

Thus, we can refer to Confucius, or theThus, we can refer to Confucius, or the

North Pole, even though the first hasNorth Pole, even though the first has

been dead for over 2550 years and thebeen dead for over 2550 years and thesecond is situated far away from us.second is situated far away from us.


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Animal communication isAnimal communication is

normally undernormally under immediateimmediatestimulus controlstimulus control. For instance,. For instance,

a warning cry of a bird instantlya warning cry of a bird instantly

announces danger.announces danger. Human language isHuman language is stimulusstimulus--

free. What we are talking aboutfree. What we are talking about

need not be triggered by anyneed not be triggered by any

external stimulus in the worldexternal stimulus in the world

or any internal state.or any internal state.


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The honeybee's dance exhibitsThe honeybee's dance exhibits

displacement a little bit: he can refer to adisplacement a little bit: he can refer to a

source of food, which is remote in time andsource of food, which is remote in time and

space when he reports on it.space when he reports on it.

Adog cannot tell people that its master willAdog cannot tell people that its master willbe home in a few days.be home in a few days.

Our language enables us to communicateOur language enables us to communicate

about things that do not exist or do not yetabout things that do not exist or do not yetexist.exist.


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Displacement benefits humanDisplacement benefits humanbeings by giving us the power tobeings by giving us the power tohandle generalizations andhandle generalizations andabstractions. Once we can talkabstractions. Once we can talk

about physically distant thing,about physically distant thing,we acquire the ability towe acquire the ability tounderstand concepts whichunderstand concepts whichdenotedenote nonnon--thingsthings, such as, such as

truth and beauty.truth and beauty.


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4. Origin of language4. Origin of language

TheThe DivineDivine origin:origin:

In the beginning was theIn the beginning was theWord, and the Word was withWord, and the Word was with

God, and the Word was God.God, and the Word was God.

(Gospel, John 1: 1)(Gospel, John 1: 1)


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And the Lord said, Behold, the people is one, andAnd the Lord said, Behold, the people is one, andthey have all one language; and this they begin tothey have all one language; and this they begin to

do; and now nothing will be restrained from them,do; and now nothing will be restrained from them,which they have imagined to do.which they have imagined to do. (Genesis, 11: 6)(Genesis, 11: 6)


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4.1The4.1The bowbow--wowwow theorytheory

In primitive times people imitated theIn primitive times people imitated the

sounds of the animal calls in the wildsounds of the animal calls in the wild

environment they lived and speechenvironment they lived and speech

developed from that.developed from that. OnomatopoeicOnomatopoeicwords seem to be a convenientwords seem to be a convenient

evidence for this theory.But they are veryevidence for this theory.But they are very

different in the degree of resemblance theydifferent in the degree of resemblance theyexpress with the natural sounds.express with the natural sounds.

This theory lacks supportive evidence.This theory lacks supportive evidence.


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4.2The4.2The poohpooh--poohpooh theorytheory

In the hard life of our primitive ancestors,In the hard life of our primitive ancestors,

they utter instinctive sounds of pain, angerthey utter instinctive sounds of pain, anger

and joy.As for evidence, we can only cite theand joy.As for evidence, we can only cite the

universal use of sounds as interjections.universal use of sounds as interjections.What makes the theory problematic is that thereWhat makes the theory problematic is that there

is only a limited number of interjections inis only a limited number of interjections in

almost all languages.almost all languages.

Besides, interjections such asBesides, interjections such as Oh, Ah, OopsOh, Ah, Oopsbearbear

little relationship with the sound system of alittle relationship with the sound system of a

language and therefore are not good evidence.language and therefore are not good evidence.


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4.3The4.3The yoyo--hehe--hoho theorytheory

As primitive people workedAs primitive people workedtogether, they produced sometogether, they produced somerhythmic grunts whichrhythmic grunts whichgradually developed intogradually developed intochants and then into language.chants and then into language.

We do have prosodic use ofWe do have prosodic use ofrhythms in languages, butrhythms in languages, butrhythmic grunts are far differentrhythmic grunts are far differentfrom language in its presentfrom language in its presentsense.The theory is again atsense.The theory is again atmost a speculation.most a speculation.


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The byThe by--now fruitless search for the origin ofnow fruitless search for the origin of

languages reflects people's concern with thelanguages reflects people's concern with theorigin of humanity and may come up withorigin of humanity and may come up with

enlightening findings in future.enlightening findings in future.

