Accepted refereed manuscript of:
Shepherd J, Monroig O & Tocher DR (2017) Future availability of raw
materials for salmon feeds and supply chain implications: the case of
Scottish farmed salmon, Aquaculture, 467, pp. 49-62.
DOI: 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2016.08.021
© 2016, Elsevier. Licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
1
Future availability of raw materials for salmon feeds and supply chain1
implications:thecaseofScottishfarmedsalmon2
3
C.JonathanShepherda,OscarMonroigb*,DouglasR.Tocherb4
5
aBluetailConsultingLtd.,Richmond,SurreyTW93NL,UK6bInstituteofAquaculture,SchoolofNaturalSciences,UniversityofStirling,StirlingFK94LA,UK7
8
*Correspondingauthor:[email protected]
10
2
Abstract11
ThecurrentrangeofScottishsalmonfeedsisadaptedtoadifferentiatedsupplyofsalmonproducts,12
includingdifferingomega-3content,differingcontentofmarinerawmaterials,etc.Theprogressive13
replacementofmarinefeedingredientsbyplantproteinsandoilsisreducingthecontentofomega-314
long-chainpolyunsaturated fattyacids (LC-PUFA).However thebenefitsareamoresecureand less15
volatilerawmaterialsupply,togetherwithenvironmentalfeedcontaminantsatloworundetectable16
levels in the resulting salmonproduct. There iswidespreadadoptionof standards and certification17
schemes by Scottish salmon farmers and feed suppliers in order to demonstrate environmental18
sustainability. Thishas focused inparticularonuseof certified ingredients from sustainable supply19
sources(‘responsiblesourcing’).FuturevolumeestimatesofScottishsalmonproduction,hencefeed20
requirements, are insufficient to threaten raw material supply compared with global markets,21
although it is argued this is likely to involve greater use of locally grown plant proteins and an22
increasedproportionoffishmealmanufacturedfromby-producttrimmings(derivedfromprocessing23
fish for human consumption). However, UK retail chains will remain reluctant to allow salmon24
suppliers to utilise land animal by-products due to negative consumer perceptions, with resulting25
implications for formulation cost and flexibility. Given its world-wide scarcity, the main strategic26
concern relates to future availability of sufficient omega-3 LC-PUFA, in particular eicosapentaenoic27
acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), in order to maintain the healthy image of Scottish28
salmon.Tomaintainitslonger-termreputationandproductbenefits,theScottishindustrymayneed29
toconsideradoptingamoreflexibleattitudetousingnewalternativestofishoil(e.g.EPAandDHA30
derived from transgenic oil seed crops,when commercially available). It is concluded that Scottish31
salmon farming is a successful example of sustainable feed development and the industry can be32
confident that the changing rawmaterial base will support continuing production of high quality,33
healthyfarmedsalmon,butthelong-termsecurityofsupplyofomega-3LC-PUFAremainsanissue.34
35
36
Keywords:Atlanticsalmon;sustainablefeeds;fishmeal;fishoil;alternativeproteins;alternativeoils;37
omega-3;EPA;DHA;supplychains38
1.IntroductiontoScottishsalmonfeeds39
40
1.1 Studyaimsandmethodology41
3
Farmed Scottish salmon has a distinct market position, which has implications for feed42
requirements. The purpose of this study was to consider trends in the change in composition of43
Scottishsalmonfeedswithregardtotheavailabilityanduseofkeyfeedingredients,andtoconsider44
theresultingimplicationsforfarmedsalmonsupplychains.Inparticularthestudyaimwastoidentify45
the nutritional, ethical, marketing, and sustainability issues surrounding reduced reliance of the46
salmonfarming industryonmarine ingredients. Inorder toachievethis,over theperiod fromApril47
2014toMarch2015,meetingsandtelephoneinterviewswereconductedwith industryexpertsand48
stakeholdersintheUK,Norway,Denmark,France,Ireland,andtheUSA.49
50
1.2GlobalfarmedsalmonindustryandthedifferentiatedsupplyofScottishsalmonandfeeds51
Salmon farming is themosthighlydeveloped formof large-scale intensiveaquacultureowing to its52
productivitygrowthandtechnologicalchangesincetheindustrystartedinthe1970’sinNorwayand53
Scotland; it represents a highly efficient mechanism for transforming marine resources into high54
quality food that is available on a year round basis (Hognes et al., 2011; Ytrestøyl et al., 2011).55
EstimatedglobalproductionoffarmedAtlanticsalmonin2013wasapprox.1.8milliontonnesandis56
dominated by Norwaywith 1.1million tonnes (Kontali, 2013). Themuch smaller Scottish industry57
(163,234tonnesin2013,Table1)closelyparallelsNorwayintermsoffarmingtechnologyandisnow58
mainly in Norwegian ownership. The compound annual growth rate (CAGR) for farmed Atlantic59
salmonwas6%onaglobalbasisfrom2003–2013,butisnowdecreasing(MarineHarvest,2014).In60
both Scotland andNorway the growth in salmon farming has resulted in year-round availability of61
cost-efficient, affordable salmon products on a greatly increased scale, while creating wealth and62
sustainable employment, including to remote rural locations; the industry therefore demonstrates63
cleareconomicandsocialbenefits(AscheandBjørndal,2011).64
Table1comparesScottishwithNorwegianfarmedsalmonproduction,feedsupply,andfeed65
conversionrate(FCR)for2013and2014.Atc.13%ofcombinedScottishandNorwegianproduction66
volumein2014,itisclearthatScottishproductionisrelativelysmall.AlsotheScottishGovernment’s67
targetforsustainablegrowthofmarinefinfishis210,000tonnesby2020.Itshouldbenotedthat68
2014Scottishsalmonproductionwasboostedbypremature4thquarterharvestingforhealthreasons;69
asaconsequenceanFCRof1.23appearsunrealisticallylowandindustrysourcesindicateitwasclose70
tothe2013valueatc.1.3.Feedcostsdominateproductioncostsforfarmedsalmonwiththe201371
costofsalmonfeedinNorwayandScotlandforMarineHarvest(thelargestglobalsalmonproducer)72
4
estimatedat50%and46%respectivelyofproductioncosts;thecorrespondingfiguresof41%and73
43%respectivelyforCanadaandChilearemainlyduetolowerfeedcostslinkedtouseoflandanimal74
by-products(MarineHarvest,2014).75
Despite being relatively small in volume compared with Norway and Chile, the Scottish salmon76
industry holds a distinctive position in world markets. Whereas the Norwegian salmon farming77
industryistheleadingworldproducerandexporteroffarmedsalmonasastandardisedcommodity78
product, including to theUKmarket, the Scottish industry, lacking comparableeconomiesof scale,79
supplies more differentiated products at higher unit value to offset potentially higher production80
costs.Theserangefromstandardtohighperformanceproducts1,includingbespokesupplyforniche81
marketsintheUKandoverseas(mainlytotheUSAandFrance).Scottishproductionthereforerelies82
onavarietyofdifferentfeedproducts,includingspecialistformulationstosupportapremiumsalmon83
segment, i.e. higher price salmon products with quality characteristics, including label claims on84
Scottishprovenance,thecontentofomega-3LC-PUFAinregardtoEUintakerecommendations,and85
others(e.g.compliancewithresponsiblefarmingstandards).86
87
2.Changingsalmonfeedcomposition88
2.1Historicalpictureandtrends89
Historicallythetwomostimportantingredientsinsalmonfeedhavebeenfishmealandfishoil,having90
favourable nutrient compositions and reflecting a major food item for a carnivorous species like91
salmon (NRC, 2011). Apart from a need for low levels of essential fatty acids for salmon growth,92
supplied via small quantities of (the oil present in) fishmeal or via fish oil, fishmeal itself is not an93
essential feed ingredient for aquacultureper se, but it provides a near optimal complete feed in a94
convenient, cost-effective, and highly digestible product form (Tacon andMetian, 2008).However,95
thepatternofstagnatingwildfisheriesandthefastgrowthofaquacultureriskedover-dependenceon96
a limited range of feed ingredients, especially fishmeal and fish oil, while the issues involved in97
replacementbyalternativeproteinsandoilsweresoonrecognised(SargentandTacon,1999;Naylor98
etal.,2000).Forreasonsofcostreductionandsecurityofsupply,cheaperalternativeingredients(e.g.99
soyabean meal; rapeseed oil) have therefore been researched and progressively substituted in100
commercial feed formulations, where technically and economically feasible, and after further101
1‘highperformancediets’aredefinedasdietswithhighnutrientdensity,typicallycontainingrelativelyhighlevelsofenergyanddigestibleprotein
5
processing as required (NRC, 2011). At the same time increasingly higher inclusion of oil has been102
madepossiblebyextrudedfeedtechnologyanddrivenbytheproteinsparingeffectofoilpromoting103
growth(NRC,2011).104
105
2.2 SalmonfeedcompositioninScotlandandNorway106
