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“We confess all this project is our own product except the summary and some

information that each we had explain their resources”

............................ …………….. . ........................................................ .

(PAVITHRA A/P RANGASAMY) (PRASHANA NAIR A/P KUMARAN)

………………………………………………… ……………………………………..

(GAYATHRI A/P THIRUGNASAMBATHAN) GAYATHRY A/P M.AMIRTHARAJ

Date: 25 AUGUST 2011

Statistics is the branch of mathematics that deals with the collection, analysis,

interpretation, explanation, and presentation of data. Statistics has become much easier

with the power of graphing calculators. Before powerful calculators, all the complicated

calculations of statistics were done by hand.Generally, statistical studies involve various

types of information. The various types of information in statistics are either the

numbered type or those which can be represented in numbered form. All information

are called data in statistics.

Mathematical statistics is also an interdisciplinary subject aimed at developing

models and analytical methods for systems containing a substantial element of random

variation. Often the motivation for the research is a practical problem involving the

development and nalysis of a mathematical statistical model. With its close connections

to DTU Informatics research groups in intelligent signal processing, image analysis and

scientific computing, the section stands as a dynamic and substantial player both locally

in the Danish statistics arena and internationally. The section aims at strengthening the

connection to the statistics related activities in other departments at DTU and

championing the use of high quality statistics within the Public Sector Consultancy

activities at DTU. The department already hosts internal and external university

consultancy services in statistics.

A graph is a mathematical object that captures the notion of con-nection. Most

people are familiar with the children’s puzzle of trying to connect 3 utilities (water,

telephone and electricity) to 3 houses without having any of the “wires” cross.

In computer science, graphs are used to represent networks of communication,

data organization, computational devices, and the flow of computation. One practical

example is the link structure of a website could be represented by a directed graph. The

vertices are the web pages available at the website and a directed edge from page A to

page B exists if and only if A contains a link to B. A similar approach can be taken to

problems in travel, biology, computer chip design, and many other fields. The

development of algorithms to handle graphs is therefore of major interest in computer

science. There, the transformation of graphs is often formalized and represented by

graph rewrite systems. They are either directly used or properties of the rewrite systems

(e.g. confluence) are studied. Complementary to graph transformation systems

focussing on rule-based in-memory manipulation of graphs are graph databases geared

towards transaction-safe, persistent storing and querying of graph-structured data.

The paper written by Leonhard Euler on the Seven Bridges of Königsberg and

published in 1736 is regarded as the first paper in the history of graph theory. This

paper, as well as the one written by Vandermonde on the knight problem, carried on

with the analysis situs initiated by Leibniz. Euler's formula relating the number of edges,

vertices, and faces of a convex polyhedron was studied and generalized by Cauchy and

L'Huillier, and is at the origin of topology.

More than one century after Euler's paper on the bridges of Königsberg and while

Listing introduced topology, Cayley was led by the study of particular analytical forms

arising from differential calculus to study a particular class of graphs, the trees. This

study had many implications in theoretical chemistry. The involved techniques mainly

concerned the enumeration of graphs having particular properties. Enumerative graph

theory then rose from the results of Cayley and the fundamental results published by

Pólya between 1935 and 1937 and the generalization of these by De Bruijn in 1959.

Cayley linked his results on trees with the contemporary studies of chemical

composition.The fusion of the ideas coming from mathematics with those coming from

chemistry is at the origin of a part of the standard terminology of graph theory.

Graphs are represented graphically by drawing a dot or circle for every vertex,

and drawing an arc between two vertices if they are connected by an edge. If the graph

is directed, the direction is indicated by drawing an arrow.

A graph drawing should not be confused with the graph itself (the abstract, non-

visual structure) as there are several ways to structure the graph drawing. All that

matters is which vertices are connected to which others by how many edges and not the

exact layout. In practice it is often difficult to decide if two drawings represent the same

graph. Depending on the problem domain some layouts may be better suited and easier

to understand than others.

In this coursework we are ordered to do the topics pictograph, pai chart, line

graph and bar graph.

Contant Pages

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

DECLARATION

TITLE

INTRODUCTION

SECTION A

QUESTION 1

QUESTION 2

QUESTION 3

QUESTION 4

QUESTION 5

QUESTION 6

SECTION B

SURVEY ON PARENTS SALARY

SECTION C

REFLECTION

SECTION D

COLLOBARATION FORM

REFRENCE

ATTACHMENT

ESSAY ABOUT BAR GRAPHBar chart

A bar chart or bar graph is a chart with rectangular bars with lengths proportional

to the values that they represent. The bars can also be plotted horizontally. This type of

display allows us to:

compare groups of data, and

to make generalizations about the data quickly.