One thing we can say for certain is thatOne thing we can say for certain is thatlanguage evolves within specific historical,language evolves within specific historical,

social and cultural contexts.social and cultural contexts.


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5. Functions of language5. Functions of language

Linguists talk about the functions ofLinguists talk about the functions of

language in an abstract sense, that is, not inlanguage in an abstract sense, that is, not in

terms of using language to chat, to think, toterms of using language to chat, to think, to

buy and sell, to read and write, to greet,buy and sell, to read and write, to greet,

praise and condemn people, etc.praise and condemn people, etc.

They summarize these practical functionsThey summarize these practical functions

and attempt some broad classifications ofand attempt some broad classifications ofthe basic functions of language.the basic functions of language.


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For Jakobson, language isFor Jakobson, language is

above all for communication.above all for communication.While for many people, theWhile for many people, the

purpose of communication ispurpose of communication is

referential, for him (and thereferential, for him (and the

Prague school structuralists),Prague school structuralists),

reference is not the only, notreference is not the only, not

even the primary goal ofeven the primary goal of

communication.communication

.


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In his famous article,In his famous article, Linguistics and PoeticsLinguistics and Poetics, he, he

defined six primary factors of any speech event,defined six primary factors of any speech event,

namely:namely:

speaker, addressee, context, message, code,speaker, addressee, context, message, code,

contact.contact.

In conjunction with these, JakobsonIn conjunction with these, Jakobson

established a wellestablished a well--known framework ofknown framework of

language functions based on the six keylanguage functions based on the six keyelements of communication, namely:elements of communication, namely:


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referentialreferential (to convey message and(to convey message andinformation),information),

poeticpoetic (to indulge in language for its own(to indulge in language for its ownsake),sake),

emotiveemotive (to express attitudes, feelings and(to express attitudes, feelings and

emotions),emotions), conativeconative (to persuade and influence others(to persuade and influence others

through commands and requests),through commands and requests),

phaticphatic (to establish communion with others)(to establish communion with others)

metalingualmetalingual (to clear up intentions and(to clear up intentions andmeanings).meanings).


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They correspond to such communicationThey correspond to such communication

elements aselements as contextcontext,, messagemessage,, addresseraddresser,, addresseeaddressee,,contactcontactandand codecoderespectively.respectively.

Jakobson's views of the functions ofJakobson's views of the functions of

language are still of great importance.language are still of great importance.


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Halliday proposes a theory ofHalliday proposes a theory of

metafunctions of language,metafunctions of language,that is, language hasthat is, language has ideationalideational,,

interpersonalinterpersonalandand textualtextualfunctions.functions.

IdeationalIdeational function constructs a model offunction constructs a model ofexperience as well as logical relations,experience as well as logical relations,interpersonalinterpersonal function enacts socialfunction enacts socialrelationships andrelationships and textualtextual function createsfunction createsrelevance to context.relevance to context.


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In his earlier works, Halliday proposedIn his earlier works, Halliday proposed

seven categories of language functions byseven categories of language functions by

observing child language development:observing child language development:

InstrumentalInstrumental

RegulatoryRegulatory

RepresentationalRepresentational

InteractionalInteractional

PersonalPersonal

HeuristicHeuristic ImaginativeImaginative


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Still other classifications employ differentStill other classifications employ different

categories and use different terms, but allcategories and use different terms, but allshare a lot in common about the basicshare a lot in common about the basic

functions of language.functions of language.

Below is a summary of the major functions ofBelow is a summary of the major functions oflanguage.language.


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5.1 Informative5.1 Informative functionfunction

Language is the instrument of thought andLanguage is the instrument of thought and

people often feel need to speak theirpeople often feel need to speak their

thoughts aloud.The use of language tothoughts aloud.The use of language to

record the facts is a prerequisite of socialrecord the facts is a prerequisite of social

development.Thedevelopment.The informativeinformative function isfunction is

indeed a crucial function of language.indeed a crucial function of language.

It is also calledIt is also called ideationalideational function in thefunction in theframework of functional grammar.framework of functional grammar.


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Halliday notes thatHalliday notes that

Language serves for the expression ofLanguage serves for the expression of

contentcontent

::

that is, of the speaker's experience of the realthat is, of the speaker's experience of the real

world, including the inner world of his ownworld, including the inner world of his own

consciousness.... In serving this function,consciousness.... In serving this function,

language also gives structure to experience, andlanguage also gives structure to experience, andhelps to determine our way of looking at things,helps to determine our way of looking at things,

so that it requires some intellectual effort to seeso that it requires some intellectual effort to see

them in any other way than that which ourthem in any other way than that which our

language suggests to uslanguage suggests to us

..