InformationaboutsalmonfeedformulationismorewidelyavailableinNorwaythanScotlanddue107
to reporting requirements and policy issues. However, until recently the same three fish feed108
companiesdominatedfeedmanufactureinbothcountries(i.e.BioMar,EwosandSkretting,although109
Marine Harvest has now also entered feed manufacture in Norway). Therefore, the two salmon110
farming industries are similar with some key differences in response to UK market focus, e.g. on111
omega-3. Thus feed formulation trends are broadly comparable between the two countries, with112
Scottish salmon feeds being more conservative in terms of rate of change and more varied in113
reflecting bespoke customer requirements. Fig. 1 shows the large changes in composition of114
Norwegiansalmonfeedsince1990whenc.90%ofthedietcamefrommarineingredientscompared115
with29.2%in2013(Ytrestøyletal.,2014,2015).116
ThefeedcomparisonbetweenScotlandandNorwayiscomplicatedbytheproliferationofbespoke117
dietsinScotland,someofwhicharedrivenbyexternalstandards(e.g.Organic,LabelRougeetc.),but118
mostly by farm customer requirements linked in turn to retail requirements. Although the119
consultationrevealedaverageScottishsalmondietsfor2013/14comprisedapproximately60%plant120
and 40 %marine ingredients, this obscures the large range of different Scottish formulations; for121
instancein2014c.7,000tonnes(4%)ofsalmonproductionwasmadeforexporttotheLabelRouge122
salmon specificationwith amarine feed content of 51%,whereas there is also significant salmon123
volumebeingproducedapproximatingtolowerNorwegiandietspecifications.Atthesametimethere124
has been amove in Scotland during 2013/2014 towards use of high performance diets of variable125
specification, but generally higher use of fishmeal. The consultation also revealed that nearly all126
Scottishfeedsarebeingcurrentlyformulatedtogivenotlessthan22MJ/kginordertoachievefaster127
growthand improved feed conversion. Typically thisentailsdietswith37% lipidand36%protein128
(with11%carbohydrate/fibre,9%ashand7%moisture),withhighsalmonpricesallowingfarmersto129
invest inhigherspecificationdietsathighercost inordertoyieldhighermarginalproductivity.Asa130
consequencetheoverallaveragemarineproteinandoilcontentofScottishsalmondietsisprobably131
around25%and15%, respectively, (c.f.around20%and10%, respectively inNorway),andwith132
6
higher average eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3)133
required for Scottish farmed salmon. In Scotland (andNorway) there is no use of land animal by-134
products, which account for over 20 % dietary inclusion in Chile and Canada, or of genetically135
modified(GM)ingredients(e.g.ChileandCanadauseGMsoya).136
ThefollowingingredientsarecommonlyusedinScottishsalmonfeeds:soyproteinconcentrate(SPC);137
rapeseedoil;fishmeal;wheatstarch;fishoil;wheatgluten;sunflowermeal;fababeans;peastarch;138
maize; pea protein concentrate; and other ingredients have been used in minor proportions, e.g.139
rapeseed protein concentrate, palm oil, tapioca starch etc., with usage based on least cost140
formulation in order to optimise recipe cost. The volatility of ingredient costs is illustrated by the141
patternofchangingingredientpricesforfivekeyrawmaterialsinsalmonfeedduringtheperiodfrom142
2006to2013,witharisingtrendforfishmeal,fishoil,andsoya,comparedwithmorestablepricesfor143
rapeseedoilandwheat(Fig.2).144
145
2.3Effectofreducedmarineingredientinclusiononfeedsustainability146
The replacement of finite marine feed resources by plant-based ingredients (and fishery by-147
products),isenablingsalmonfarmingtoachievenetfishproteinproductionandpossiblynetmarine148
oil production (Cramptonet al., 2010; Bendiksen et al., 2011; Sandenet al.,2011).This continuing149
trend towards substitutionofmarine ingredients, togetherwith increasing evidence that reduction150
fisheriesarenotbeingoverexploited,contradicts thetraditionalviewthatsalmonfarmingrelieson151
theunsustainableuseofmarineingredients(ShepherdandLittle,2014).Forglobal‘fed’aquaculture,152
thereisanoverallplateauinfishmealandfishoilusedespiteincreasingaquacultureproduction(Fig.153
3),whichhasnotbeenrestrictedby,atbest,astaticsupplyofmarineingredientssince2009.Rising154
demandforfishfeedingredientshasnotthereforeincreasedpressureonwildfishresourcesbecause155
of increaseduseofplantresources.Atthesametimethere isnoevidencethatplantresourcesare156
inherentlymoresustainableforfarmingsalmon,providedmarinefeedingredientsaresourcedfrom157
sustainably managed stocks (or from fishery by-products); hence an increased utilisation of plant158
ingredients may not be as sustainable as generally assumed (Torrissen et al., 2011). However, all159
marineingredientssuppliedtotheScottishsalmonfeedindustryarerequiredbythesupplychainsto160
showthattheyareresponsiblymanagedandrenewable(seesection6).161
162
2.4Effectofreducedmarineingredientinclusiononsalmonnutritionandwelfare163
7
IftheavailableEPAandDHAforglobalsalmonfeedfallsbelow4%ofthetotaldietaryoilfraction164
(equivalenttoc.1.2%oftotal feed), this thenapproachesthe1%riskareaforessential fattyacid165
deficiencyinsalmonandcouldpredisposetohealthproblemsorreducedperformance(Ruyteretal.,166
2000a,b).Thisrisk is likelytobeexacerbatedbythe increaseduseofhigherperformancedietsand167
resulting higher growth rates (NRC, 2011). The implications of falling omega-3 LC-PUFA levels for168
salmonconsumersareconsideredinsection4.Inthecaseofincreasedplantproteinusage,itiswell169
recognisedthattherisksrelatetotheneedtosupplementwithcertainaminoacids(e.g. lysineand170
methionine), whereas the presence of anti-nutritional compounds requires prior processing of the171
raw materials (e.g. by concentration or heat treatment) (Gatlin III et al., 2007). As regards172
micronutrients,increasedplantproteinlevelsmayleadtosuboptimallevelsofcertainminerals(e.g.173
selenium,iodine)andvitamins(e.g.vitaminsA,D,andsomeBvitamins)(NRC,2011).174
175
2.5Effectofreducedmarineingredientinclusiononcontaminantlevels176
The Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety concluded that the benefits of eating fish177
clearly outweigh the negligible risk presented by current levels of contaminants and other known178
undesirablesubstances(VKM,2014).Asregardsfarmedsalmon,concentrationsofdioxinsanddioxin-179
likepolychlorinatedbiphenyls(PCBs),aswellasofmercury,havedecreasedbyabout30%and50%,180
respectively, comparedwith the corresponding levels in 2006, due to replacement ofmarine feed181
ingredients by plant ingredients. New fish feed contaminants, such as the pesticide endosulfan,182
polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and mycotoxins are unlikely to be a safety issue, since the183
concentrationsarevery lowandnotdetectablewithsensitiveanalyticalmethods (VKM,2014).The184
health risk associatedwith brominated flame-retardants (PBDEs) is low. In contrast to their earlier185
conclusions, VKM stated that there is now no reason for specific dietary limitations on fatty fish186
consumptionforpregnantwomen. It is likelythatthecontaminantspicture inScottishsalmonfeed187
closely parallels the Norwegian experience, with themain differences due to local UK sourcing of188
fisheryby-products, theslowerrateof replacementofmarine ingredients inScottishdiets,andthe189
greateruseofbespokesalmondietsinScotlandwithhighermarinecontent.Theswitchfrommarine190
to predominately plant-based diets will notmean a greater risk of pesticide contamination of the191
feed, since any such contamination is unlikely to penetrate through the hull, which is normally192
discardedfromoilseedsduringprocessing.193
194
8
3.Globalsupplyandlocaldemandforproteinsandoils195
3.1 Marineingredients196
Fishmeal and fish oil are globally traded commodities similar to other rawmaterials or primary197
agriculturalproductsthathavelongbeenproducedandmarketed;aquaculturegrewtobecomethe198
biggestcustomerforthesemarineresources(JacksonandShepherd,2012).Figs.4and5detailannual199
worldfishmealandfishoilproduction,respectively,byproducingregionfrom2006to2015,withPeru200
the dominant world supplier followed by Chile. There may be a decreasing trend for marine201
ingredientproduction(e.g.fishmealproductionin2012and2013wasaround12%lessthanthe11202
year mean at 4.56 and 4.68 million tonnes, respectively (IFFO, 2014)). Production is subject to203
environmentalinfluencesand,whereasthepotentialimpactofclimatechangeisnotwellunderstood204
(Callawayetal.,2012),acutephenomena,suchasElNiño,havewell-knownconsequences,especially205
for thePeruviananchovy fishery (Shepherdand Jackson,2013).Given thesesupplyuncertainties in206
the dominant southern Pacific anchovy fishery, compounded by increased regulatory focus on207
