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“We confess all this project is our own product except the summary and some
information that each we had explain their resources”
............................ …………….. . ........................................................ .
(PAVITHRA A/P RANGASAMY) (PRASHANA NAIR A/P KUMARAN)
………………………………………………… ……………………………………..
(GAYATHRI A/P THIRUGNASAMBATHAN) GAYATHRY A/P M.AMIRTHARAJ
Date: 25 AUGUST 2011
Statistics is the branch of mathematics that deals with the collection, analysis,
interpretation, explanation, and presentation of data. Statistics has become much easier
with the power of graphing calculators. Before powerful calculators, all the complicated
calculations of statistics were done by hand.Generally, statistical studies involve various
types of information. The various types of information in statistics are either the
numbered type or those which can be represented in numbered form. All information
are called data in statistics.
Mathematical statistics is also an interdisciplinary subject aimed at developing
models and analytical methods for systems containing a substantial element of random
variation. Often the motivation for the research is a practical problem involving the
development and nalysis of a mathematical statistical model. With its close connections
to DTU Informatics research groups in intelligent signal processing, image analysis and
scientific computing, the section stands as a dynamic and substantial player both locally
in the Danish statistics arena and internationally. The section aims at strengthening the
connection to the statistics related activities in other departments at DTU and
championing the use of high quality statistics within the Public Sector Consultancy
activities at DTU. The department already hosts internal and external university
consultancy services in statistics.
A graph is a mathematical object that captures the notion of con-nection. Most
people are familiar with the children’s puzzle of trying to connect 3 utilities (water,
telephone and electricity) to 3 houses without having any of the “wires” cross.
In computer science, graphs are used to represent networks of communication,
data organization, computational devices, and the flow of computation. One practical
example is the link structure of a website could be represented by a directed graph. The
vertices are the web pages available at the website and a directed edge from page A to
page B exists if and only if A contains a link to B. A similar approach can be taken to
problems in travel, biology, computer chip design, and many other fields. The
development of algorithms to handle graphs is therefore of major interest in computer
science. There, the transformation of graphs is often formalized and represented by
graph rewrite systems. They are either directly used or properties of the rewrite systems
(e.g. confluence) are studied. Complementary to graph transformation systems
focussing on rule-based in-memory manipulation of graphs are graph databases geared
towards transaction-safe, persistent storing and querying of graph-structured data.
The paper written by Leonhard Euler on the Seven Bridges of Königsberg and
published in 1736 is regarded as the first paper in the history of graph theory. This
paper, as well as the one written by Vandermonde on the knight problem, carried on
with the analysis situs initiated by Leibniz. Euler's formula relating the number of edges,
vertices, and faces of a convex polyhedron was studied and generalized by Cauchy and
L'Huillier, and is at the origin of topology.
More than one century after Euler's paper on the bridges of Königsberg and while
Listing introduced topology, Cayley was led by the study of particular analytical forms
arising from differential calculus to study a particular class of graphs, the trees. This
study had many implications in theoretical chemistry. The involved techniques mainly
concerned the enumeration of graphs having particular properties. Enumerative graph
theory then rose from the results of Cayley and the fundamental results published by
Pólya between 1935 and 1937 and the generalization of these by De Bruijn in 1959.
Cayley linked his results on trees with the contemporary studies of chemical
composition.The fusion of the ideas coming from mathematics with those coming from
chemistry is at the origin of a part of the standard terminology of graph theory.
Graphs are represented graphically by drawing a dot or circle for every vertex,
and drawing an arc between two vertices if they are connected by an edge. If the graph
is directed, the direction is indicated by drawing an arrow.
A graph drawing should not be confused with the graph itself (the abstract, non-
visual structure) as there are several ways to structure the graph drawing. All that
matters is which vertices are connected to which others by how many edges and not the
exact layout. In practice it is often difficult to decide if two drawings represent the same
graph. Depending on the problem domain some layouts may be better suited and easier
to understand than others.
In this coursework we are ordered to do the topics pictograph, pai chart, line
graph and bar graph.
Contant Pages
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
DECLARATION
TITLE
INTRODUCTION
SECTION A
QUESTION 1
QUESTION 2
QUESTION 3
QUESTION 4
QUESTION 5
QUESTION 6
SECTION B
SURVEY ON PARENTS SALARY
SECTION C
REFLECTION
SECTION D
COLLOBARATION FORM
REFRENCE
ATTACHMENT
ESSAY ABOUT BAR GRAPHBar chart
A bar chart or bar graph is a chart with rectangular bars with lengths proportional
to the values that they represent. The bars can also be plotted horizontally. This type of
display allows us to:
compare groups of data, and
to make generalizations about the data quickly.