A bar chart, also known as a bar graph, is a chart with rectangular bars of lengths

proportional to the magnitudes of what they represent. Bar charts are used for

comparing two or more values. Bar graphs are a type of graph that visually displays

information using a series of bars, rectangles, or objects. For example, the bar graph to

the left shows the relative number of students according to their age.

Bar graphs are a very common type of graph best suited for a qualitative

independent variable. Since there is no uniform distance between levels of a qualitative

variable, the discrete nature of the individual bars are well suited for this type of

independent variable. Though you can extract trends between bars (e.g., they are

gradually getting longer or shorter), you cannot calculate a slope from the heights of the

bars.

Bar charts are used for plotting discrete (or 'discontinuous') data i.e. data which

has discrete values and is not continuous. Some examples of discontinuous data

include 'shoe size' or 'eye colour', for which you would use a bar chart. In contrast,

some examples of continuous data would be 'height' or 'weight'. A bar chart is very

useful if you are trying to record certain information whether it is continuous or not

continuous data.

Examples of Bar Charts

One Independent and One Dependent Variable

1. Simple Bar Graph

2. Horizontal Bar Graph

3. Range Bar Graph

When reading a bar graph there are several things we must pay attention to: the

graph title, two axes, including axes labels and scale, and the bars. Since bar graphs

are used to graph frequencies or amounts of data in discrete groups, we will need to

determine which axis is the grouped data axis, as well as what the specific groups are,

and which is the frequency axis.

Parts of a Bar Graph

Now let's look at the components of a bar graph individually. There is a lot of information

in this section so you may wish to jot down some short notes to yourself.

Graph Title--The graph title gives an overview of the information being presented

in the graph. The title is given at the top of the graph provides an overview of the

type of information given in the bar graph. For the bar graph given, the title

indicates that we are looking at data on.

Axes and their labels--Each graph has two axes. The axes labels tell us what

information is presented on each axis. One axis represents data groups, the other

represents the amounts or frequency of data groups. The axes labels tell us what

information is presented on each axis.

One axis represents data groups is labeled Price per Bushel. The other axis is

labeled Quantity Demanded.

Grouped Data Axis--The grouped data axis is always at the base of the bars.

This axis displays the type of data being graphed. Since the grouped data axis is

always at the base of the bars, the grouped data axis is the horizontal axis. The

axis label tells us that along the horizontal grouped data axis we have the price

per bushel, with each data group being a different dollar amount from $1 to $5.

Two important pieces of information we must determine are the:

o type of data being counted, and

o how the data is grouped.

Frequency Data Axis--The frequency axis has a scale that is a measure of the

frequency or amounts of the different data groups. The scale is the range of

frequency values shown on the graph. The span of values represented is

determined by the lowest and greatest

Axes Scale-- Scale is the range of values being presented along the frequency

axis.

Two (or more) Independent and One Dependent Variable

1. Grouped bar graph

2.

Composite bar graph

ESSAY ABOUT PICTOGRAPH

PICTOGRAPH

A pictograph ( pictogram or pictogramme) is an ideogram that conveys its meaning

through its pictorial resemblance to a physical object. Earliest examples of pictographs

include ancient or prehistoric drawings or paintings found on rock walls. Pictographs are

also used in writing and graphic systems in which the characters are to considerable

extent pictorial in appearance. Pictography is a form of writing which uses

representational, pictorial drawings. It is a basis of cuneiform and, to some

extent, hieroglyphic writing, which uses drawings also as phonetic letters or

determinative rhymes.

Early written symbols were based on  pictographs (pictures which resemble what

they signify) and ideograms (symbols which represent ideas). They were used by the

ancient Chinese culture since around 5000 BC and began to develop into logographic

writing systems around 2000 BC. Pictographs are still in use as the main medium of

written communication in some non-literate cultures in Africa, The Americas,

and Oceania. Pictographs are often used as simple, pictorial, representational symbols

by most contemporary cultures. Pictographs can often transcend languages in that they

can communicate to speakers of a number of tongues and language families equally

effectively, even if the languages and cultures are completely different. This is why road

signs and similar pictographic material are often applied as global standards expected

to be understood by nearly all. Pictographs can also take the form of diagrams to

represent statistical data by pictorial forms, and can be varied in color, size, or number

to indicate change. Pictographs can be considered an art form, and are designated as

such in Pre-Columbian art, Native American art, and Painting in the Americas before

Colonization. One example of many is the Rock art of the Chumash people, part of

the Native American history of California.