precautionary catch quotas, continuing growth by major users of marine ingredients (including208
salmonfarming)hasonlybeenpossiblebytheincreasedsubstitutioninfeedsbyotheringredients.209
Basedona2014Scottishsalmonfeedvolumeofc.220,000tonnes,thecorrespondingestimated210
usageofmarineingredientsat40%offeedis88,000tonnes(i.e.requirementsforfishmealat25%211
being55,000tonnesandforfishoilat15%being33,000tonnes).UKandIrishproductionoffishmeal212
in 2014 was c. 39,000 tonnes (T. Parker, United Fish Products, personal communication), but in213
practice at least 50 % of fishmeal requirements need to be imported as some of this domestic214
production is from salmon processing offal and therefore cannot be fed back to salmon. Logistics215
favourScottishfishmeal importsfromIcelandandNorway,whilefishoil isalso importedfromPeru216
andChiletoobtainhigherlevelsofEPAandDHAthanwouldbeavailablefromfisheriesintheNorth217
EastAtlantic.218
219
3.2Plantingredients220
3.2.1Plantproteins221
US World Agricultural Supply and Demand Estimates (October 2015) have updated 2015/2016222
globalcropestimates,asfollows:wheat-732.8milliontonnes;corn-988milliontonnes(basedon223
38,898millionbushels);andsoybeans-320.5milliontonnes(USDA,2015).224
9
The requirement for feeds with a high nutrient density ordinarily favours using plant protein225
concentrates.Thesearemostreadilyavailablefromoilseeds,includingrapeseedandsunflowerseed,226
but the most widely used is SPC. Although their global availability as bulk commodities is not a227
constraint on fish feed (e.g. 2015/2016 estimated global supply of oilseeds is 531 million tonnes;228
USDA,2015),theavailabilityofproteinconcentratesisless.229
Norway’s salmon industry requirements for non-GM soy (as SPC) were 365,000 tonnes in 2013230
(Ytrestøyletal.,2014)andcurrentplantproteinrequirementsforScotlandareestimatedat77,000231
tonnes,over50,000tonnesasSPC.Althoughestimatedglobalproductionofsoybeansfor2015/2106232
is320.5milliontonnes,thisismostlyGMmaterial,whereasEuropeansalmonfeedusesonlynon-GM233
soya products (see 6.1). Currently 5.5 million tonnes of non-GM soya are being grown, mainly in234
Brazil,andsuppliedtoworldmarketsatapricepremiumofUS$80–US$100orc.10%overGMsoya235
(C.Meinich,Chr.HoltermannANS,personalcommunication).GiventhatGMsoyaisusedinChilean236
andNorthAmericansalmonfeeds,requirementfornon-GMsoyforScottishsalmonfeedisc.1%of237
global supply and totals only 7.5 % for combined Norwegian and Scottish salmon production;238
however,theseareunderestimatesastheyieldofconcentratesisc.61.5%ofharvestedsoya.Despite239
itbeinganicheproductandall importedmainly fromBrazil, thereareno indicationsor reasonsto240
suspectthatavailabilityofnon-GMsoyawilldeclineintheshorttomediumterm.241
242
3.2.2 Plantoils243
Plantoilsareincorporatedintosalmonfeedstoprovideenergyandblendedwithsufficientfishoil244
oftheappropriatequalitytogivetherequiredcontentofEPAandDHA.Thepreferredingredient is245
rapeseedoil,whichisgrownintheEU(includingtheUK),butmainlyinNorthAmerica.Rapeseedhas246
beencross-bredtoreducelevelsoferucicacidandglucosinolatesandissafeforhumanconsumption247
(e.g. Canola). Global production of rapeseed oil for 2014/15 was 26.98 million metric tons and248
availability of non-GM rapeseed oil is not a constraint, including from UK crop material (Statista,249
2015).Otherplantoils,includingsoyaoilandpalmoil,havebeenusedatlowlevels(e.g.tohelppellet250
integrity).251
252
4.Omega-3LC-PUFAscarcity253
4.1Introduction254
10
Worldusageof fishoil from2003 to2013 is given in Fig. 6,with increasingdemand fromdirect255
human consumption (so-called ‘nutraceuticals’) appearing to be at the expense of aquaculture.256
Aquacultureuseaveragedaround800,000tonnesperannumuntil2012,butdeclinedtojustbelow257
700,000 tonnes per annum in 2013. Therefore around 75 % of total global supply was used in258
aquaculture,with21%goingfordirecthumanconsumptionin2013.Around83%offishoilusedin259
aquaculturefeedsin2013wasconsumedbysalmonids(60%,mainlysalmon)andmarinefish(23%)260
(Fig.7).261
Althoughpricesforfishoilandrapeseedoilwerebroadlysimilaradecadeago,demandforfishoil262
isnowlargelyaderiveddemandforomega-3LC-PUFA.ThisisshowninFig.2,whichindicatesthatthe263
fishoilpricehasbeenatanincreasingpremiumoverrapeseedoilsince2009whichisdirectlylinked264
toitscontentofEPAandDHA(ShepherdandBachis,2014).Thusrapeseedoil,whichhasnoEPAand265
DHA,isincludedasamorecost-effectivesourceofdietaryoilforenergypurposesonly.266
267
4.2Acuteshortagein2014/2015andlikelyrecovery268
AsaresultofPeru'sindustrialfleetbeinggivenlowanchovyfishingquotasin2014,thefleetcaught269
only2.25milliontonnesin2014,whichisaround1/3ofthecatchinrecentyears(Reuters,2015).This270
severelyimpactedontheglobalavailabilityofEPAandDHAresultinginrecordpricelevelsreaching271
US$2,500 - US$3,000/tonne for high omega-3 Peruvian fish oil delivered into Europe (IFFO,272
unpublished).Table2a indicates2014globalproductionwasonly140,000tonnesofcombinedEPA273
and DHA (compared with a ‘normal’ year of up to c. 200,000 tonnes) giving total availability of274
170,000 tonnes including year-end stock carry-over (afterMeinich, 2014). Table 2b indicates total275
consumptionofcombinedEPAandDHAforsalmonfeedin2014wasc.50,000tonnes,equatingtoan276
inclusion rate in the oil fraction of global salmon feed of around 6 % after taking account of277
consumptionbynon-salmonidaquaculture,directhumannutrition,andtechnicaluses(afterMeinich,278
2014).279
Although the total Peruvian anchovy catch increased to 3.69million tonnes in 2015 (E. Bachis,280
IFFO,personalcommunication),theanchovywereleanerwithaloweroilyieldthan2014duetothe281
ElNiñoeffect;thereforeitisconsideredthatthecurrentanchovyoilscarcityiscontinuingandglobal282
EPAandDHAsuppliesin2015orearly2016maybenomorethanin2014(E.Bachis,IFFO,personal283
communication).284
11
Due to high fish oil prices, non-traditional sources are now appearing on world markets, e.g.285
Sardinellaspp fromnorth-westAfrica (C.Meinich,Chr.HoltermannANS,personal communication),286
although such sources areunlikely tobe satisfactory in regard to certification requirements forUK287
salmon feeduse (see5.1).Highpriceswill tend todampendemand fromprice sensitive segments.288
Demandgrowthforhumannutritionandnon-salmonaquaculturewouldbeexpectedtobearound289
2.5% -5%perannum;however,humannutritiongrowthhas stalled since2013 (A. Ismail,GOED,290
personal communication) and fish oil inclusion in non-salmonid feeds can be expected to fall at291
currentprices.292
Historical precedent provides confidence of a likely strong rebound in Peruvian anchovy stocks293
followingthecurrentoceanicconditionsofElNiño,witharecoverynowlikelyduring2016,inwhich294
caseannualglobalfishoilsupplywillthenincreasetowardsmore‘normal’annualproductionlevels295
approaching c. 1 million tonnes of crude fish oil (corresponding to up to a maximum of 200,000296
tonnesofcombinedEPAandDHA).Historyalsosuggeststhatsuch ‘normal’ levelswillbesustained297
until the next El Niño event, which is unlikely to occur before 2020. Assuming a 2.5% compound298
annualgrowthrate(CAGR)forbothdirecthumannutritionandsalmonfarmingand5%CAGRfornon-299
salmonaquaculturefrom2016,thiswillpermitpro-ratagrowthinEPAandDHAdemand,withtotal300
consumption of 170,000 tonnes in 2016 increasing to 192,000 tonnes in 2020 (including 55,000301
tonnes for salmonbutwith spare capacity to increase to63,000 tonnes). If anotherElNiñooccurs302
soonafter2020,bythentheresultingscarcitycouldpossiblybeoffsetbyanincreasedsupplyofEPA303
andDHAfromnovelsources(see4.6)304
305
4.3MarketsignificanceofchangingEPAandDHAcontentofsalmon306
Onozakaetal.(2012)surveyedthepositionoffarmedsalmoninfiveEuropeancountries(including307
theUK)andfoundthatconsumersregardsalmonassuperiorinhealthinesscomparedtoothermeats.308
CertainUKretailersreportedthattheircustomerstakehealthbenefitsofsalmonintoaccountintheir309
purchasingdecisions,hencenegativepublicityonthehealthbenefitsoffarmedsalmonmightreduce310
demand. However, the health benefits of farmed salmon consumption are not restricted to its311
contentofomega-3LC-PUFA(GalliandRisé,2009;Tocher,2009).Salmoncompriseshighlydigestible312
proteinandessentialaminoacidsandmarinelipids,aswellasvitaminsandminerals,soconsumption313
ofsalmonismorenutritiouscomparedwithconsumingomega-3supplementsalone.314
12
TheGlobalOrganisationforEPAandDHA(GOED)summarizedtheinternationalrecommendations315
forEPAandDHAintake(GOED,2014),whileShepherdandBachis(2014)showedthat,asaresultof316
thecombinedEPAandDHAcontentofaddedoilinNorwegianfeedsfallingfrom20%in2002to7.2317