A bar chart, also known as a bar graph, is a chart with rectangular bars of lengths
proportional to the magnitudes of what they represent. Bar charts are used for
comparing two or more values. Bar graphs are a type of graph that visually displays
information using a series of bars, rectangles, or objects. For example, the bar graph to
the left shows the relative number of students according to their age.
Bar graphs are a very common type of graph best suited for a qualitative
independent variable. Since there is no uniform distance between levels of a qualitative
variable, the discrete nature of the individual bars are well suited for this type of
independent variable. Though you can extract trends between bars (e.g., they are
gradually getting longer or shorter), you cannot calculate a slope from the heights of the
bars.
Bar charts are used for plotting discrete (or 'discontinuous') data i.e. data which
has discrete values and is not continuous. Some examples of discontinuous data
include 'shoe size' or 'eye colour', for which you would use a bar chart. In contrast,
some examples of continuous data would be 'height' or 'weight'. A bar chart is very
useful if you are trying to record certain information whether it is continuous or not
continuous data.
Examples of Bar Charts
One Independent and One Dependent Variable
1. Simple Bar Graph
2. Horizontal Bar Graph
3. Range Bar Graph
When reading a bar graph there are several things we must pay attention to: the
graph title, two axes, including axes labels and scale, and the bars. Since bar graphs
are used to graph frequencies or amounts of data in discrete groups, we will need to
determine which axis is the grouped data axis, as well as what the specific groups are,
and which is the frequency axis.
Parts of a Bar Graph
Now let's look at the components of a bar graph individually. There is a lot of information
in this section so you may wish to jot down some short notes to yourself.
Graph Title--The graph title gives an overview of the information being presented
in the graph. The title is given at the top of the graph provides an overview of the
type of information given in the bar graph. For the bar graph given, the title
indicates that we are looking at data on.
Axes and their labels--Each graph has two axes. The axes labels tell us what
information is presented on each axis. One axis represents data groups, the other
represents the amounts or frequency of data groups. The axes labels tell us what
information is presented on each axis.
One axis represents data groups is labeled Price per Bushel. The other axis is
labeled Quantity Demanded.
Grouped Data Axis--The grouped data axis is always at the base of the bars.
This axis displays the type of data being graphed. Since the grouped data axis is
always at the base of the bars, the grouped data axis is the horizontal axis. The
axis label tells us that along the horizontal grouped data axis we have the price
per bushel, with each data group being a different dollar amount from $1 to $5.
Two important pieces of information we must determine are the:
o type of data being counted, and
o how the data is grouped.
Frequency Data Axis--The frequency axis has a scale that is a measure of the
frequency or amounts of the different data groups. The scale is the range of
frequency values shown on the graph. The span of values represented is
determined by the lowest and greatest
Axes Scale-- Scale is the range of values being presented along the frequency
axis.
Two (or more) Independent and One Dependent Variable
1. Grouped bar graph
2.
Composite bar graph
ESSAY ABOUT PICTOGRAPH
PICTOGRAPH
A pictograph ( pictogram or pictogramme) is an ideogram that conveys its meaning
through its pictorial resemblance to a physical object. Earliest examples of pictographs
include ancient or prehistoric drawings or paintings found on rock walls. Pictographs are
also used in writing and graphic systems in which the characters are to considerable
extent pictorial in appearance. Pictography is a form of writing which uses
representational, pictorial drawings. It is a basis of cuneiform and, to some
extent, hieroglyphic writing, which uses drawings also as phonetic letters or
determinative rhymes.
Early written symbols were based on pictographs (pictures which resemble what
they signify) and ideograms (symbols which represent ideas). They were used by the
ancient Chinese culture since around 5000 BC and began to develop into logographic
writing systems around 2000 BC. Pictographs are still in use as the main medium of
written communication in some non-literate cultures in Africa, The Americas,
and Oceania. Pictographs are often used as simple, pictorial, representational symbols
by most contemporary cultures. Pictographs can often transcend languages in that they
can communicate to speakers of a number of tongues and language families equally
effectively, even if the languages and cultures are completely different. This is why road
signs and similar pictographic material are often applied as global standards expected
to be understood by nearly all. Pictographs can also take the form of diagrams to
represent statistical data by pictorial forms, and can be varied in color, size, or number
to indicate change. Pictographs can be considered an art form, and are designated as
such in Pre-Columbian art, Native American art, and Painting in the Americas before
Colonization. One example of many is the Rock art of the Chumash people, part of
the Native American history of California.