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5.2 Interpersonal function5.2 Interpersonal function

By far the most important sociological use ofBy far the most important sociological use of

language, and by which people establish andlanguage, and by which people establish and

maintain their status in a society.maintain their status in a society.

In the framework of functional grammar, theIn the framework of functional grammar, the

interpersonalinterpersonal function is concerned withfunction is concerned with

interaction between the addresser andinteraction between the addresser and

addressee in the discourse situation and theaddressee in the discourse situation and theaddresser's attitude toward what he speaksaddresser's attitude toward what he speaks

or writes about.or writes about.


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For example, the ways inFor example, the ways inwhich people addresswhich people address

others and refer toothers and refer to

themselves (e.g.themselves (e.g.Dear Sir,Dear Sir,

Dear Professor, Johnny, yours,Dear Professor, Johnny, yours,your obedient servantyour obedient servant))

indicate the variousindicate the various

grades of interpersonalgrades of interpersonalrelations.relations.


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Attached to the interpersonal function is itsAttached to the interpersonal function is itsfunction of expressing identity. For example,function of expressing identity. For example, the chanting of a crowd at a football match,the chanting of a crowd at a football match,

the shouting of names or slogans at publicthe shouting of names or slogans at publicmeetings,meetings,

the stagethe stage--managed audience reactions toT

Vmanaged audience reactions toT

Vgame showsgame shows

They all signal who we are and where we belong.They all signal who we are and where we belong.


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Language marks ourLanguage marks our

identity, physically in termsidentity, physically in termsof age, sex, and voiceprints;of age, sex, and voiceprints;

psychologically in terms ofpsychologically in terms of

language, personality andlanguage, personality and

intelligence; geographicallyintelligence; geographically

in terms of accents andin terms of accents and

dialects; ethnically anddialects; ethnically and

socially in terms of socialsocially in terms of socialstratification, class, status,stratification, class, status,

role, solidarity and distance.role, solidarity and distance.


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The interpersonal function is such a broadThe interpersonal function is such a broad

category that it is often discussed undercategory that it is often discussed under

various other terms as in the followingvarious other terms as in the following

performative, emotive, expressive and phaticperformative, emotive, expressive and phatic

functions of language.They seem tofunctions of language.They seem to

emphasize different aspects of theemphasize different aspects of theinterpersonal function.interpersonal function.


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5.3 Performative function5.3 Performative function

This concept originates from theThis concept originates from the

philosophical study of language representedphilosophical study of language represented

by Austin and Searle, whose theory nowby Austin and Searle, whose theory now

forms the backforms the back--bone of pragmatics (Chapterbone of pragmatics (Chapter

8). For example,8). For example,

I now declare the meeting open.I now declare the meeting open.

I bet you two pounds it will rain tomorrow.I bet you two pounds it will rain tomorrow.


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TheTheperformativeperformative function of language isfunction of language is

primarily to change the social status ofprimarily to change the social status ofpersons, as in marriage ceremonies, thepersons, as in marriage ceremonies, the

sentencing of criminals, the blessing ofsentencing of criminals, the blessing of

children, the naming of a ship at a launchingchildren, the naming of a ship at a launching

ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.

The kind of language employed in performativeThe kind of language employed in performative

verbal acts is usually quite formal and evenverbal acts is usually quite formal and even

ritualized.ritualized.


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For example, in Chinese whenFor example, in Chinese when

someone breaks a bowl or a platesomeone breaks a bowl or a plate

the host or the people present arethe host or the people present arelikely to saylikely to say as a meansas a meansof controlling the invisible forcesof controlling the invisible forces

which the believers feel mightwhich the believers feel might

affect their lives adversely.affect their lives adversely.

The performative function can extend to theThe performative function can extend to the

control of reality as on some magical orcontrol of reality as on some magical orreligious occasions.religious occasions.


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5.4Emotive function5.4Emotive function

TheThe emotiveemotive function of language is one offunction of language is one ofthe most powerful uses of language becausethe most powerful uses of language becauseit is crucial in changing the emotional statusit is crucial in changing the emotional statusof an audience for or against someone orof an audience for or against someone or

something.something. It is a means of getting rid of our nervousIt is a means of getting rid of our nervous

energy when we are under stress, e.g. swearenergy when we are under stress, e.g. swearwords, obscenities, involuntary verbalwords, obscenities, involuntary verbal

reactions to a piece of art or scenery;reactions to a piece of art or scenery;conventional words/phrases, e.g.conventional words/phrases, e.g. God, My, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh, Oh.God, My, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh, Oh.