%in2012,thenumberofdaysrecommendedrequirementmetbyoneportionofNorwegiansalmon318
had fallen proportionately to approximately 6 days (EFSA at 250 mg/day), 3.4 days (SACN at 450319
mg/day),and3days(ISSFALat500mg/day).TheaverageUKconsumereatslessfishthanNorwegians320
andaUKsurveyshowedthat,foroilyfish,averageconsumptionwaswellbelowtherecommended321
one(140g)portionperweekinallagegroups,withmenandwomenaged19to64eatingjust52g322
and54g/weekofoilyfish,respectively(HMGovernment,2014).323
In a recent study of different farmed and wild salmon products available during 2013 in retail324
outlets inScotland,Henriquesetal. (2014)showedthat,althoughwildsalmonproductshadhigher325
relativevaluesofEPAandDHA,farmedsalmonproductsgenerallydeliveredahigherdoseofEPAand326
DHA compared to thewild salmonproducts, due to their higher lipid content, andwere therefore327
betterable todeliver recommendeddietary intake levels than thewildsalmonproducts; thestudy328
alsoconfirmedtheelevatedlevelsofomega-6PUFA,specificallylinoleicacid(18:2n-6),butconcluded329
that18:2n-6doesnothaveamajorimpactonthenutritionalqualityoffarmedsalmonanddoesnot330
outweighthebenefitsofthehighomega-3LC-PUFAlevelsrecorded.331
332
4.4 Omega-3LC-PUFAdifferentiationbyUKretailers333
The consultation revealed there is clear segmentation inUK farmed salmon supply between those334
retailerswillingtoclaimthatoneportionprovidestheweeklyrequiredintake(‘formulatedtodeliver335
high levels of healthy omega-3 long-chain fatty acids’ or similarwording) and those simply stating336
‘variable omega-3 content’ or similar wording. Currently four (out of nine) UK retailers (so-called337
‘premium suppliers’) claimon thepackof someor all of their products that consuming the stated338
portionswilldelivertheinternationallyrecommendedintakeofEPAandDHA,forwhichEFSAwould339
appeartobethe(minimum)targetreferenceofchoice.Forthesepremiumsuppliers/products,there340
isaclear linkbeingmadebetweenthecontentofomega-3LC-PUFAonofferandthehealthof the341
consumer, with the premium suppliers specifying Scottish farmed provenance, i.e. omega-3 has342
becomesomethingofaUniqueSellingPoint(USP)linkedtoScottishproduction.Thisdifferentiationis343
usedasacompetitivetoolbyretailers,butraisesrelatedquestions,suchas:344
13
• The term ‘omega-3 fatty acids’ may justifiably include more than EPA and DHA, e.g.345
docosapentaenoicacid(DPA).Inevaluatingcompetingproductclaims,caremustbetakento346
ensurelike-for-likecomparisons,sinceusingtotalomega-3LC-PUFAcontentgiveshigherflesh347
valuesthanonlyEPAandDHA.348
• Thereisnoindicationwhetherpremiumsalmonisformulatedwithanoverageofomega-3LC-349
PUFAto takeaccountof the reduction in levelsdue tocooking theproduct (whichwill vary350
withcookingmethodandfatloss,etc.),whileintakerecommendationlevelsarebasedonan351
assumptionofwhatisactuallyconsumed.352
• Thereisnoreferencetoomega-6fattyacidlevelsthathaveincreasedinfarmedsalmondueto353
vegetableoilinclusionlevels.354
355
4.5Thechallengetofeedformulation356
Theexistenceofa rangeofbespokesalmonproducts in response to retailmarketdifferentiation357
representsacomplexchallengeforfarmsandfeedsuppliers.FromtheconsultationitappearsthatUK358
feedmillsaddbetween6.5%and8.5%ofcombinedEPAandDHAintheoilfractionofthefeedto359
achieve1.75gina130gfilletportionofsalmon(EFSAtarget),dependingonsalmonbodyweightand360
fat level (orproportionatelymoreassuminga100gportion).The lowerendof theScottish farmed361
rangeisinthenormalrangeofstandardNorwegianpracticeduring2014andisclaimedtobetypical362
ofcurrentUKimportsofNorwegiansalmon(supplyinganestimated60%oftheUKmarket).Atthese363
lowerlevelsthereisnocertaintythattheEFSAclaimwillbemetconsistently(unlessconsumerseat364
more salmon each week) and this lower range corresponds to themajority of UK (non-premium)365
salmonvolumelabelledonthebasisof‘variableomega-3levels’.366
4.6FutureavailabilityofLC-PUFAsources367
GMsourcesofLC-PUFA(EPAandDHA),suchasEPA-containingGMyeast,arebeingusedinChilean368
salmon feeds; ‘Verlasso salmon’ (http://www.verlasso.com/). In addition, commercialproduction of369
EPAandDHAfromGMoilseedscouldbearealitybyaround2020(section8.2.2)(Tocher,2015).Other370
potentialsourcesofLC-PUFAare:371
4.6.1 Fisheryandaquacultureby-products372
Increasing use of fishing industry by-productswill continue to supplymarine ingredients,373
includingfishoil.Therecyclingofsalmonoilforsalmonproduction,whichisprohibitedby374
somecodesofpractice,isbeingusedinaquaculturefeeds(e.g.forgiltheadbream,Sparus375
14
aurata) and could potentially supply c. 150,000 tonnes of global salmon oil. With 70 %376
vegetableorigin itwouldcontainamaximum10,000 tonnesof EPAandDHA, but itsuse377
wouldreducethetotaldemandfromnon-salmonidaquaculture,makingmoreEPAandDHA378
available for salmon. In conclusion, increasedEPAandDHA from fisheryandaquaculture379
sourcesisunlikelytohavemajorvolumesignificanceintheshorttomediumterm(Tocher,380
2015).381
4.6.2 WholecellDHA-richalgalbiomass382
‘DHAGold’ (http://www.dhagold.com/) is a dry biomass sold by DSM as a non-GM feed383
productapprovedforsaleintheEU.384
4.6.3 MicroalgalDHA385
Fermentation of heterotrophic organisms (e.g. Schizochytrium) (Tocher, 2015) requires386
fermentation use of energy-dependent organic substrates (e.g. sugar), with current387
commercialdevelopmentsbyDSM,ADM,Alltech,etc.ThepotentialapplicabilityofDHAto388
salmonfeed isbyblendingfishoil toachieveasimilar1:1ratioofEPAtoDHAasseen in389
wildAtlanticsalmon.AsPeruviananchovyhasan18:12ratioofEPAtoDHA,DHAcanbe390
added toanchovyoil toachievea1:1EPA toDHAratio,beforebalancing theblendwith391
rapeseedoil;hence25-30%oftheresulting‘fishoil’cancomefrommicroalgalDHAbutstill392
remaininthenaturalrangeoffishoilcompositionofwildAtlanticsalmon.393
4.6.4 Longertermoptions394
In the long term it is recognised that cultivationof autotrophic/phototrophic algaeusing395
photosynthesisisthemostefficientsolution,butitisprovinghighlycomplexanddifficultto396
scaleup(Tocher,2015).397
398
4.7OptionsandimplicationsfortheScottishsalmonindustry399
The current shortage of marine sources of LC-PUFA (EPA and DHA) (section 4.2) should start to400
reversesoonandsuppliesare likely tobecomenormalduring2016andthereafteruntil thenextEl401
Niñooccursaround2020,bywhenalternativenovelsourcesofEPAandDHAmaybeavailablefrom402
GMandnon-GMsources;otherwise the current acute shortagebecomesa chronic shortage. Total403
2015supplyoffishoil(includingfarmedsalmonoil) isestimatedat834,800tonnes(E.Bachis,IFFO,404
personal communication) and the expectation is that average salmon feed inclusion will have405
remainedcloseto6%combinedEPAandDHAlevelinfeedoil,correspondingtothebareminimum406
15
needed tomeet EFSAweekly intake recommendation. Themain difficulty for the Scottish industry407
fromthecurrentshortageisifthepremiumsegmentneedstoreassessitsclaimaboutoneportionof408
fish meeting weekly recommended requirements for omega-3 LC-PUFA; if product relabelling409
becomesnecessary,thiscouldnegativelyimpactsalmon’simageasahealthyproduct.410
It is relevant forthe industrytoconsiderthemarginalcostofadditionalEPAandDHA inScottish411
feed.Forexample,assumingthereplacementcostofanchovyoil(c.26%combinedEPAandDHA)is412
US$3,000/tonne and it is necessary to add 7% of the oil fraction of the feed as EPA and DHA to413
reliablymeettheEFSAclaim,thisisequivalentat30%oilinclusionto2.1%ofthetotalfeed,hence414
costingUS$240/tonne.Onthisbasisshouldthemarketbesupplyingonly5%oftheoilfractionofthe415
feed to conserve material, the additional 2 % to regain scope for the EFSA claim would cost c.416
US$69/tonne (or US$34.50 for each percent inclusion of combined EPA and DHA), which may be417
viewedasaminorcostpremiumsetagainstthereputationalcostandrisksofdoingotherwise.Onthe418
samebasis, ifcurrentsalmonfeedcost/tonne isc.US$1,250/tonne,anadditional2%ofcombined419
EPAandDHAatUS$69/tonnewouldincreasefeedcostby5.5%.Note(i)calculationsshouldtakeinto420
accounttheinclusionoffishmeal,whichcontains9%oilwithhighlevelsofEPAandDHA;(ii)ifsome421
producersareusingmoreEPAandDHA,otherswillhavetouselessduetoscarcitylimits.422
423
5.Roleofcertificationandstandardsinresponsiblesourcing424
5.1.Demonstratingresponsiblesourcingofmarinefeedingredients425
Standardsandcertificationschemeshavebecomeimportanttoolstomanageconcernissues,suchas426
economic,socialandenvironmentalsustainability(e.g.GailSmith,2008).ThemainfocusforScottish427
salmon is long-termsustainability fromanenvironmental standpoint,especiallyuseofmarine feed428
ingredients.Anoverviewofthesustainabilityofreductionfisheriesispublishedannually(Sustainable429
FisheriesPartnership,2015)andtherearewell-establishedfoodchainstandardscontrollingprocess430