Nowadays Pictographs remain in common use today, serving as pictorial,

representational signs, instructions, or statistical diagrams. Because of their graphical

nature and fairly realistic style, they are widely used to indicate public toilets, or places

such as airports and train stations. A standard set of pictographs was defined in

the international standard  ISO 7001: Public Information Symbols. Another common set

of pictographs are the laundry symbols used on clothing tags and chemical hazard

labels. Pictographic writing as a modernist poetic technique is credited to Ezra Pound,

though French surrealists accurately credit the Pacific Northwest American

Indians of Alaska who introduced writing, via totem poles, to North America.

Contemporary artist Xu Bing created Book from the Ground, a universal language made

up of pictogram collected from around the world. A Book from the Ground chat program

has been exhibited in museums and galleries internationally. There is a Book from the

Ground Wiki currently in development that needs public participation in development.

The wiki will be a continually growing database of pictogram used in the chat program,

books, signs. If we look at the disadvantages of pictograph it is very hard to quantify

partial icons. This is because icons must be of consistent size and best for only 2-6

categories. At last pictograph it is very simplistic.

In math, graph is a representation of data by means of diagrams. There are

various types of graphs. The basic type of representation of data is a pictograph. The

representation of data by means of pictures are said to be pictograph. In this article we

shall discuss about pictographs in math. Also we shall draw sample pictographs in

math. Pictograph is a way of representing statistical data using symbolic figures to

match the frequencies of different kinds of data. In graph theory, a pictograph is a graph

that shows numerical information by using picture symbols or icon s to represent data

sets. The advantage of using a pictograph is that it is easy to read. Pictograph is a

method of representing statistical data by means of symbolic facts to competition the

frequencies of different kinds of data. Basically, the pictographs are very interactive for

the students to study data easily. The pictographs are very similar to histograms. In

histograms, we represent data by means of bars, while in pictograph; we use pictures in

the place of bar graphs

A pictograph is also called pictogram.  It is an ideogram.  It conveys its meaning

through its pictorial resemblance to an object. It is a form of writing using drawing.

Ancient Chinese culture used pictograph around 5000 BC. Pictograph are still used in

Africa, The Americas and Oceania. It was already in existence before language

evolved. It represented statistical data by pictorial form. Now let us see some pictograph

with examples.

Examples of Pictograph

The pictograph shows the number of varieties of apples stored at a supermarket.

ESSAY ABOUT PIE CHARTS

Firstly lets look at the definition of pie chart. A pie (or a circle graph) is a circular

chart divided into sectors, illustrating proportion. The arc length of each sector in pie

charts is proportional to the quantity it represents. When angles are measured with 1 its

turn as unit then a number of percent is identified with the same number of centiturns.

Together, the sectors create a full disk. It is named for its resemblance to a pie which

has been sliced. The earliest known pie chart is generally credited to William Playfair's

Statistical Breviary of 1801. Pie charts are excellent for displaying data points as a

percentage of the whole. However, when several data points each amount to less than

5 percent of the pie, it becomes hard to distinguish the slices. . Pie charts can be an

effective way of displaying information in some cases, in particular if the intent is to

compare the size of a slice with the whole pie, rather than comparing the slices among

them.[1]There are example of pie chart.

For that next presentation, when you need to convey the proportional

relationships between pieces of information, a pie chart might be your answer. They are

simple to make using a computer and very easy to grasp. However, if you need to

compare and contrast trends or juxtapose information from several years to show a

pattern, the pie chart won't help you. Sometimes the pie charts wil use for effectiveness

and visual perception. For example, it is common in business and journalism, because

they are perceived as being less "geeky" than other types of graph. The diagram shows

the example of effectiveness and visual perception.

There are many types of pie charts. Such as Polar area pie chart, Multi-level pie

chart, Exploded pie chart], 3-D pie chart, Doughnut chart. Polar area chart is credited by

Florence Nightingale. It is now known as the polar area diagram, The polar area

diagram is similar to a usual pie chart, The differences is, the sectors are equal angles

and differ rather in how far each sector extends from the center of the circle, but it is

enabling multiple comparisons on one diagram. The diagram down is shows the

example of polar area chart.