Nowadays Pictographs remain in common use today, serving as pictorial,
representational signs, instructions, or statistical diagrams. Because of their graphical
nature and fairly realistic style, they are widely used to indicate public toilets, or places
such as airports and train stations. A standard set of pictographs was defined in
the international standard ISO 7001: Public Information Symbols. Another common set
of pictographs are the laundry symbols used on clothing tags and chemical hazard
labels. Pictographic writing as a modernist poetic technique is credited to Ezra Pound,
though French surrealists accurately credit the Pacific Northwest American
Indians of Alaska who introduced writing, via totem poles, to North America.
Contemporary artist Xu Bing created Book from the Ground, a universal language made
up of pictogram collected from around the world. A Book from the Ground chat program
has been exhibited in museums and galleries internationally. There is a Book from the
Ground Wiki currently in development that needs public participation in development.
The wiki will be a continually growing database of pictogram used in the chat program,
books, signs. If we look at the disadvantages of pictograph it is very hard to quantify
partial icons. This is because icons must be of consistent size and best for only 2-6
categories. At last pictograph it is very simplistic.
In math, graph is a representation of data by means of diagrams. There are
various types of graphs. The basic type of representation of data is a pictograph. The
representation of data by means of pictures are said to be pictograph. In this article we
shall discuss about pictographs in math. Also we shall draw sample pictographs in
math. Pictograph is a way of representing statistical data using symbolic figures to
match the frequencies of different kinds of data. In graph theory, a pictograph is a graph
that shows numerical information by using picture symbols or icon s to represent data
sets. The advantage of using a pictograph is that it is easy to read. Pictograph is a
method of representing statistical data by means of symbolic facts to competition the
frequencies of different kinds of data. Basically, the pictographs are very interactive for
the students to study data easily. The pictographs are very similar to histograms. In
histograms, we represent data by means of bars, while in pictograph; we use pictures in
the place of bar graphs
A pictograph is also called pictogram. It is an ideogram. It conveys its meaning
through its pictorial resemblance to an object. It is a form of writing using drawing.
Ancient Chinese culture used pictograph around 5000 BC. Pictograph are still used in
Africa, The Americas and Oceania. It was already in existence before language
evolved. It represented statistical data by pictorial form. Now let us see some pictograph
with examples.
Examples of Pictograph
The pictograph shows the number of varieties of apples stored at a supermarket.
ESSAY ABOUT PIE CHARTS
Firstly lets look at the definition of pie chart. A pie (or a circle graph) is a circular
chart divided into sectors, illustrating proportion. The arc length of each sector in pie
charts is proportional to the quantity it represents. When angles are measured with 1 its
turn as unit then a number of percent is identified with the same number of centiturns.
Together, the sectors create a full disk. It is named for its resemblance to a pie which
has been sliced. The earliest known pie chart is generally credited to William Playfair's
Statistical Breviary of 1801. Pie charts are excellent for displaying data points as a
percentage of the whole. However, when several data points each amount to less than
5 percent of the pie, it becomes hard to distinguish the slices. . Pie charts can be an
effective way of displaying information in some cases, in particular if the intent is to
compare the size of a slice with the whole pie, rather than comparing the slices among
them.[1]There are example of pie chart.
For that next presentation, when you need to convey the proportional
relationships between pieces of information, a pie chart might be your answer. They are
simple to make using a computer and very easy to grasp. However, if you need to
compare and contrast trends or juxtapose information from several years to show a
pattern, the pie chart won't help you. Sometimes the pie charts wil use for effectiveness
and visual perception. For example, it is common in business and journalism, because
they are perceived as being less "geeky" than other types of graph. The diagram shows
the example of effectiveness and visual perception.
There are many types of pie charts. Such as Polar area pie chart, Multi-level pie
chart, Exploded pie chart], 3-D pie chart, Doughnut chart. Polar area chart is credited by
Florence Nightingale. It is now known as the polar area diagram, The polar area
diagram is similar to a usual pie chart, The differences is, the sectors are equal angles
and differ rather in how far each sector extends from the center of the circle, but it is
enabling multiple comparisons on one diagram. The diagram down is shows the
example of polar area chart.