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It is also discussed under the termIt is also discussed under the term

expressive function.The expressive functionexpressive function.The expressive functioncan often be entirely personal and totallycan often be entirely personal and totally

without any implication of communicationwithout any implication of communication

to others.to others. For example, a man may sayFor example, a man may say Ouch!Ouch!after strikingafter striking

a fingernail with a hammer, or he may muttera fingernail with a hammer, or he may mutter

DamnDamnwhen realizing that he has forgotten anwhen realizing that he has forgotten an

appointment.appointment.


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Exclamations such asExclamations such as Man!Oh boy!Man!Oh boy!andand Hurrah!Hurrah!

are usually uttered without any purpose ofare usually uttered without any purpose ofcommunicating to others, but as essentiallycommunicating to others, but as essentially

a verbal response to a person's own feelings.a verbal response to a person's own feelings.

Such expressive utterances can also be aSuch expressive utterances can also be acommunal response of a group of people whocommunal response of a group of people who

reinforce one another's expressive use ofreinforce one another's expressive use of

language to show their solidarity.language to show their solidarity.


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5.5 Phatic communion5.5 Phatic communion

Phatic communion refers to thePhatic communion refers to thesocial interaction of language,social interaction of language,

originating from Malinowski'soriginating from Malinowski's

study of the functions of languagestudy of the functions of languageperformed by Trobriand Islanders.performed by Trobriand Islanders.

For example,For example,

M

rs. P sneezes violently.M

rs. P sneezes violently. Mrs. Q:Mrs. Q: Bless you.Bless you.

Mrs. P:Mrs. P:Thank you.Thank you.


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We all use such small, seeminglyWe all use such small, seemingly

meaningless expressions to maintain ameaningless expressions to maintain acomfortable relationship between peoplecomfortable relationship between people

without involving any factual content.without involving any factual content.

Ritual exchanges about health or weather suchRitual exchanges about health or weather suchasas Good morning, God bless you, Nice dayGood morning, God bless you, Nice dayoften stateoften state

the obvious. Yet they indicate that a channel ofthe obvious. Yet they indicate that a channel of

communication is open if it should be needed.communication is open if it should be needed.


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Different cultures have differentDifferent cultures have different

topics of phatic communion.topics of phatic communion. According to David Crystal, theAccording to David Crystal, the

weather is not a universalweather is not a universal

conversation filler as the Englishconversation filler as the English

might like to think.might like to think.

Rundi women (in Burundi, CentralRundi women (in Burundi, Central

Africa), upon taking leave, routinelyAfrica), upon taking leave, routinely

and politely sayand politely say I must go homeI must go home

now, or my husband will beat me.now, or my husband will beat me.


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Broadly speaking, this function refers toBroadly speaking, this function refers to

expressions that help define and maintainexpressions that help define and maintaininterpersonal relations, such as slang, jokes,interpersonal relations, such as slang, jokes,

jargons, ritualistic exchanges, switches tojargons, ritualistic exchanges, switches to

social and regional dialects.social and regional dialects.We have to learn a large repertoire of suchWe have to learn a large repertoire of such

usages if we are to interact comfortably withusages if we are to interact comfortably with

different people.different people.


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5.6 Recreational function5.6 Recreational function

TheThe recreationalrecreational function of a language isfunction of a language is

often overlooked because it seems sooften overlooked because it seems so

restrictive in purpose and supposedly sorestrictive in purpose and supposedly so

limited in usefulness.limited in usefulness. However, no one will deny the use ofHowever, no one will deny the use of

language for the sheer joy of using it, suchlanguage for the sheer joy of using it, such

as a baby's babbling or a chanter's chanting.as a baby's babbling or a chanter's chanting.


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In the Latin and Islamic worlds asIn the Latin and Islamic worlds as

well as in some areas of China,well as in some areas of China,there is widespread use of verbalthere is widespread use of verbaldueling, in which one singer beginsdueling, in which one singer beginsa song of usually few lines anda song of usually few lines and

challenges his opponent to continuechallenges his opponent to continuethe content or provide a rejoinder inthe content or provide a rejoinder ina similar rhythm and rhyme scheme.a similar rhythm and rhyme scheme. Such verbal duels may last for a fewSuch verbal duels may last for a few

hours and is performed for the sheerhours and is performed for the sheerjoy of playing on language.joy of playing on language.