Moreover, Multi-level pie chart is also another example of pie chart. It also known

as a radial tree chart is used to visualize hierarchical data, depicted by concentric

circles. The circle in the centre represents the root node, with the hierarchy moving

outward from the center. A segment of the inner circle bears a hierarchical relationship

to those segments of the outer circle which lie within the angular sweep of the parent

segment. The diagram below is the example of multi-level pie chart.

Besides, Exploded pie chart A chart with one or more sectors separated from the

rest of the disk. A perspective (3D) is known as 3D pie chart because its give the chart a

3D look. Uses of this charts are often because the third dimension does not improve

the reading of the data on the contrary, t furthermore the plots are difficult to interpret

because of the distorted effect of perspective associated with the third dimension. A

doughnut chart (also spelled donut) is functionally identical to a pie chart, with the

exception of a blank center and the ability to support multiple statistics as one.

Other than types of pie charts, there are another important part of pie chart which

is Steps to Draw a Pie Chart Illustration and Pie Diagrams. There are many ways to

draw pie charts. Firstly, we can a Pie Chart By Hand. You must have all the numbers

calculated that you wish to represent on the pie chart. Get the material that you are

going to draw the pie chart on, and draw a huge circle on the paper, leaving space on

the sides and above and below the circle. Section off the circle into its representative

percentages the bigger the percentage, the more space that section should take up in

the circle. Outside the circle, write the percentage that the section actually represents

and label the section. Label the pie chart itself above the pie chart. Fill in the sections of

the chart with different colors if you want.

Second method to draw pie chart is by using computer. There is one website that

will allow you to create a pie chart; see the resource below for the link. Once you have

gone to the link, the first step is to click on the type of graph you wish to create, which is

obviously a pie chart. Decide whether you want the colors of the sections to be solid,

patterns or gradient. Choose a background color for the chart. Decide whether you want

the chart 2D or 3D. Next, decide if you want no legend, or the legend positioned to the

right or left. The legend is where it tells what your graph represents. Then, by clicking on

the data tab on the right hand side, you can enter the graph title and source, how many

pie slices you need, and then enter the name and value for each slice as well as the

color. In the next step, you can decide whether to have labels. You can either make the

labels the name of the data represented or the percentage of the pie slice that is

represented. Once you have done this, you can preview your pie chart.

We also can create the pie charts by using Microsoft Word or similar software is

easy. There some procedure which we must follow. Firstly, Start with the place in a

Word document where you wish to include the chart. Choose the "Insert" menu. Then

select "Picture" followed by "Chart." Your default chart setting will probably not be a pie

chart, so you need to select "Chart Type" from the new menu on top followed by "Pie."

You don't even need to make any calculations. Once the pie chart is selected, all you

have to do is fill in your data on the spreadsheet that pops up. The computer will do the

rest. Later, you can change the colors of the wedges and the fonts in the key.

The pie charts have features itself. For example Every pie chart starts with a

circle that represents 100 percent of the statistical information. Wedges of the circle,

then, are used to show how the statistics combine to form the whole sample. A wedge

that takes up half of the circle indicates 50 percent. One that takes up 1/4 of the circle

comprises 25 percent. One that takes up 1/10 of the circle represents 10 percent. Each

wedge is filled in with a different color which is explained in the key. Like a map key, this

is a mini-sidebar located near the pie chart itself.

Otherwise, the uses of pie charts also gives several functions such as it can work

as visual displays of proportional relationships from one specific time or period. They

can show the various sources that make up a nonprofit organization's revenue stream

for a year, for instance. Besides, a certain percentage comes from individual donors;

another percentage comes from earned income; a third percentage comes from grants;

and the fourth percentage represents the deficit, moreover all the percents add up to

100 percent. The percentage of each revenue source is depicted as a wedge that takes

up the same percentage of the area of circle.

Lastly, when we trying to draw pie charts some information about it we should

keep in touch. For example, A pie chart does not serve if you need to compare the

revenues for the past several years, However pie charts can only be used once. If you

want to use a visual tool to illustrate the revenues of several years, it is better

accomplished with a line graph or a bar graph.

Variants and similar charts

1. Polar Area Pie Chart

Florence Nightingale is credited with developing a form of the pie chart now known

as the polar area diagram, or occasionally the Nightingale rose diagram and first

published in 1858. The name "coxcomb" is sometimes used erroneously. This was the

name Nightingale used to refer to a book containing the diagrams rather than the

diagrams themselves.

The polar area diagram is similar to a usual pie chart, except that the sectors are

each of an equal angle and differ rather in how far each sector extends from the centre

of the circle, enabling multiple comparisons on one diagram. It has been suggested that

most of Nightingale's early reputation was built on her ability to give clear and concise

presentations of data.