Moreover, Multi-level pie chart is also another example of pie chart. It also known
as a radial tree chart is used to visualize hierarchical data, depicted by concentric
circles. The circle in the centre represents the root node, with the hierarchy moving
outward from the center. A segment of the inner circle bears a hierarchical relationship
to those segments of the outer circle which lie within the angular sweep of the parent
segment. The diagram below is the example of multi-level pie chart.
Besides, Exploded pie chart A chart with one or more sectors separated from the
rest of the disk. A perspective (3D) is known as 3D pie chart because its give the chart a
3D look. Uses of this charts are often because the third dimension does not improve
the reading of the data on the contrary, t furthermore the plots are difficult to interpret
because of the distorted effect of perspective associated with the third dimension. A
doughnut chart (also spelled donut) is functionally identical to a pie chart, with the
exception of a blank center and the ability to support multiple statistics as one.
Other than types of pie charts, there are another important part of pie chart which
is Steps to Draw a Pie Chart Illustration and Pie Diagrams. There are many ways to
draw pie charts. Firstly, we can a Pie Chart By Hand. You must have all the numbers
calculated that you wish to represent on the pie chart. Get the material that you are
going to draw the pie chart on, and draw a huge circle on the paper, leaving space on
the sides and above and below the circle. Section off the circle into its representative
percentages the bigger the percentage, the more space that section should take up in
the circle. Outside the circle, write the percentage that the section actually represents
and label the section. Label the pie chart itself above the pie chart. Fill in the sections of
the chart with different colors if you want.
Second method to draw pie chart is by using computer. There is one website that
will allow you to create a pie chart; see the resource below for the link. Once you have
gone to the link, the first step is to click on the type of graph you wish to create, which is
obviously a pie chart. Decide whether you want the colors of the sections to be solid,
patterns or gradient. Choose a background color for the chart. Decide whether you want
the chart 2D or 3D. Next, decide if you want no legend, or the legend positioned to the
right or left. The legend is where it tells what your graph represents. Then, by clicking on
the data tab on the right hand side, you can enter the graph title and source, how many
pie slices you need, and then enter the name and value for each slice as well as the
color. In the next step, you can decide whether to have labels. You can either make the
labels the name of the data represented or the percentage of the pie slice that is
represented. Once you have done this, you can preview your pie chart.
We also can create the pie charts by using Microsoft Word or similar software is
easy. There some procedure which we must follow. Firstly, Start with the place in a
Word document where you wish to include the chart. Choose the "Insert" menu. Then
select "Picture" followed by "Chart." Your default chart setting will probably not be a pie
chart, so you need to select "Chart Type" from the new menu on top followed by "Pie."
You don't even need to make any calculations. Once the pie chart is selected, all you
have to do is fill in your data on the spreadsheet that pops up. The computer will do the
rest. Later, you can change the colors of the wedges and the fonts in the key.
The pie charts have features itself. For example Every pie chart starts with a
circle that represents 100 percent of the statistical information. Wedges of the circle,
then, are used to show how the statistics combine to form the whole sample. A wedge
that takes up half of the circle indicates 50 percent. One that takes up 1/4 of the circle
comprises 25 percent. One that takes up 1/10 of the circle represents 10 percent. Each
wedge is filled in with a different color which is explained in the key. Like a map key, this
is a mini-sidebar located near the pie chart itself.
Otherwise, the uses of pie charts also gives several functions such as it can work
as visual displays of proportional relationships from one specific time or period. They
can show the various sources that make up a nonprofit organization's revenue stream
for a year, for instance. Besides, a certain percentage comes from individual donors;
another percentage comes from earned income; a third percentage comes from grants;
and the fourth percentage represents the deficit, moreover all the percents add up to
100 percent. The percentage of each revenue source is depicted as a wedge that takes
up the same percentage of the area of circle.
Lastly, when we trying to draw pie charts some information about it we should
keep in touch. For example, A pie chart does not serve if you need to compare the
revenues for the past several years, However pie charts can only be used once. If you
want to use a visual tool to illustrate the revenues of several years, it is better
accomplished with a line graph or a bar graph.
Variants and similar charts
1. Polar Area Pie Chart
Florence Nightingale is credited with developing a form of the pie chart now known
as the polar area diagram, or occasionally the Nightingale rose diagram and first
published in 1858. The name "coxcomb" is sometimes used erroneously. This was the
name Nightingale used to refer to a book containing the diagrams rather than the
diagrams themselves.
The polar area diagram is similar to a usual pie chart, except that the sectors are
each of an equal angle and differ rather in how far each sector extends from the centre
of the circle, enabling multiple comparisons on one diagram. It has been suggested that
most of Nightingale's early reputation was built on her ability to give clear and concise
presentations of data.