quality,foodsafety,andaparticularfocusonfishwelfareinScotland(MunroandWallace,2015).431
Indevelopingaconsensusapproachtoresponsiblepractice,theCodeofGoodPracticeforScottish432
finfishaquaculture(CoGP)seeks‘toenhancetheindustry’sreputationforrespectingtheenvironment433
throughadoptionofbestpracticeandgreenertechnologiesandreducingtheimpactonwildfisheries434
byincreasinguseofalternativefeedsources’(CoGP,2015).Inadditiontorecommendationsonfeed435
formulation and use, the CoGP requires that fish-catch supplies used in fishmealmanufacture are436
fromfisherieswhichareresponsiblymanaged,eitherbyreferencetotheFAO(FoodandAgriculture437
16
OrganisationoftheUnitedNations)CodeofConductforResponsibleFisheries(FAOCRF;FAO,2015)438
or the Marine Ingredients Organisation (IFFO) RS scheme (IFFO, 2015), or by another globally439
recognisedstandard.TheCoGPalsomakesfishwelfareprovisions,whichareinfluencedbyhusbandry440
conditions,includinguseofsuitablefeedsandfeedingmethods.441
Todemonstrateresponsiblesourcing,theuseofcertifiedingredientshasbeenadoptedbyScottish442
feedsuppliersandfarmers(SSPO,2013).Formarinefeedingredientsused inaquaculturethereare443
sixcommonlyusedstandards;GlobalGapismorefocusedonfoodsafety,whiletheotherfiveclaimto444
bebasedonthekeyprinciplesunderlyingtheFAOCRF(FAO,2015).TheyareAquacultureStewardship445
Council (ASC) (http://www.asc-aqua.org), Best Aquaculture Practice (GAA BAP)446
(http://www.gaalliance.org/bap/standards.php),FriendoftheSea(http://www.friendofthesea.org/),447
IFFORS,andMarineStewardshipCouncil (MSC)(http://www.msc.org).Formarineingredients, IFFO448
RScertificationisprobablyuniversalinScotlandprovidingevidenceoftraceabilitybacktoresponsibly449
managedfishstocks,avoidanceofillegal,unreported,andunregulatedfish(IUU),andcontrolofby-450
productrawmaterial,withanassociatedchainofcustody.Forsourcingoffishmealandfishoil,the451
followingwererequiredfortheprocessorsandretailersinterviewedduringthisstudy:452
• Traceabilitytospeciesandcountryoforigin453
• Noendangeredspeciesused,asdefinedbytheInternationalUnionforConservationofNature454
(IUCN)‘RedList’(IUCN,2015)455
• Preferenceforfeedmanufacturerstoprovideevidenceofresponsiblesourcing456
• AvoidanceofIUUfish457
458
5.2Demonstratingresponsiblesourcingofplantfeedingredients459
ThreestandardsarecurrentlyusedforplantingredientsforScottishsalmonfeeds:460
• TheRoundtableonResponsibleSoy(RTRS)AssociationapproveditsStandardforResponsible461
SoyProductionversionsin2010(RTRS,2011)462
• ThenewProTerraFoundationStandardVersionbecameeffectiveinJanuary2015andincludes463
soya(ProTerra,2015).464
• Cert ID is focusedonNon-GMOcertification andhasbecome thebenchmark forNon-GMO465
identitypreservation(CertIDEuropeLtd.,2015).466
Theuseofthesethreeschemesforfishfeed,primarilyforsoya,isseenasworkinprogress.Giventhe467
growingrecognitionofpotentialenvironmentalproblems(e.g.rainforestdegradationassociatedwith468
17
uncontrolled soya production, especially in South America), it is perhaps surprising that469
environmentalist pressure has focused on use of marine ingredients in aquaculture and largely470
ignoredplantingredientsuntilrecently.471
472
5.3UKsupplychainperspective-salmonfarmersandfeedmanufacturers473
Itwasclearfromtheconsultationthatsustainabilityissuesareastrategicconcernfortheownersof474
the three principal UK salmon feed companies and lie at the heart of their day-to-day operations,475
includingrawmaterialspurchase;alsothatsalmonpurchasingfirmsincreasinglyobligetheirsuppliers476
to provide evidence demonstrating responsiblemanagement and use of renewable resources. The477
salmon farm and feed-related certifications used currently by Scottish salmon farms and their478
associatedsupplychainsaregiveninSupplementaryFile1.Keyfindingsincludethefollowing:479
(i) Over 90 % of Scottish salmon farms are members of the Scottish Salmon Producers480
Organisation(SSPO)andsubscribetotheCoGP.481
(ii) Widespread adoption of ‘Freedom Food’/’RSPCA Assured’ certification482
(http://www.freedomfood.co.uk/)isaninternationaldifferentiatorspecifying‘sustainable483
feed’andIFFORScertificationofmarineingredients484
(iii) The most widely (but not exclusively) used Scottish salmon farming certification is485
GlobalGap (http://www.globalgap.org/uk_en/),which is focusedon foodsafetyand feed486
assurance.487
(iv) TheASCsalmonstandard(http://www.asc-aqua.org/index.cfm?lng=1)hasreceivedglobal488
endorsementbyMarineHarvestwithtwoScottishsalmonfarmsnowcertified.ASCislikely489
tobeadoptedbyotherScottishproducers490
(v) IFFORScertificationiscurrentlyonlyacceptedinachainofcustodyrolebytheASCsalmon491
standard.492
(vi) TheGAABAPcertification isnot currentlyadoptedbyanyScottishproducersdespite its493
leadingpositioninNorthandSouthAmericanaquaculture(http://gaalliance.org/what-we-494
do/bap-certification/).495
(vii) Greater harmonisation between different standards would be beneficial; the Global496
Sustainable Seafood Initiative plans to benchmark them to facilitate sourcing decisions497
(http://sustainableseafoodcoalition.org/news/new-gssi-website-launches).498
499
18
5.4UKsupplychainperspective-salmonprocessorsandretailers500
To discover salmon sourcing policies of leadingmultiple retailers andprocessors, eight of the nine501
majorUK retailers and two leadingUK seafoodprocessorswere consulted. This confirmed thatUK502
retailsalmonstandardsareacomplexsetofcompetingcodesaimedat increasingretailers’control503
overthesupplychain.AquaculturefocusonsustainablefeedissuesispartlydrivenbycompetingUK504
retailersand is influencedbypressure fromenvironmentalNGOs,whichoftencompete for support505
fromconsumersandsupplychains.Theexistenceofdifferentprivatestandardscancauseconfusion506
(e.g.toretailfishbuyers)andispoorlyunderstoodbyconsumers.Itappearssustainabilityissuesare507
being used as a competitive tool by firms highlighting responsible sourcing credentials, so salmon508
farming and feed standards continue to be driven up; however, this has implications in restricting509
choiceamongdifferentrawmaterialsources.510
511
5.5Relevanceofinput/outputindicesformarineresourceuse512
Althoughthemaindriverforreplacementofmarineingredientsbyplantrawmaterialshasbeenthe513
combinationofnutritional innovationandmarketforces inthefaceoffluctuatingsupplyandhighly514
volatileprice,replacementhasimpactedonthedifferentindicatorsusedtorelatemarineingredient515
input to farmedsalmonoutput.These ‘marinesustainability indicators’ include fish-in fish-out ratio516
(FIFO),marineproteindependencyratio(MPDR),foragefishdependencyratio(FFDR),etc.,andtheir517
usehasbeenreviewedbyvariousauthors(e.g.Ytrestøyletal.,2015).AlthoughFIFOandFFDRhave518
beenusedasaproxyforsustainability,itisnotclearwhythisshouldbesincesustainabilitymustbe519
based on responsible harvesting of fish that are used for fishmeal and fish oil according to520
international regulations (backed up by private standards if necessary).Nor has the FIFO ratio any521
obviousnutritionalbasisanditisnotthereforeameasureofproductionefficiency(Tocher,2015).522
AsoneofitsindicatorsASChasincludedFFDR,calculatedasthequantityofforagefishrequiredto523
produce the amount of fishmeal and fish oil to produce a unit of farmed fish. For 2013 the524
corresponding FFDRs forNorwegian salmonwere 1.54 and0.69 for fish oil andmeal, respectively,525
wellwithintheASCstandardsof<2.95forfishoiland<1.35forfishmeal(Ytrestøyletal,2014);by526
comparisontheequivalent(unpublished)valuesforoneScottishproducerin2013of2.09forfishoil527
and0.76forfishmealwerehigherthanNorway,butwellwithintheASCpermittedrange.528
529
5.6Effectofchangingrawmaterialsonsalmonfarmingsustainability530
19
Asregardsproteinretention,Torstensenetal.(2008)andBendiksenetal.(2011)havefoundsimilar531
levels inAtlanticsalmon fedeithermainlymarinedietsormainlyplant-baseddiets,explainingwhy532
salmon can be produced with feeds containing high inclusions of plant ingredients and only low533
inclusionsofmarineingredients.Changingthesalmondietcompositionfrom88%marineingredients534
to85%plantingredientsresultedinalmostthesamecarbonfootprint(Ytrestøyletal.,2011),which535
supports the view of Torrissen et al. (2011) that increased utilisation of plant ingredientsmay not536
provide an increase in sustainability as often claimed. The increased use of fishery by-products537
influencessustainability;althoughtheyhavelittle,ifany,alternativeuse,theeffectondietarycarbon538
footprintwill dependonwhether the life cycle analysis (LCA) calculationadoptseconomicormass539
allocation. As stated by Ytrestøyl et al. (2015), several methods must be used to evaluate eco-540