Although Florence Nightingale is usually credited with this graphical invention,

there are earlier uses. Léon Lalanne used a polar diagram to show the frequency of

wind directions around compass points in 1843. André-Michel Guerry is an earlier

inventor of the "rose diagram" form, in an 1829 paper showing frequency of events for

cyclic phenomena.

2. Multi-level Pie Chart

Multi-level pie chart, also known as a radial tree chart is an information visualization

technique which is used for representing hierarchical data. The hierarchical structure of

data is depicted by means of concentric circles. The circle in the centre represents the

root node, with the herrarchy moving outward from the centre. A segment of the inner

circle bears a hierarchical relationship to those segments of the outer circle which lie

within the angular sweep of the parent segment.

The multi-level pie chart was originally devised for visually depicting space filling of

computer storage systems. The concept was originally termed as SunBurst technique.

Later however, this technique was adopted for business and economics. Owing to its

resemblance to the standard pie chart - the SunBurst technique, eventually became

popular as multi-level pie chart.

The multi-level pie chart is an efficient business analysis tool. It is highly suited for

visualizing the performance of the marketing channel. Additionally, it can even be

deployed for monitoring resource allocation and revenue mapping.

3. Exploded Pie Chart

A chart with one or more sectors separated from the rest of the disk is known as an

exploded pie chart. This effect is used to either highlight a sector, or to highlight smaller

segments of the chart with small proportions.

4. 3D Pie Chart

A perspective (3D) pie chart is used to

give the chart a 3D look-and-feel. Often used

for aesthetic reasons, the third dimension

does not improve the reading of the data; on

the contrary, these plots are difficult to interpret because of the distorted effect of

perspective associated with the third dimension. The use of superfluous dimensions not

used to display the data of interest is discouraged for charts in general, not only for pie

charts.

5. Doughnut Chart

A doughnut chart, also called a Donut chart is functionally identical to a standard pie

chart, with the exception of a blank center.

Example of Pie Chart

Essay about Line Plots

Through graphs we learn how to organize and interpret information. Graphs

help not only to analyze data in math but also help convey information in business.

Many types of graphs exist, but we use line plots to show frequency of data. A line

plot shows frequency of data along a number line with “x” mark or any other marks

to show frequency. It is best to use a line plot while comparing fewer than 25

frequency data. It is a quickest and simplest

Line plots is a graph easier to construct than a stem-and-leaf plot and should be

your starting point with children.  Once they have experienced creating several line

which easy to plot and should be your starting point with children. Once we tried to

draw this line plots for several time, they will be easy to understand the more

complex stem-and-leaf plots. In this graph we can introduce the terms mean,

median, and mode that are described in the stem-and-leaf plot section.  At the same

time we may wish to use graph paper for it is crucial that each recorded X be uniform

in size and placed exactly across from each other (one-to-one correspondence). 

This is a way to organize data. Diagram below shows the example of line plots.

Line Plot for the Number of M&M's™ in a Package

                       

                                   X                    X X   X            X   X X   X          X X   X X X X X    X   X X X X X X X X   X12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20 21 22 23

There are some procedure steps that must follow when we draw the line plots.

For example, Step 1 we must gather the given  information which is called data for

which a line plot has to be drawn. Look for those data sets that need to show frequency.

Step 2 group the data items that are the same and then create and label a chart to help

you organize the list from the data. Step 3 determine an approximate scale to draw the

line plot. If the scale consists of numbers, then break it into even parts. Step 4 draw a

horizontal line and label it according to the scale chosen. This looks  similar to a number

line. Step 5 put a mark, say X that corresponds to the number on the scale according to

the data that is organized. This is the line plot. For example, we use the above steps to

give the line plot examples. Sketch the line plot for the following given data of heights of

students of a class in centimeters.120,110,100,120,105,110,105,100,110,105.

As a solution let the labels be the heights of the students (in centimeters) in a

class. If two students are of 120cms, you'd place two X's above 120. If three students

are of 110cms, you'd place two X's above 110. If three students were 105cms, you'd put

three X's above 105. If two students are of 100cms, you'd place two X's above 100. The

Students will enjoy surveying family and friends for information to construct their own

line plots.  Examples of topics might be number of children in their family, number of

doors in their home, or number of eggs in their refrigerator. Always write at least two

sentences analyzing the data.  Students will enjoy seeing their line plots and

interpretations displayed as well as having the opportunity to read and study the ones

completed by their classmates.