Although Florence Nightingale is usually credited with this graphical invention,
there are earlier uses. Léon Lalanne used a polar diagram to show the frequency of
wind directions around compass points in 1843. André-Michel Guerry is an earlier
inventor of the "rose diagram" form, in an 1829 paper showing frequency of events for
cyclic phenomena.
2. Multi-level Pie Chart
Multi-level pie chart, also known as a radial tree chart is an information visualization
technique which is used for representing hierarchical data. The hierarchical structure of
data is depicted by means of concentric circles. The circle in the centre represents the
root node, with the herrarchy moving outward from the centre. A segment of the inner
circle bears a hierarchical relationship to those segments of the outer circle which lie
within the angular sweep of the parent segment.
The multi-level pie chart was originally devised for visually depicting space filling of
computer storage systems. The concept was originally termed as SunBurst technique.
Later however, this technique was adopted for business and economics. Owing to its
resemblance to the standard pie chart - the SunBurst technique, eventually became
popular as multi-level pie chart.
The multi-level pie chart is an efficient business analysis tool. It is highly suited for
visualizing the performance of the marketing channel. Additionally, it can even be
deployed for monitoring resource allocation and revenue mapping.
3. Exploded Pie Chart
A chart with one or more sectors separated from the rest of the disk is known as an
exploded pie chart. This effect is used to either highlight a sector, or to highlight smaller
segments of the chart with small proportions.
4. 3D Pie Chart
A perspective (3D) pie chart is used to
give the chart a 3D look-and-feel. Often used
for aesthetic reasons, the third dimension
does not improve the reading of the data; on
the contrary, these plots are difficult to interpret because of the distorted effect of
perspective associated with the third dimension. The use of superfluous dimensions not
used to display the data of interest is discouraged for charts in general, not only for pie
charts.
5. Doughnut Chart
A doughnut chart, also called a Donut chart is functionally identical to a standard pie
chart, with the exception of a blank center.
Example of Pie Chart
Essay about Line Plots
Through graphs we learn how to organize and interpret information. Graphs
help not only to analyze data in math but also help convey information in business.
Many types of graphs exist, but we use line plots to show frequency of data. A line
plot shows frequency of data along a number line with “x” mark or any other marks
to show frequency. It is best to use a line plot while comparing fewer than 25
frequency data. It is a quickest and simplest
Line plots is a graph easier to construct than a stem-and-leaf plot and should be
your starting point with children. Once they have experienced creating several line
which easy to plot and should be your starting point with children. Once we tried to
draw this line plots for several time, they will be easy to understand the more
complex stem-and-leaf plots. In this graph we can introduce the terms mean,
median, and mode that are described in the stem-and-leaf plot section. At the same
time we may wish to use graph paper for it is crucial that each recorded X be uniform
in size and placed exactly across from each other (one-to-one correspondence).
This is a way to organize data. Diagram below shows the example of line plots.
Line Plot for the Number of M&M's™ in a Package
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20 21 22 23
There are some procedure steps that must follow when we draw the line plots.
For example, Step 1 we must gather the given information which is called data for
which a line plot has to be drawn. Look for those data sets that need to show frequency.
Step 2 group the data items that are the same and then create and label a chart to help
you organize the list from the data. Step 3 determine an approximate scale to draw the
line plot. If the scale consists of numbers, then break it into even parts. Step 4 draw a
horizontal line and label it according to the scale chosen. This looks similar to a number
line. Step 5 put a mark, say X that corresponds to the number on the scale according to
the data that is organized. This is the line plot. For example, we use the above steps to
give the line plot examples. Sketch the line plot for the following given data of heights of
students of a class in centimeters.120,110,100,120,105,110,105,100,110,105.
As a solution let the labels be the heights of the students (in centimeters) in a
class. If two students are of 120cms, you'd place two X's above 120. If three students
are of 110cms, you'd place two X's above 110. If three students were 105cms, you'd put
three X's above 105. If two students are of 100cms, you'd place two X's above 100. The
Students will enjoy surveying family and friends for information to construct their own
line plots. Examples of topics might be number of children in their family, number of
doors in their home, or number of eggs in their refrigerator. Always write at least two
sentences analyzing the data. Students will enjoy seeing their line plots and
interpretations displayed as well as having the opportunity to read and study the ones
completed by their classmates.