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To take one example, the wellTo take one example, the well--known movieknown movie

features a scene offeatures a scene of(song dueling) mostly for the(song dueling) mostly for the

sheer joy of playing onsheer joy of playing onlanguage.language.


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If you observe a childrenIf you observe a childrens play, you will finds play, you will find

the power of sound. Sometimes eventhe power of sound. Sometimes even

nonsensical lyrics perform a recreationalnonsensical lyrics perform a recreationalfunction in the game:function in the game:

the repetitive rhythms help to control the game,the repetitive rhythms help to control the game,

and the children plainly take great delight in it.and the children plainly take great delight in it.Adults also have their way to appreciateAdults also have their way to appreciate

language for its own sake.language for its own sake.


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For instance, poetry writing gives them theFor instance, poetry writing gives them the

pleasure of using language for its sheerpleasure of using language for its sheer

beauty.beauty.

Very close here to Jakobson's poetic function.Very close here to Jakobson's poetic function.


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5.7Metalingual function5.7Metalingual function

Our language can be used to talk about itself.Our language can be used to talk about itself.

To organize any written text into a coherentTo organize any written text into a coherent

whole, writers employ certain expressions towhole, writers employ certain expressions to

keep their readers informed about wherekeep their readers informed about where

they are and where they are going.they are and where they are going.


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For instance, instead ofFor instance, instead of

sayingsaying The lion chased the unicornThe lion chased the unicorn

all round the town,all round the town,

they saythey say All around the town the lionAll around the town the lion

chased the unicorn.chased the unicorn.

Aunicorn


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This is theThis is the metalingualmetalingual function of languagefunction of language

and meshes with theand meshes with the thematicthematic function offunction oflanguage in functional grammar.language in functional grammar.

It makes the language infinitely selfIt makes the language infinitely self--reflexive:reflexive:

We human beings can talk about talk and thinkWe human beings can talk about talk and think

about thinking, and thus only humans can askabout thinking, and thus only humans can ask

what it means to communicate, to think, to bewhat it means to communicate, to think, to be

human.human.


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6. What is Linguistics?6. What is Linguistics?

The scientific study of human languageThe scientific study of human language

Aims of linguistic theory:Aims of linguistic theory:

What is knowledge of language? (What is knowledge of language? (CompetenceCompetence))

How is knowledge of language acquired?How is knowledge of language acquired?((AcquisitionAcquisition))

How is knowledge of language put to use?How is knowledge of language put to use?

((PerformancePerformance//languagelanguage processingprocessing))


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AAgrammargrammar includes everything one knowsincludes everything one knows

about the structure of oneabout the structure of ones language:s language:

Phonetics and PhonologyPhonetics and Phonology (the sounds and the(the sounds and the

sound system or patterns)sound system or patterns)

LexiconLexicon (the words or vocabulary in the mental(the words or vocabulary in the mental

dictionary)dictionary) MorphologyMorphology (the structure of words)(the structure of words)

SyntaxSyntax (the structure of phrases and sentences and(the structure of phrases and sentences and

the constraints on wellthe constraints on well--formedness of sentences)formedness of sentences)

SemanticsSemantics (the meaning of words and sentences)(the meaning of words and sentences)


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7.Main branches of linguistics7.Main branches of linguistics

PhoneticsPhonetics

PhonologyPhonology

MorphologyMorphology SyntaxSyntax

SemanticsSemantics

PragmaticsPragmatics


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7.1 Phonetics7.1 Phonetics

PhoneticsPhonetics studies speech sounds, includingstudies speech sounds, including

the production of speech, that is how speechthe production of speech, that is how speech

sounds are actually made, transmitted andsounds are actually made, transmitted and

received, the description and classificationreceived, the description and classificationof speech sounds, words and connectedof speech sounds, words and connected

speech, etc.speech, etc.


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We can approach it on various levels.We can approach it on various levels.

At one level, speech is a matter of anatomy andAt one level, speech is a matter of anatomy andphysiology. We can study organs such asphysiology. We can study organs such as

tongue and larynx and their functions in thetongue and larynx and their functions in the

production of speech.production of speech.

At another level, we can focus on the speechAt another level, we can focus on the speech

sounds produced by these organs bysounds produced by these organs by

identifying and classifying the individualidentifying and classifying the individual

sounds.This is the domain ofsounds.This is the domain ofarticulatoryarticulatory

phoneticsphonetics..