efficiencyandsustainabilityofsalmonproductionasnosinglemethodissufficientlyrobust.541
542
6.Scopeforalternativefeedingredients,includinglandanimalproducts,geneticallymodified,and543
fermentationproducts544
Considerableresearchhasbeenperformedtoassessa largerangeofalternativeproteinandoil/fat545
sourcesas ingredientsforaquaculturefeeds, includingsalmon(Gatlin IIIetal.,2007;Turchinietal.,546
2011).Focusherewillbeonalternativecurrentandemergingproteinandoil ingredientsthathave547
large-scale potential in Scottish salmon farming, butwhere there are supply chain concerns about548
theiruseorthetechnicalbasisisnotsufficientlyestablished.Foralternativeproteinfeedingredients549
foundtobesuitableandcost-effective,itisimportanttobeabletoconcentratetheproteininorder550
forittoreplaceSPCinpracticalfeedmanufacture.551
552
6.1Landanimalby-products(LAPs)553
6.1.1CurrentstatusandavailabilityofLAPsinEurope554
Before year 2000 animal proteins were widely used in fish feeds, but due to Bovine Spongiform555
Encephalopathy(BSE),mostanimalproteinswerebannedfromterrestrialandaquaticanimalfeeds.556
From June2013,due to improved testingmethods,useofnon-ruminantProcessedAnimalProtein557
(PAP)hasbeenapprovedforuseinaquacultureintheEU(Regulation56/2013).Thefollowingarethe558
mainnon-ruminantPAPproductsintheUKandEUnowlegallyavailableforinclusioninaquaculture559
feeds: Poultry PAP; Feather meal PAP; Porcine PAP; Porcine blood meal PAP; and Porcine blood560
products.EUproductionofpoultry-derivedPAPandofporcinePAPandbloodproductsin2013was561
20
365,000 tonnes and 275,000 tonnes, respectively (Woodgate, 2014). To ensure lack of ruminant562
proteincontamination,segregation,security,andtraceabilityof‘Category3’animalby-productsisthe563
subjectofdetailedcontrolsattheslaughterhouseanddownstream.564
565
6.1.2.CurrentuseofLAPsinsalmonfeed566
Despitethelegalrelaxation,since2001noLAPshavebeenusedinsalmonfeedsinEurope,witha567
markedreluctancebysupplychainstoincorporateanimalby-productsinfeedforfarmedsalmon(see568
6.1.4), despite technical benefits (e.g. blood meal’s histidine content preventing cataracts). The569
situation outside Europe with fewer BSE-related problems is very different (e.g. current Chilean570
salmondietformulationswith3%poultryoiland19%LAPs).571
A voluntary ban on use of LAPs in salmon feed in UK (and Norway) is reinforced by the CoGP572
prohibiting useof LAPs in Scottish salmon. This strict policy appears contradictory in viewof retail573
supplyofimportedfarmedwarmwaterprawns(Penaeusspp.),‘RiverCobbler’(Pangasiusspp.),and574
Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) from enhancement programmes,whichmay all have been fed575
LAPs. The rationale of the ban is fear of negative consumer reaction, variously linked to: BSE576
concerns,thehorsemeatcontaminationissue,thesupposed‘unnaturalness’ofsuchingredients,and577
associationsofanimalby-productswithuseofwastematerialotherwisedestinedforlandfilldisposal.578
The retailers consulted pointed out this is not a food safety issue andwould give access to global579
salmon production, but accept their customers do not wish the policy to change. All respondents580
referredtotheconstraintsofhalalandkosherrequirements,whichprohibituseofporcinematerial581
(e.g.pigblood),hencefurthersupplychainsegregation.Inpracticethismeansthatusecouldonlybe582
made of poultry products, such as poultry offal meal, feather meal and poultry oil. The non-583
governmental organisations (NGOs) consulted supported the use of LAPs in salmon feed as584
representingasustainablesolution;alsotheASCsalmonfarmingstandardsupportstheuseofLAPs.585
586
6.1.3ConclusionsandimplicationsforLAPs/PAP587
Consultation,especiallywithretailers,showedstrongresistancetousingLAPsinsalmonfeedbyUK588
andcontinentalEuropeanconsumers. It isthereforenotunderconsideration inScotlandandthis is589
unlikelytochangeintheforeseeablefuture,despitetheEUhavingremovedlegalobstaclesforPAP590
use.Ifthisisreconsideredinthefuture,robustsourceassuranceguaranteeswouldberequiredand591
porcine material would need to be excluded. As regards cost savings from an open salmon feed592
21
formulationwithpoultryby-products,estimatesfromfeedcompaniesconsultedwereintherangeof593
£60-£80/tonne(i.e.upto10%offeedcost),dependingonfeedsizeandspecification.594
595
6.2.Useofgeneticallymodifiedfeedingredients596
6.2.1ScopeforGMproteiningredients597
6.2.1.1UKuseinlandanimalfeedsversussalmonfeeds598
Following supply concerns about non-GM soybeans in 2013, all but one of the eight UK retailers599
consultedchangedtheirsourcingpoliciestopermittheinclusionofGMplantingredientsinterrestrial600
livestockfeeds,especiallyforchicken.AlthoughinclusionofapprovedGMfeedingredientsis legally601
permissible intheUK,currentlysalmonproducersandfeedcompanieshaveastrictnon-GMpolicy.602
Thisappearstoreflectthefollowing:603
(i) NegativeconsumerattitudestoGMinEurope,especiallyinFrance,Germany,Austriaand604
Italy,withpotentiallysevereexportimplicationsforScottishsalmon.605
(ii) Thecurrentlackofaclearcommercialdisadvantagetosourcingnon-GMingredients,such606
asreducedavailabilityandsubstantiallyincreasedcostfornon-GMSPC.607
(iii) Thecurrentconsensustomaintainingnon-GMfedsalmonstatusinScotlandbeingshared608
by the SSPO, someNGOs, and the Scottish Government, as part of a ‘green and clean’609
stance(whileEnglishandWelshGovernmentpoliciesonGMaremoreflexible).610
(iv) TheNorwegiansalmonfarmingindustryhasanon-GMpolicy.611
However,sevenoftheeightUKretailrespondentsconsultedwerewillingtoconsideradoptingamore612
flexibleGMfeedpolicyifmarketcircumstanceschanged.TheyacceptedthatUKconsumerattitudes613
werebecoming lesshostiletoGM,butthe largestsupplychainconcernrelatestotheriskof losing614
keyexportmarkets,especiallyFrance.615
616
6.2.1.2 Availabilityofnon-GMproteins617
Asshownin3.2.1,althoughthe5.5milliontonnesofnon-GMsoyprotein is lessthan3%ofglobal618
soyasupplies,dominatedbyGMmaterial,thereisnocurrentthreattoavailability,orsufficientofa619
price driver for switching to GM SPC in salmon feeds. Discussions in Norway about whether it is620
logistically possible to supply GM and non-GM feed at the same time by using different mills621
concluded this ismore amatter of policy and additional cost than logistics, but itwould bemore622
difficult(butpossible)tosegregatetheresultingfishstreamspost-harvest.This isnotseenasbeing623
22
feasibleinScotlandandanymovetoabandonthenon-GMpolicywouldneedtobeagreedjointlyby624
allthreeUKfeedproducers.625
626
6.2.2ScopeforGMoilcontainingEPAandDHA627
Commercial productionof so-called ‘Verlasso’ salmon in Chile involves theuseof yeast,whichhas628
beengeneticallymodifiedtoproduceEPA(Xueetal.,2013).Thetransgenicyeastcellsareproduced629
byfermentationusingglucoseandkilledbeforethewholedeadcellsareaddedtosalmonfeedasa630
partialreplacementforfishoil(Hatlenetal.,2012;Bergeetal.,2013).631
Camelinaoil(fromtheoilseedcropFalseFlax,Camelinasativa)hasbeensuggestedascommercially632
suitableforsalmonfeedssinceitcontainsabout30%α-linolenicacid(aprecursorofEPAandDHA),633
with relatively low levelsofomega-6PUFA,andhasbeenusedexperimentally to replace fishoil in634
salmon diets (Hixson et al., 2014). However, it is the recent success in producing EPA andDHA at635
levels equivalent to those in fish oil by inserting algal DNA into Camelina that has aroused most636
interest(Ruiz-Lopezetal.,2014)(http://www.rothamsted.ac.uk/camelina).Ithasbeenestimatedthat637
1hectareofthenewtransgeniccropwouldproduceabout750kgofoilcontainingaround12%EPA638
and8%DHAanditshouldbehighlyscalable,hence1millionhectarescouldproduce750,000tonnes639
ofoilor150,000tonnesofEPAandDHA(Ruiz-Lopezetal.,2014).OilfromtransgenicCamelinahas640
been demonstrated to successfully replace fish oil in feeds for Atlantic salmon (Betancor et al.,641
2015a,b). Although the European Parliament agreed in January 2015 to allow individual member642
states todetermine theirGMpolicy, regulatoryapproval forgrowing the transgenic cropwouldbe643
simpleroutsidetheEU(e.g.inCanadaorUSA).TransgenicoilmightbecomeavailableintheUK(and644
NorwayviaitsEUagreements)byaround2020,subjecttocommercialagreementsandtoregulatory645
approval in the country where the crop is grown and in the EU as a GM feed additive. A similar646
timescaleseemslikelyfortheproductionofEPAandDHAfromtransgeniccanola(rapeseed)byajoint647
venture between BASF and Cargill. In Australia the focus on transgenic canola is mainly on DHA648
(Kitessaetal.,2014)withclaimsthatcommercialsupplycouldbeavailableby2017(CSIRO,2013).The649
existenceofanentire logisticalsystemforhandlingoilseedproductsmeansthatthesupplychain is650
already present and GM oil’s production cost need be no higher than conventional oilseeds. The651