An effective way to culminate an early experience with line plots is to have
students do the activity using individual boxes of candy or packages of M&M's™. Once
everyone has counted the number of items inside the box or package, determine the
smallest and largest numbers. On a sheet of tag board or craft paper draw lines for
columns wide enough for the box or package to fit inside the column. At the bottom list
the items found from the smallest to the largest. Direct each child to place a curled
piece of tape on the back of his/her box or package. Each child then places his/her
container on the line plot remembering to start at the bottom just above their number.
Related Terms for Line Plot are, Number Line , Data and Frequency.
Examples of Line Plots
Essay about Scatter Plot
Scatter plot is a graph made by plotting ordered pairs in a coordinate plane to
show the correlation between two sets of data. It will describes a positive trend if, as
one set of values increases, the other set tends to increase. In addition scatter plots
describes a negative trend if, as one set of values increases, the other set tends to
decrease. A scatter plot shows no trend if the ordered pairs show no correlation.
In other word, scatter plot describes a positive trend if, as one set of values
increases, the other set tends to increase. Not only that, scatter plot describes a
negative trend if, as one set of values increases, the other set tends to decrease. A
scatter plot shows no trend if the ordered pairs show no correlation. Scatter plots are
similar to line graphs in that they use horizontal and vertical axes to plot data points.
However, they have a very specific purpose. Scatter plots show how much one variable
is affected by another. The relationship between two variables is called their correlation
.
Scatter plots usually consist of a large body of data. The closer the data points
come when plotted to making a straight line, the higher the correlation between the two
variables, or the stronger the relationship. If the data points make a straight line going
from the origin out to high x- and y-values, then the variables are said to have a
positive correlation . If the line goes from a high-value on the y-axis down to a high-
value on the x-axis, the variables have a negative correlation .
Example High
Positive Correlation
Example High
Negative Correlation
Low Negative Correlation
No Correlation
Low Positive Correlation
Essay about Histograms Histograms are a bar graph that shows how frequently data occur within certain
ranges or intervals. The height of each bar gives the frequency in the respective
interval. Histograms are used to show numerical information in graphic form. They
usually follow a bar-graph format. When the results of a study or a survey are
transferred into graphic form, it makes it easier for readers to analyze the data and
understand the significance of the numbers. Similarly to other graphs, histograms have
an x and y axis.
The term "histogram" is from the Greek language, and was coined by Karl
Pearson, a famous statistician. Simply stated, it means a "common form of graphical
representation." It is unclear when histograms were first created, but they have been
useful tools for quite some time. "The Commercial and Political Atlas," written by William
Playfair and published in 1786, contained the oldest known bar chart. In 1859, Florence
Nightingale used histograms to show the difference in mortality between civilians and
the military.
The purpose of a histogram is to put numerical information into graphic form
so it is easier to understand. Histograms show the frequency with which, and the time at
which, certain things occur. For example, Florence Nightingale tried to show that military
men died more frequently than civilians, which gave her the evidence she needed to
improve army hygiene. When facts are visualized and labeled, it can help to make
positive changes in the world.
On the y-axis, histograms show the frequency with which something occurs.
On the x-axis, the time is labeled. The x-axis is in even increments so the data doesn't
look skewed. Data is then transferred into bar shapes for each increment on the x-axis.
A stem-and-leaf-plot can be used to generate the data for a histogram. The leaf is the
last digit of the number, and the remaining numbers are the stem. For example, the
number 345 would have 5 as its leaf and 34 as its stem. You can create two columns--
one for the stems and one for the leaves. You then lump the leaves with the similar
stems, if there are any. When you turn a stem-and-leaf-plot on its side, it creates a
histogram.
When you are analyzing a histogram, you need to read all of the labels to
fully understand what the histogram is trying to show. First, read the title and find out
what the main idea of the histogram is. Then look at the scale and the labels on the x
and y axes. From there, you can determine the frequency for specific information, which
can show a decrease, increase or pattern in the topic at hand.
Although histogram are simple graphs, they can provide valuable information.
When numerical data is compressed and converted into a histogram, it enables readers
to notice patterns and see changes. In order to improve institutions like health-care or
education, you need to see the data and how it is being affected. However, not all
histograms aim to change something. Some are simply for reference and to show basic
statistical information about a certain topic.
Percent of Women Who Smoked During the Last 3 Months of Pregnancy
Prevalence of Current Smoking Among Adults 18 Years and Older
How to Construct Charts on Excel
1.Pie Chart
1. Step 1
Create a spreadsheet in Microsoft Excel entering your data as usual. You can enter
as many rows and columns as you need for your data, and you can include
formulas.