An effective way to culminate an early experience with line plots is to have

students do the activity using individual boxes of candy or packages of M&M's™.  Once

everyone has counted the number of items inside the box or package, determine the

smallest and largest numbers.  On a sheet of tag board or craft paper draw lines for

columns wide enough for the box or package to fit inside the column.  At the bottom list

the items found from the smallest to the largest.  Direct each child to place a curled

piece of tape on the back of his/her box or package.  Each child then places his/her

container on the line plot remembering to start at the bottom just above their number.

Related Terms for Line Plot are, Number Line , Data and Frequency.

Examples of Line Plots

Essay about Scatter Plot

Scatter plot is a graph made by plotting ordered pairs in a coordinate plane to

show the correlation between two sets of data. It will describes a positive trend if, as

one set of values increases, the other set tends to increase. In addition scatter plots

describes a negative trend if, as one set of values increases, the other set tends to

decrease. A scatter plot shows no trend if the ordered pairs show no correlation.

In other word, scatter plot describes a positive trend if, as one set of values

increases, the other set tends to increase.  Not only that, scatter plot describes a

negative trend if, as one set of values increases, the other set tends to decrease. A

scatter plot shows no trend if the ordered pairs show no correlation. Scatter plots are

similar to line graphs in that they use horizontal and vertical axes to plot data points.

However, they have a very specific purpose. Scatter plots show how much one variable

is affected by another. The relationship between two variables is called their correlation

.

Scatter plots usually consist of a large body of data. The closer the data points

come when plotted to making a straight line, the higher the correlation between the two

variables, or the stronger the relationship. If the data points make a straight line going

from the origin out to high x- and y-values, then the variables are said to have a

positive correlation . If the line goes from a high-value on the y-axis down to a high-

value on the x-axis, the variables have a negative correlation .

Example High

Positive Correlation

Example High

Negative Correlation

Low Negative Correlation

No Correlation

Low Positive Correlation

Essay about Histograms Histograms are a bar graph that shows how frequently data occur within certain

ranges or intervals. The height of each bar gives the frequency in the respective

interval. Histograms are used to show numerical information in graphic form. They

usually follow a bar-graph format. When the results of a study or a survey are

transferred into graphic form, it makes it easier for readers to analyze the data and

understand the significance of the numbers. Similarly to other graphs, histograms have

an x and y axis.

The term "histogram" is from the Greek language, and was coined by Karl

Pearson, a famous statistician. Simply stated, it means a "common form of graphical

representation." It is unclear when histograms were first created, but they have been

useful tools for quite some time. "The Commercial and Political Atlas," written by William

Playfair and published in 1786, contained the oldest known bar chart. In 1859, Florence

Nightingale used histograms to show the difference in mortality between civilians and

the military.

The purpose of a histogram is to put numerical information into graphic form

so it is easier to understand. Histograms show the frequency with which, and the time at

which, certain things occur. For example, Florence Nightingale tried to show that military

men died more frequently than civilians, which gave her the evidence she needed to

improve army hygiene. When facts are visualized and labeled, it can help to make

positive changes in the world.

On the y-axis, histograms show the frequency with which something occurs.

On the x-axis, the time is labeled. The x-axis is in even increments so the data doesn't

look skewed. Data is then transferred into bar shapes for each increment on the x-axis.

A stem-and-leaf-plot can be used to generate the data for a histogram. The leaf is the

last digit of the number, and the remaining numbers are the stem. For example, the

number 345 would have 5 as its leaf and 34 as its stem. You can create two columns--

one for the stems and one for the leaves. You then lump the leaves with the similar

stems, if there are any. When you turn a stem-and-leaf-plot on its side, it creates a

histogram.

When you are analyzing a histogram, you need to read all of the labels to

fully understand what the histogram is trying to show. First, read the title and find out

what the main idea of the histogram is. Then look at the scale and the labels on the x

and y axes. From there, you can determine the frequency for specific information, which

can show a decrease, increase or pattern in the topic at hand.

Although histogram are simple graphs, they can provide valuable information.

When numerical data is compressed and converted into a histogram, it enables readers

to notice patterns and see changes. In order to improve institutions like health-care or

education, you need to see the data and how it is being affected. However, not all

histograms aim to change something. Some are simply for reference and to show basic

statistical information about a certain topic.

Percent of Women Who Smoked During the Last 3 Months of Pregnancy

Prevalence of Current Smoking Among Adults 18 Years and Older

How to Construct Charts on Excel

1.Pie Chart

1. Step 1

Create a spreadsheet in Microsoft Excel entering your data as usual. You can enter

as many rows and columns as you need for your data, and you can include

formulas.