continuing decline in EPA and DHA levels is a potential driver for change if GM oil becomes652
commerciallyavailableandthe lackofanycellularmaterial,protein,ornucleicacid inoilmayhelp653
marketacceptance.654
23
655
6.2.3ConclusionsandimplicationsforGMfeedingredients656
Unless non-GM protein becomes less competitive in terms of supply and price, given the current657
premiumfornon-GMSPC(usedat20%-30%ofthediet) isunder10%,thereis littlecommercial658
incentive for the Scottish industry to change policy today. The position with omega-3 LC-PUFA is659
differentasthepotentialcommercialavailabilityofGMoilseedcropsourcesbyaround2020offersa660
potential technical solution to a chronic shortage, which might otherwise undermine the healthy661
profileofScottishfarmedsalmon.AswitchtousingGMoilmightbeseenasworthwhiletoavoidthe662
riskoffishoilsupplyinterruptions,ifandwhentransgenicoilsbecomecommerciallyavailable.Ifthe663
nextElNiñocausesarepeatofthecurrentacutescarcity,andconsumerattitudescontinuetosoften,664
itmightbecomeappropriateforpolicy-makersandtheindustryinScotlandtoreviewcurrentpolicy,665
butthepotentialrisktosalmonexportmarkets,especiallyFrance,fromusingGMfeedingredientsis666
likelytobeakeycommercialconsideration.667
668
6.3 Useofnovelnon-GMfeedingredients669
6.3.1Insect-basedfeedingredients670
Sincewild salmoneat insectsduring the freshwater stage, there is currentR&D investmenton the671
potential of using insects as safe and healthy ingredients for salmon feed. Makkar et al. (2014)672
reviewedexistingresearchonfivemajorinsectspeciesthatareclaimedtohavepotentialforanimal673
feedconcludingthatblacksoldierflylarvaehavemostpromiseforreplacingsoybeanmealinpigand674
poultrydiets.Therecent‘Aquafly’projectinNorwayisexploringthepotentialtotailorinsectnutrient675
profile to meet salmon nutritional requirements (http://nifes.no/en/counting-insects-future-fish-676
feeds/). It is claimed that many insect species are highly nutritious and their production has less677
environmentalimpactcomparedwithtraditionalsourcesofanimalprotein.AtanEUlevel,EFSAhas678
beencommissionedtoreviewavailablesafetyevidencearoundinsectprotein,whiletheCommission679
is fundingthePROteINSECTproject to investigatequality,safety,processes,andhumanacceptance680
around the use of insects in animal feed (http://www.proteinsect.eu). In addition to salmon681
nutritional studies, there is a need for cost-effectivemass insect-rearing facilities and a regulatory682
frameworkand sanitaryprocedures for the safeuseofbio-wastes (includingmanaging the risksof683
diseases, heavy metals and pesticides, etc.). The scope for insect use as a potential protein684
replacementinsalmonfeedsisclearlyatanearlystageofevaluation.685
24
686
6.3.2Fermentationproducts687
As an alternative to DHA-rich algal biomass produced by fermentation of non-GM heterotrophic688
organisms,thecurrentlowcostofenergyhasrenewedinterestinnaturalproprietaryfermentationas689
ameansofproducingmicrobialproteinbasedonmethaneasthemainsourceofcarbonandenergy.690
InparticularMethylococcuscapsulatus,anaturallyoccurringsinglecellorganism,isnowbeingused691
toproduceastablepowderordrypelletedproductwith71%protein,10%fat,and<1%fibre,anda692
shelflifeofoverayear.Theresultingproduct(‘FeedKind’TM)isalreadyapprovedforuseintheEUand693
itisclaimedthatitwillbereleasedcommerciallyin2018andproveasuperioralternativetofishmeal694
and soy in aquaculture diets (http://calystanutrition.com/feedkind-protein/). Assuming the product695
provescost-effectiveinuse,thishassomeclearadvantagestoconventionalproteinsourcesinsalmon696
feeds. Itremainstobeseen if theproductwill remainfeasible inpractice ifandwhenenergycosts697
escalateoncemore, although themanufacturers claim they could switch to alternative feedstocks,698
suchasbiogas.699
700
7.Projectedforwardrequirementsforsalmonfeedingredients701
7.1 Futurefarmingandfeedrequirements702
TheScottishGovernment’sfarmedsalmontargetof210,000tonnesby2020,(see1.2)representsa703
realisticCAGRof c.2.5%,providednewproductionsitesareavailable,etc.This isalso in linewith704
globalsalmonprojectionswhereannualgrowthratehasrecentlydiminished,resultinginaprojected705
3%CAGRfrom2013to2020(Kontali,2013).IftheoverallFCRin2013/2014wasc.1.3(see1.2),and706
annualsalmonharvestvolumeisexpectedto increasefromc.165,000tonnesto210,000tonnes in707
2020, it seems not unreasonable to assume an improved FCR within the range of 1.1 - 1.2,708
correspondingtoa2020Scottishsalmonfeedrequirementintherangeof231,000-252,000tonnes.709
710
7.2Forwardsupplyofmarineingredients711
OECD-FAO(2013)constructedanannualglobalforecastfrom2013to2022oftotalfishmealandfish712
oil production, production fromwhole fish, consumption, variation in stocks, and price. Using the713
OECD-FAOfishmodelfor2022,FAO(2014)projectedtotalfisheryproduction,aquaculture,fishmeal714
and fishoil production assuming that about 16%of capture fisheryproductionwill be reduced to715
fishmealandfishoil(down7%onthe2010-2012average,thebaseperiod),buttotal‘baseline’2022716
25
productionwillbe7.02milliontonnesand1.08milliontonnes,respectively(i.e.up15%and10%on717
thebaseperiod,withalmost95%oftheadditionalgainforfishmealcomingfromimproveduseof718
fish waste, cuttings and trimmings) (Table 3). OECD-FAO estimate that fishmeal from by-products719
should represent49%of total fishmealproduction in2022and that,withglobaldemand stronger720
than supply, prices of fishmeal and fish oilwill increase by 6% and23%, respectively, in nominal721
terms by 2022 (OECD-FAO, 2013). Although the OECD-FAOmodel is the best available, this is no722
guarantee of its predictive ability, especially if there is a possibility that the base period may be723
somewhatoverstated.For instanceIFFOdatagive lowerestimatesforthe2010–2012baseperiod724
thanFAOwith4.92million tonnesof fishmealas the2010–2012yearaverageversus6.10million725
tonnesfromFAO(duemainlytolowerassumptionsonChineseproductionbyIFFO),whileIFFOdata726
forfishoiliscloseat0.96milliontonnesversus0.98milliontonnesforthesame3-yearaverage(IFFO,727
2014).AlsoIFFOdataaresuggestiveofarecentdownwardtrendinfishmealproductionmost likely728
linked to more precautionary fishing (Fig. 4). Although this is less evident in the data on fish oil729
production,thetrendwillbeforlessfishoilbeingavailableforaquacultureduetocompetitionfrom730
thehumannutritionsector(Figs.5and6).731
Supplyanddemandforecastsforfishmealandfishoilneedtotakeintoaccountinteraliademand732
for pelagic fish for direct human consumption, the effect on reduction fisheries of increased733
regulatory curbs, climatic events (e.g. ElNiño), increased exploitation of fish processingwastes for734
reductionpurposes,etc.Atthesametimedemandforfishmealandfishoilisafunctionofpriceand735
availabilityofalternativeproteinsandalternativeoils,particularlynovelsourcesofomega-3LC-PUFA,736
aswellastherateofgrowth,notonlyoffedaquaculturespecies,butalsoofyoungpigsandday-old737
chicks (Shepherd and Jackson, 2013). This is in turn influenced by innovation of feed formulators,738
plantproteinprocessors,andgeneticists,astheyseektoreducefishmeal inclusionratestosaveon739
scarce, fluctuating, and costly ingredients, and also by the efforts of civic society (e.g. NGOs) to740
discourage use of marine ingredients on alleged sustainability grounds. Since fish oil demand has741
becomeaderiveddemandforEPAandDHA,salmonfeedbuyerscompetestronglywiththehuman742
nutritionmarket,whilesupplyislinkedtothatofitsco-productfishmeal,withbothproductssubject743
to the volatility of the dominant Peruvian catch due to ElNiño.However,Olsen andHasan (2012)744
concluded that the limited supply of pelagic fishmealwill not be amajor obstacle for a continued745
moderategrowthinglobalaquacultureproduction; it isreasonabletomakethesameconclusionin746
regardtoglobalsalmonproduction.747
26
Onthesomewhatconservativeassumptionofa30%marine/70%plantcontentoffeedingredients748
(lower inmarinecontent thantoday’sScottishaverage,but thesameascurrentNorwegian feeds),749
231,000-252,000tonnesofsalmonfeedforScotlandin2020wouldrequireannually69,000-76,000750
tonnes ofmarine ingredients and 162,000 - 176,000 tonnes of plant ingredients.On this basis the751
reduced fishmeal inclusion rate projected for 2020 will more than offset the increased feed752
production.IftheUKannualfishmealrequirementin2020is45,000-50,000tonnes(comparedwith753
c.55,000tonnesdemandand39,000tonnessupplyin2014,–see3.1)anddomesticsupplyislikelyto754
riseover time,most, ifnotall, fishmeal requirementscouldbesourced locally ifdesired.However,755
salmon by-products could not be recycled (3.1) and sourcing criteria for farm certification (e.g. by756