2. Step 2
Click on the type of pie chart you'd like to see. There are two dimensional, three
dimensional, and exploded views.
3. Step 3
Your completed pie chart appears!
2.Line Graph
Create a spreadsheet in Microsoft Excel entering your data as usual. You can enter
as many rows and columns as you need for your data, and you can include
formulas.
Click on the type of line chart you'd like to see. There are two dimensional, three
dimensional, and exploded views.
Your completed pie chart appears!
3.Histogram
I. Use the Chart Wizard to create the histogram from the frequency table. Click the Chart Wizard icon on the Excel toolbar and complete the following steps:
Step 1 of 4: Chart Type
Under the Standard Types tab, there is a scrolling list of Chart Types.
Click on Column, if not already selected. Under Chart Sub-Type, click to select
Clustered Columns (in the upper left-hand corner), if not already selected. Click
Next.
Step 2 of 4: Chart Source Data
Data Range: Click the box just to the right of the Data Range field or click in the
field itself. In your newly created frequency table, click in the cell containing the first
frequency and drag down to select the frequencies in the frequency table. Do not
include the frequency associated with the More bin level (which should be zero).
Check the small version of the histogram shown on this page. It should be very
close to the finished product (except for the gaps between bars). If not, under the
Data Range tab, check to make sure that the data range corresponds to your
frequency count cells. Also, make sure that the Columns option is checked under
the Series In: section.
Click on the Series tab. In the Category (X) Axis Labels section, provide the cell
range for the bin range values (just to the left of your frequency counts). This will put
the correct labels on the horizontal axis of your histogram. Do not include the More
bin level.
Click Next.
Step 3 of 4: Chart Options
Click the Title tab. Give your chart a title (Histogram of ___), an X-axis label (the
name of your variable), and a Y-axis label (Frequency).
Click the Gridlines tab. Turn off the Major Gridlines on the Y-axis option.
Click the Legend tab. Uncheck the Show Legend box.
Click Next.
Step 4 of 4: Chart Location
Specify whether you want your chart in a new worksheet or to appear as an object
on the current worksheet
Click Finish.
Fix the gaps between the bars: Double-click on any of the bars in the histogram.
Click the Options tab in the Format Data Series window. Change the Gap Width to 0
and click OK.
Fix the background of the plot: Double-click on the gray background in the plot.
Click on the None option for Area and click OK.
Construct Pie Chart, Line Graph and Histogram using Excel
Pie Chart
Types of Transport Percentage
Bicycle 20%
Bus 30%
Car 5%
Motorcycle 10%
Van 25%
Walking 10%
Mode of Transport used by Students of Sekolah Kebangsaan Dato’ Onn Butterworth
The pie – chart shows the result of survey which carried out by
counseling department about the mode of transport used by students of Sekolah
Menengah Kebangsaan Dato ‘ Onn Butterworth.
Mode of Tra nsport Used by Students of Sekola h Menenga h Da to'Onn Butterworth
20%
30%5%
10%
25%
10%Bicycle
Bus
Car
Motorcycle
Van
Walking
The most widely used mode of transport is the bus. About thirty
percent of the students come to school by bus. Most of these students live in town or
along the route where the bus services are widely available. Moreover, bus is a public
transport. If every students use car or motorcycle, there will be a traffic jam. So,
students will be late to school. Bus is widely used by students as a mode of transport to
prevent from these kind of problems. The second most popular mode of transport is the
van. The students who come to school by van live in estates and villagers where bus
services are not available.
Students who live near the school, cycle to school while the older
students who have licenses come to school by motorcycles. Twenty percent of the
students cycle to school on the other hand ten percent of the students use motorcycle to
come to school. Ten percent of the students walk to school where they live within a
kilometer from the school.
The least widely used means of transport is the car. Only five percent
of the students come to school by car. The reason for this could be the financial factor.
Only children of parents who can afford to own cars can come to school by car.
Line Plot
Environmental ProtectionNo Longer Environment vs. Economy
Markets provide greater environmental effectiveness than command-and-control
regulation because they turn pollution reductions into marketable assets. In doing so,
this system creates tangible financial rewards for environmental performance. Because
cap-and-trade gives pollution reductions a value in the marketplace, the system prompts
technological and process innovations that reduce pollution down to or beyond required
levels. This point is not theoretical; experience has shown these results.