2. Step 2

Click on the type of pie chart you'd like to see. There are two dimensional, three

dimensional, and exploded views.

3. Step 3

Your completed pie chart appears!

2.Line Graph

Create a spreadsheet in Microsoft Excel entering your data as usual. You can enter

as many rows and columns as you need for your data, and you can include

formulas.

Click on the type of line chart you'd like to see. There are two dimensional, three

dimensional, and exploded views.

Your completed pie chart appears!

3.Histogram

I. Use the Chart Wizard to create the histogram from the frequency table. Click the Chart Wizard icon on the Excel toolbar and complete the following steps:

Step 1 of 4: Chart Type

Under the Standard Types tab, there is a scrolling list of Chart Types.

Click on Column, if not already selected. Under Chart Sub-Type, click to select

Clustered Columns (in the upper left-hand corner), if not already selected. Click

Next.

Step 2 of 4: Chart Source Data

Data Range: Click the box just to the right of the Data Range field or click in the

field itself. In your newly created frequency table, click in the cell containing the first

frequency and drag down to select the frequencies in the frequency table. Do not

include the frequency associated with the More bin level (which should be zero).

Check the small version of the histogram shown on this page. It should be very

close to the finished product (except for the gaps between bars). If not, under the

Data Range tab, check to make sure that the data range corresponds to your

frequency count cells. Also, make sure that the Columns option is checked under

the Series In: section.

Click on the Series tab. In the Category (X) Axis Labels section, provide the cell

range for the bin range values (just to the left of your frequency counts). This will put

the correct labels on the horizontal axis of your histogram. Do not include the More

bin level.

Click Next.

Step 3 of 4: Chart Options

Click the Title tab. Give your chart a title (Histogram of ___), an X-axis label (the

name of your variable), and a Y-axis label (Frequency).

Click the Gridlines tab. Turn off the Major Gridlines on the Y-axis option.

Click the Legend tab. Uncheck the Show Legend box.

Click Next.

Step 4 of 4: Chart Location

Specify whether you want your chart in a new worksheet or to appear as an object

on the current worksheet

Click Finish.

Fix the gaps between the bars: Double-click on any of the bars in the histogram.

Click the Options tab in the Format Data Series window. Change the Gap Width to 0

and click OK.

Fix the background of the plot: Double-click on the gray background in the plot.

Click on the None option for Area and click OK.

Construct Pie Chart, Line Graph and Histogram using Excel

Pie Chart

Types of Transport Percentage

Bicycle 20%

Bus 30%

Car 5%

Motorcycle 10%

Van 25%

Walking 10%

Mode of Transport used by Students of Sekolah Kebangsaan Dato’ Onn Butterworth

The pie – chart shows the result of survey which carried out by

counseling department about the mode of transport used by students of Sekolah

Menengah Kebangsaan Dato ‘ Onn Butterworth.

Mode of Tra nsport Used by Students of Sekola h Menenga h Da to'Onn Butterworth

20%

30%5%

10%

25%

10%Bicycle

Bus

Car

Motorcycle

Van

Walking

The most widely used mode of transport is the bus. About thirty

percent of the students come to school by bus. Most of these students live in town or

along the route where the bus services are widely available. Moreover, bus is a public

transport. If every students use car or motorcycle, there will be a traffic jam. So,

students will be late to school. Bus is widely used by students as a mode of transport to

prevent from these kind of problems. The second most popular mode of transport is the

van. The students who come to school by van live in estates and villagers where bus

services are not available.

Students who live near the school, cycle to school while the older

students who have licenses come to school by motorcycles. Twenty percent of the

students cycle to school on the other hand ten percent of the students use motorcycle to

come to school. Ten percent of the students walk to school where they live within a

kilometer from the school.

The least widely used means of transport is the car. Only five percent

of the students come to school by car. The reason for this could be the financial factor.

Only children of parents who can afford to own cars can come to school by car.

Line Plot

Environmental ProtectionNo Longer Environment vs. Economy

Markets provide greater environmental effectiveness than command-and-control

regulation because they turn pollution reductions into marketable assets. In doing so,

this system creates tangible financial rewards for environmental performance. Because

cap-and-trade gives pollution reductions a value in the marketplace, the system prompts

technological and process innovations that reduce pollution down to or beyond required

levels. This point is not theoretical; experience has shown these results.