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We can also investigate the properties of theWe can also investigate the properties of thesound wavessound waves acoustic phoneticsacoustic phonetics..

As speech is intended to be heard orAs speech is intended to be heard or

perceived, it is therefore possible to focus onperceived, it is therefore possible to focus on

the way in which a listener analyses orthe way in which a listener analyses or

processes a sound waveprocesses a sound wave auditoryauditoryphoneticsphonetics..


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7.2 Phonology7.2 Phonology

PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing thestudies the rules governing the

structure, distribution, and sequencing ofstructure, distribution, and sequencing of

speech sounds and the shape of syllables. Itspeech sounds and the shape of syllables. It

deals with the sound system of a languagedeals with the sound system of a languageby treating phoneme as the point ofby treating phoneme as the point of

departure.departure.

AAphonemephoneme is the smallest linguistic unit ofis the smallest linguistic unit ofsound that can signal a difference in meaning.sound that can signal a difference in meaning.


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7.3Morphology7.3Morphology

MorphologyMorphology is concerned with the internalis concerned with the internal

organization of words. It studies theorganization of words. It studies the

minimal units of meaningminimal units of meaningmorphemesmorphemes

and wordand word--formation processes.formation processes. Although many people think of words as theAlthough many people think of words as the

basic meaningful elements of a languagebasic meaningful elements of a language

many words can be broken down into stillmany words can be broken down into stillsmaller units, calledsmaller units, called morphemesmorphemes..


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Morphemes serve different purposes. SomeMorphemes serve different purposes. Some

derive new words by changing the meaningderive new words by changing the meaningor the part of speech, others only refine andor the part of speech, others only refine and

give extra grammatical information aboutgive extra grammatical information about

the already existing meaning of a word.the already existing meaning of a word.

As morphemes are pairings of sounds withAs morphemes are pairings of sounds with

meanings, there are many complexities involved,meanings, there are many complexities involved,

forming a new field by the nameforming a new field by the name

morphophonologymorphophonology..


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7.4 Syntax7.4 Syntax

SyntaxSyntax is about principles of forming andis about principles of forming and

understanding correct sentences.understanding correct sentences.

The form or structure of a sentence is governedThe form or structure of a sentence is governed

by the rules of syntax, which specify word order,by the rules of syntax, which specify word order,sentence organization, and the relationshipssentence organization, and the relationships

between words, word classes and other sentencebetween words, word classes and other sentence

elements.elements.


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We know that words are organized intoWe know that words are organized into

structures more than just word order.structures more than just word order.

The children watched [the firework from theThe children watched [the firework from the

hill ].hill ].

The children watched [the firework ] [from theThe children watched [the firework ] [from thehill ].hill ].

The chicken is too hot to eat.The chicken is too hot to eat.


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7.5 Semantics7.5 Semantics

SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning isexamines how meaning is

encoded in a language.encoded in a language.

It is not only concerned with meanings of wordsIt is not only concerned with meanings of words

as lexical items, but also with levels of languageas lexical items, but also with levels of languagebelow the word and above it, e.g. meaning ofbelow the word and above it, e.g. meaning of

morphemes and sentences.morphemes and sentences.


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The following are what the key conceptsThe following are what the key concepts

look like:look like: semantic componentssemantic components

denotation of wordsdenotation of words

sense relationssense relations between words such asbetween words such asantonymyantonymy andand synonymysynonymy

sense relationssense relations between sentences such asbetween sentences such as

entailmententailment andandpresuppositionpresupposition and others.and others.


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7.6 Pragmatics7.6 Pragmatics

PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning inis the study of meaning incontext. It deals with particular utterances incontext. It deals with particular utterances in

particular situations and is especiallyparticular situations and is especiallyconcerned with the various ways in whichconcerned with the various ways in which

the many social contexts of languagethe many social contexts of languageperformance can influence interpretation.performance can influence interpretation. In other words, pragmatics is concerned withIn other words, pragmatics is concerned with

the way language is used to communicate ratherthe way language is used to communicate ratherthan with the way language is internallythan with the way language is internallystructured.structured.


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It regards speech performance as primarily aIt regards speech performance as primarily a

social act ruled by various socialsocial act ruled by various socialconventions.conventions.

Some key concepts such asSome key concepts such as referencereference,, forceforce,,

effecteffect, and, and cooperative principlescooperative principles maymayappear commonsensical, yet pragmatics isappear commonsensical, yet pragmatics is

just about one of the most promising fieldsjust about one of the most promising fields

of linguistic studies.of linguistic studies.