A successful market-based program requires just a few minimum elements. All of
the following are absolutely essential to an efficient and effective program:
A mandatory emissions "cap." This is a limit on the total tons of emissions that
can be emitted. It provides the standard by which environmental progress is
measured, and it gives tons traded on the pollution market value; if the tons didn’t
result in real reductions to the atmosphere, they don’t have any market value.
A fixed number of allowances for each polluting entity. Each allowance gives
the owner the right to emit one ton of pollution at any time. Allocation of
allowances can occur via a number of different formulas.
Banking and trading. A source that reduces its emissions below its allowance
level may sell the extra allowances to another source. A source that finds it more
expensive to reduce emissions below allowable levels may purchase allowances
from another source. Buyers and sellers may “bank” any unused allowances for
future use.
Clear performance criteria. At the end of the compliance period (e.g., one year,
five years, etc.), each source must hold a number of allowances equal to its tons
of emissions for that period, and must have measured its emissions accurately
and reported them transparently.
Flexibility. Sources have flexibility to decide when, where and how to reduce
emissions.
An active cap-and-trade market enables those who can reduce pollution cheaply to
earn a return on their pollution reduction investment by selling extra allowances. It
enables those who can’t reduce pollution as cheaply to purchase allowances at a lower
cost than the cost of reducing their own emissions. It enables all participants to meet the
total emissions cap cost-effectively. And it gives all emitters incentives to innovate to
find the least-cost solutions for total pollution control.
Histogram
Year Number of Accidents
1995 7562
1996 8799
1997 8951
1998 12855
1999 13855
2000 14880
2001 16249
2002 18910
2003 21553
Road Accidents on the Rise
The graph shows the number of road accidents occurred in Kuala Lumpur for a
period of 9 years that is from 1995 to 2003. This survey carried out by Kuala Lumpur
Municipal Department to overcome the growing amount of road accidents at Kuala
Lumpur.
From 1995 to 1997, there has been a slow but steady decreases in the number
of accidents. From 1998 onwards, the number of accidents showed an increases. The
Number of Accidents in Kuala Lumpur from 1995 -2003
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Year
Num
ber o
f Acc
iden
ts (i
n th
ousa
nds)
most dramatic and significant increase in the number of accidents occurred in 1998.
The highest number of accidents, that is 21553 accidents, occurred in year 2003.
The figure show that since 1995, there has been a rising trend in the number of
accidents. The rising number of accidents cases shows that the situation is serious. The
last nine years have seen a steady increase in the number of accidents.
The government has to enforce stricter rules and regulations to check the rising
trend in the number of accidents. In the view of the seriousness of the situation, traffic
offenders should be made to pay heavier fines.
When creating a graph, it is important to select the appropriate graph type with
which to display your data. You may select from a number of basic graph types, as well
as refinements on these types, known as graph styles. Basic graph types include line
graphs (connected point plots), bar graphs, pie graphs, and scatter graphs.
1. Line graphs.
Line graphs are useful for emphasizing the movement or trend of
numerical data over time, since they allow a viewer to trace the evolution of a particular
point by working backwards or interpolating. Highs and lows, rapid or slow movement,
or a tendency towards stability are all types of trends that are well suited to a line graph.
Line graphs can also be plotted with two or more scales to suggest a comparison of the
same value, or set of values, in different time periods. The number of scales your graph
has depends on the type of graph you select. There is a description of each available
graph type on the Graph types tab of the Graph Assistant.
Line Graphs are used to show how two parameters are related to each
other. Or to put it another how one variable changes as another changes. A Line graph
consists of two axis, a vertical or Y axis and a horizontal or X axis.
The most common use of a line graph is to show how a piece of data varies
over time. The X-axis generally represents time whilst the Y-axis represents the value.
Point are then plotted for each time interval and the points joined by a line. This
provides a visual representation of how the data varied over time. Of course the x-axis
does not have to represent time and in fact can represent anything required. The only
requirement is that there is some relationship between the X and Y axis.
2. Histograms.
Histograms plot numerical data by displaying rectangular blocks against a scale.
The length of a bar corresponds to a value or amount. Viewers can develop a clear
mental image of comparisons among data series by distinguishing the relative
heights of the bars. Use a bar graph to display numerical data when you want to
present distributions of data. You can create horizontal as well as vertical bar
graphs.
3. Pie graphs. Pie graphs emphasize where your data fits in relation to a larger whole. Keep in
mind that pie graphs work best when your data consists of several large sets. Too
many variables divide the pie into small segments that are difficult to see. Use color
or texture on individual segments to create visual contrast.
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