A successful market-based program requires just a few minimum elements. All of

the following are absolutely essential to an efficient and effective program:

A mandatory emissions "cap." This is a limit on the total tons of emissions that

can be emitted. It provides the standard by which environmental progress is

measured, and it gives tons traded on the pollution market value; if the tons didn’t

result in real reductions to the atmosphere, they don’t have any market value.

A fixed number of allowances for each polluting entity. Each allowance gives

the owner the right to emit one ton of pollution at any time. Allocation of

allowances can occur via a number of different formulas.

Banking and trading. A source that reduces its emissions below its allowance

level may sell the extra allowances to another source. A source that finds it more

expensive to reduce emissions below allowable levels may purchase allowances

from another source. Buyers and sellers may “bank” any unused allowances for

future use.

Clear performance criteria. At the end of the compliance period (e.g., one year,

five years, etc.), each source must hold a number of allowances equal to its tons

of emissions for that period, and must have measured its emissions accurately

and reported them transparently.

Flexibility. Sources have flexibility to decide when, where and how to reduce

emissions.

An active cap-and-trade market enables those who can reduce pollution cheaply to

earn a return on their pollution reduction investment by selling extra allowances. It

enables those who can’t reduce pollution as cheaply to purchase allowances at a lower

cost than the cost of reducing their own emissions. It enables all participants to meet the

total emissions cap cost-effectively. And it gives all emitters incentives to innovate to

find the least-cost solutions for total pollution control.

Histogram

Year Number of Accidents

1995 7562

1996 8799

1997 8951

1998 12855

1999 13855

2000 14880

2001 16249

2002 18910

2003 21553

Road Accidents on the Rise

The graph shows the number of road accidents occurred in Kuala Lumpur for a

period of 9 years that is from 1995 to 2003. This survey carried out by Kuala Lumpur

Municipal Department to overcome the growing amount of road accidents at Kuala

Lumpur.

From 1995 to 1997, there has been a slow but steady decreases in the number

of accidents. From 1998 onwards, the number of accidents showed an increases. The

Number of Accidents in Kuala Lumpur from 1995 -2003

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Year

Num

ber o

f Acc

iden

ts (i

n th

ousa

nds)

most dramatic and significant increase in the number of accidents occurred in 1998.

The highest number of accidents, that is 21553 accidents, occurred in year 2003.

The figure show that since 1995, there has been a rising trend in the number of

accidents. The rising number of accidents cases shows that the situation is serious. The

last nine years have seen a steady increase in the number of accidents.

The government has to enforce stricter rules and regulations to check the rising

trend in the number of accidents. In the view of the seriousness of the situation, traffic

offenders should be made to pay heavier fines.

When creating a graph, it is important to select the appropriate graph type with

which to display your data. You may select from a number of basic graph types, as well

as refinements on these types, known as graph styles. Basic graph types include line

graphs (connected point plots), bar graphs, pie graphs, and scatter graphs.

1. Line graphs.

Line graphs are useful for emphasizing the movement or trend of

numerical data over time, since they allow a viewer to trace the evolution of a particular

point by working backwards or interpolating. Highs and lows, rapid or slow movement,

or a tendency towards stability are all types of trends that are well suited to a line graph.

Line graphs can also be plotted with two or more scales to suggest a comparison of the

same value, or set of values, in different time periods. The number of scales your graph

has depends on the type of graph you select. There is a description of each available

graph type on the Graph types tab of the Graph Assistant.

Line Graphs are used to show how two parameters are related to each

other. Or to put it another how one variable changes as another changes. A Line graph

consists of two axis, a vertical or Y axis and a horizontal or X axis.

The most common use of a line graph is to show how a piece of data varies

over time. The X-axis generally represents time whilst the Y-axis represents the value.

Point are then plotted for each time interval and the points joined by a line. This

provides a visual representation of how the data varied over time. Of course the x-axis

does not have to represent time and in fact can represent anything required. The only

requirement is that there is some relationship between the X and Y axis.

2. Histograms.

Histograms plot numerical data by displaying rectangular blocks against a scale.

The length of a bar corresponds to a value or amount. Viewers can develop a clear

mental image of comparisons among data series by distinguishing the relative

heights of the bars. Use a bar graph to display numerical data when you want to

present distributions of data. You can create horizontal as well as vertical bar

graphs.

3. Pie graphs. Pie graphs emphasize where your data fits in relation to a larger whole. Keep in

mind that pie graphs work best when your data consists of several large sets. Too

many variables divide the pie into small segments that are difficult to see. Use color

or texture on individual segments to create visual contrast.

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