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Take conversation for example.Take conversation for example.

Since language is transmitted primarily via theSince language is transmitted primarily via thespeech mode, pragmatic rules govern a numberspeech mode, pragmatic rules govern a number

of conversational interactions, such asof conversational interactions, such as

sequential organizationsequential organization,, repair of errorsrepair of errors,, rolerole

andand speech actsspeech acts.. Organization of conversations includes takingOrganization of conversations includes taking

turns, opening, maintaining and closing aturns, opening, maintaining and closing a

conversation, establishing and maintaining aconversation, establishing and maintaining a

topic etc.topic etc.


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8.Macrolinguistics8.Macrolinguistics

Linguistics is not the only field concernedLinguistics is not the only field concerned

with language.with language.

Other disciplines such as psychology,Other disciplines such as psychology,

sociology, ethnography, the science of lawsociology, ethnography, the science of law

and artificial intelligence etc. are alsoand artificial intelligence etc. are also

preoccupied with language.preoccupied with language.


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Although Saussure's goal was to establishAlthough Saussure's goal was to establish

the autonomy of linguistics, giving it a wellthe autonomy of linguistics, giving it a well--defined subject of study and freeing it fromdefined subject of study and freeing it from

reliance on other disciplines, with its comingreliance on other disciplines, with its coming

of age linguistics is developing interactiveof age linguistics is developing interactive

links with other sciences.links with other sciences.

The central goal of describing the underlyingThe central goal of describing the underlying

system remains: this is the province of general,system remains: this is the province of general,

descriptive linguistics.descriptive linguistics.


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But since language has both individual andBut since language has both individual and

social aspects, it is naturally of interest tosocial aspects, it is naturally of interest topsychologists and sociologists among others.psychologists and sociologists among others.

Therefore it is not surprising that we have someTherefore it is not surprising that we have some

branches ofbranches ofmacrolinguisticsmacrolinguistics that show anthat show aninterdisciplinary nature from their very names:interdisciplinary nature from their very names:


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8.1 Psycholinguistics8.1 Psycholinguistics

PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates theinvestigates theinterrelation of language and mind, forinterrelation of language and mind, for

example, in processing and producingexample, in processing and producing

utterances and in language acquisition.utterances and in language acquisition. It also studies language development in theIt also studies language development in the

child, such as the theories of languagechild, such as the theories of language

acquisition, biological foundations of language,acquisition, biological foundations of language,

and a profound aspectand a profound aspect

the relationshipthe relationshipbetween language and cognition.between language and cognition.


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8.3Anthropological linguistics8.3Anthropological linguistics

AnthropologyAnthropology and linguistics became closelyand linguistics became closelyassociated in the early days ofassociated in the early days of

anthropological fieldwork whenanthropological fieldwork when

anthropologists enlisted the help of linguistsanthropologists enlisted the help of linguiststo study unwritten languages.to study unwritten languages.

In contrast with other linguists, then,In contrast with other linguists, then,

anthropological linguists are interestedanthropological linguists are interested

primarily in the history and structure of formerlyprimarily in the history and structure of formerlyunwritten languages.unwritten languages.


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Because an unwritten language must beBecause an unwritten language must be

heard in order to be studied, it does notheard in order to be studied, it does notleave any traces once its speakers died off.leave any traces once its speakers died off.

Anthropological linguists must begin in theAnthropological linguists must begin in the

present, with comparisons of contemporarypresent, with comparisons of contemporary

languages.languages.

Then they may draw inferences about the kindsThen they may draw inferences about the kinds

of change in language that may have occurredof change in language that may have occurred

in the past and that may account for similaritiesin the past and that may account for similaritiesand differences observed in the present.and differences observed in the present.


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8.4 Computational linguistics8.4 Computational linguistics

Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics centers aroundcenters aroundthe use of computers to process or producethe use of computers to process or produce

human language (also known ashuman language (also known as naturalnatural

languagelanguage

, to distinguish it from computer, to distinguish it from computerlanguages).languages).

To this field, linguistics contributes anTo this field, linguistics contributes an

understanding of the special properties ofunderstanding of the special properties of

language data, and provides theories andlanguage data, and provides theories anddescriptions of language structure and use.descriptions of language structure and use.


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Some current application areas includeSome current application areas includetranslating from one language to anothertranslating from one language to another

((Machine TranslationMachine Translation), storing and finding), storing and finding

relevant documents in large collections ofrelevant documents in large collections of

text (text (Corpus LinguisticsCorpus Linguistics andand InformationInformationRetrievalRetrieval), and carrying out various forms of), and carrying out various forms of

computer mediated communicationcomputer mediated communication..


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9. Important distinctions in linguistics9. Important distinctions in linguistics

Descriptive vs. prescriptiveDescriptive vs. prescriptive

Synchronic vs. diachronicSynchronic vs. diachronic

LangueLangue&&paroleparole Competence and performanceCompetence and performance


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9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptive9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptive

Don't say X.Don't say X.

People don't say X.People don't say X.

The first is aThe first is aprescriptiveprescriptive command, whilecommand, while

the second is athe second is a descriptivedescriptive statement.statement.

The distinction lies in prescribing how thingsThe distinction lies in prescribing how things

ought to be and describing how things are.ought to be and describing how things are.


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The reason why presentThe reason why present--day linguists are soday linguists are so

insistent about the distinction between theinsistent about the distinction between thetwo types of rules is simply that traditionaltwo types of rules is simply that traditional

grammar was very strongly normative ingrammar was very strongly normative in

character, e.g.character, e.g.You should never use a doubleYou should never use a double--negative;negative;

You should not split the infinitive; etc.You should not split the infinitive; etc.


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Humorous grammar rulesHumorous grammar rules

Never end a sentence with a preposition.Never end a sentence with a preposition.

And don't start a sentence with aAnd don't start a sentence with a

conjunction.conjunction.

It is wrong to ever split an infinitive.It is wrong to ever split an infinitive.

Avoid cliches like the plague. (They're oldAvoid cliches like the plague. (They're old

hat.)hat.)

Also, always avoid annoying alliteration.Also, always avoid annoying alliteration.

No sentence fragments.No sentence fragments.


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In the 18th century, all the main EuropeanIn the 18th century, all the main European

languages were studied prescriptively.languages were studied prescriptively. The grammarians tried to lay down rules for theThe grammarians tried to lay down rules for the

correct use of language and settle the disputescorrect use of language and settle the disputes

over usage once and for all.over usage once and for all.

Some usages were prescribed to be learned bySome usages were prescribed to be learned by

heart, followed accurately or avoided altogether.heart, followed accurately or avoided altogether.

It was a matter of black or white, right or wrong.It was a matter of black or white, right or wrong.


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These attitudes are still with us, thoughThese attitudes are still with us, though

people realize nowadays the facts of usagepeople realize nowadays the facts of usagecount more than the authoritycount more than the authority--mademade

standardsstandards..

The nature of linguistics as a scienceThe nature of linguistics as a sciencedetermines its preoccupation with descriptiondetermines its preoccupation with description

instead of prescription.instead of prescription.


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9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic

AAsynchronicsynchronic description takes a fixeddescription takes a fixed

instant (usually, but not necessarily, theinstant (usually, but not necessarily, the

present) as its point of observation.Mostpresent) as its point of observation.Most

grammars are of this kind.grammars are of this kind.

DiachronicDiachronic linguistics is the study of alinguistics is the study of a

language through the course of its history.language through the course of its history.


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9.39.3LangueLangue&&paroleparole

Saussure distinguished theSaussure distinguished the

linguistic competence of thelinguistic competence of the

speaker and the actualspeaker and the actual

phenomena or data ofphenomena or data oflinguistics (utterances) aslinguistics (utterances) as

languelangueandandparoleparole..


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WhileWhileparoleparoleconstitutes the immediatelyconstitutes the immediately

accessible data, the linguist's proper objectaccessible data, the linguist's proper objectis theis the languelangueof each community, the lexicon,of each community, the lexicon,

grammar, and phonology implanted in eachgrammar, and phonology implanted in each

individual by his upbringing in society andindividual by his upbringing in society andon the basis of which he speakson the basis of which he speaks

andand understands his language.understands his language.


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Chomsky points out that this distinction isChomsky points out that this distinction is

related to the languerelated to the langue--parole distinction ofparole distinction ofSaussure; but he does not accept the view ofSaussure; but he does not accept the view of

seeingseeing languelangueas a mere systematic inventoryas a mere systematic inventory

of items.of items.

Competence is closer to the famous GermanCompetence is closer to the famous Germanlinguist Humboldt's conception, that is, itlinguist Humboldt's conception, that is, it

should refer to theshould refer to the underlying competenceunderlying competence as aas a

system ofsystem ofgenerative processesgenerative processes..

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