ASC),maybecomemoreexactingovertime(5.2),restrictingrawmaterial.757
758
7.3Forwardplantproteinandoilsupply759
OECD and FAO secretariats analysed the price ratios of aquaculture species relative to oilseed760
products and concluded that tight supplies of fishmeal and fish oil are likely to contribute to an761
increased price ratio between fish and oilseed products over themedium term due to continuing762
demandfromearlyrearingofpigsandsalmonfarmingandfromcontinuingomega-3demand(OECD-763
FAO,2013).TheyrecognisedthepriceratioswillbeexacerbatedinElNiñoyears,furtherconstraining764
supplyandsupportinghigherprices.Alsotheyprojecta26%increaseinworldproductionofoilseeds765
and a switch in distribution of land from coarse grains to oilseeds. Global protein meal output is766
projected to increaseby25%or67million tonnesby2022; thisenvisages consumptiongrowthof767
proteinmeal slowing somewhat due to slower absolute growth in global livestock production and768
slowergrowthintherelativeuseofproteinmealinfeedrations.Theoverallavailabilityandpriceof769
terrestrialingredientswillalsodependonfactorssuchasfreshwateravailability.770
Intheshort-term,demandfromScottishandglobalsalmonproductionfortheprincipalplantfeed771
ingredient, non-GM soy (as SPC) is only c. 1% or 7.5%, respectively, of global supply, suggesting772
securityofsupply isnotan issue.TheEuropeansalmon industry importsnon-GMsoyamainly from773
Brazilasalreadycrushedconcentrate (see3.2.1),payingapremiumwhichmay increaseover time.774
Hence the strategic logic of avoiding over-reliance on imported soya products by greater focus on775
locally grown protein substitutes, including legumes, beans and peas, aswell as focusing on novel776
sourcesofEPAandDHA,especiallyfromalgalfermentationandtransgenicoilseedcrops.Ifmicrobial777
27
protein (e.g. FeedKindTM) is shown to be cost-effective and available on a large scale, this could778
potentiallystarttoreplacefishmealandSPCinsalmonfeedsfromasearlyas2018.779
780
8.Overallconclusions781
8.1 The Scottish salmon farming industry occupies a distinctive international market position782
supplyingadifferentiatedproductrangetooffsetpotentiallyhigherproductioncostscomparedwith783
themuchlargerandmorestandardisedNorwegianindustry.Scottishproductionthereforereliesona784
variety of feed products, including specialist formulations with a higher than standard content of785
marine ingredientsandomega-3LC-PUFA,etc.Despite its recognisedeconomicandsocialbenefits,786
thishasraisedquestionsabouttheindustry’senvironmentalsustainabilityinregardtosalmonfeed.787
788
8.2Finitemarinefeedresourcesarenowbeingreplacedbyplant-based ingredients insalmonfeed,789
henceenablingsalmonfarmingtoachievenetfishproteinproduction.Althoughitiscontinuingtofall,790
therelativelyhighermarinecontentofsomeScottishfeeds(averagingaround40%marineand60%791
plant ingredients) compared with Norwegian farmed salmon reinforces a ‘healthy and natural’792
reputationandmaybeseenasanecessarytrade-offagainstincreasedfeedcosts.793
794
8.3 There is no evidence that terrestrial agricultural animal and plant feed resources are more795
sustainable for farmingsalmonthanusing feed ingredientsbasedonwild-caughtmarineresources,796
providedtheyaresourcedfromsustainablymanagedstocks(orfromthegrowingproportionoffish797
processing by-products, which currently represent 25 – 30 % of marine ingredients); hence an798
increased utilisation of plant ingredients in salmon feed may not be more environmentally799
sustainable.800
801
8.4TheScottishsalmonindustryhassoughttoadoptbestfarmingpracticeinresponsetoitsproducer802
organisationandtosupplychainpressures,includingresponsiblesourcing.Scottishcertificationfocus803
on sustainable raw materials has helped to counter claims of an unsustainable use of marine804
ingredients,hencethegrowingrecognitionthatsustainability issues for farmedScottishsalmonare805
nowmore related to sea lice rather than feed ingredients. Certifiedevidenceonuseof renewable806
feed ingredients is underpinned by third party auditing. Retailers require suppliers to complywith807
external certification schemes as well as their in-house standards, with the result that farming808
28
standardsaredemandingandcontinuetobedrivenup.TherecentASCcertificationoftwofarmsites809
inScotlandsuggeststhatthismaybecomeafuturebenchmarkofresponsiblepractice.Inadditionthe810
Scottishethicalcommitmenttofishwelfare(viaFreedomFood/RSPCAAssuredstatus)demonstrates811
theindustry’swillingnesstostepbeyondtraditionalboundariesofbestpractice.812
813
8.5 Increaseddemandfor fishoil fromaquacultureandthehumannutrition industryhascoincided814
withacutescarcityduetoElNiñoconditionsaffectingtheanchovyfishery inPeruandChile. Inthe815
short-term this issuewill temporarily resolve itself in Peru as the anchovy fishery recovers. In the816
medium-term interim solutionsareneeded tomanage this situation cost-effectively andDHA from817
algalfermentationisnowavailablealbeitatrelativelyhighcostandbeingstudiedasonesolution.In818
thelongerterm,inviewofthefoodsecurityandconsumerhealthimplications, it isappropriatefor819
theScottishindustrytoconsiderreviewingitspolicyonGMfeedingredientsforwhennewtransgenic820
plant sources of EPA and DHA become available. However, it is recognised that, use of GM feed821
ingredients at the present timewould risk lost sales to France,which is the secondmost valuable822
exportmarketforScottishsalmon.823
824
8.6There isevidencesomeconsumers take intoaccount thehealthbenefitswhenchoosingtobuy825
salmonandsomeUKretailpacks indicate thateatingaproductportionwillallowtheconsumer to826
meetinternationalrecommendationsforweeklyconsumptionofomega-3LC-PUFA.Thiscreatesarisk827
forScottishsalmonsincethecontentofEPAandDHAhasfallenbecauseofincreasingreplacementof828
fishoilbyplantoilsinsalmonfeed.Incurrentscarcityconditionsfishoilsupplementationoffeedto829
meet the label claim is costly and difficult, butmay be necessary tomaintain industry and brand830
reputations.At thesametimethehealthattributesofScottishsalmonarenotsolelybasedonEPA831
andDHA,butcouldtakemoreaccountofthecontentofaminoacids,vitaminsandminerals,etc.,as832
well as extremely low levels of environmental contaminants due to replacing marine by plant833
ingredients.834
835
8.7Despiteitspotentialbenefits(e.g.costsavingsandformulationflexibility),anditswidespreaduse836
insalmonfarmingintheAmericas,thereisstrongsupplychainresistancetoincorporatingterrestrial837
by-productsintosalmonfeedsintheUK.EUapprovalhasbeengrantedforuseofPAPinaquaculture838
feeds,althoughincommercialpracticethiswouldmeanpoultrymaterialasporcineby-productsare839
29
problematicforreligiousandculturalreasons.However,UKretailersarecurrentlyunwillingtoaccept840
thehigh riskofanegativecustomer reaction. It is recognised that thispolicy restricts sourcingand841
runscountertosustainabilityoptions,but isunlikelytochangeinthenearfuture.Thepotentialfor842
insect-based ingredients has yet to be evaluated and developed, but couldmeet similar consumer843
objections.844
845
8.8As regards theuseofGM feed ingredients, a similarembargoexists today inEuropean salmon846
farming.ThisisdespitetheiruseinUKchickenfeeds,signsofaweakeninginUKconsumerhostilityto847
theGMissue,andamoreflexibleapproachbytheEUandtheEnglishandWelshgovernments.Given848
theavailabilityofnon-GMsoyaatarelativelysmallpricepremiumtoday,thereisnocurrentincentive849
to alter this policy on grounds of protein availability, although this situation could change in the850
future. The positionwith omega-3 LC-PUFA is different as the likely commercial availability of GM851
oilseed crop sources by around 2020 from outside Europe offers a possible solution to a chronic852
shortage.AvoidingGMcouldmeanthat theScottish industry isaccusedof supplyinga lesshealthy853
product than in those countries using GM feed ingredients. It does not appear to be logistically854
feasible for theUK fish feedand fish farming industries tomaintainbothGM fedandnon-GM fed855
supplylinesatthesametime.856
857
8.9Althoughforwardsupplyofproteinsisnotseenasamajorissue,thereshouldbecontinuingfocus858
on cost-effective local alternatives to non-GM SPC in particular. Provided it becomes available on859
schedule and remains cost-effective, the development ofmicrobial protein is of strategic interest,860
offeringanovelalternativetofishmealandSPCofstrategicinterest.861
862
8.10Asregardsresearchbottlenecks,continuingfocusisrequiredonhowbesttomaintainEPAand863
DHA levels in farmed salmon given the increased price and reduced availability of fish oil of864
appropriatecertificationstatusandlackofcontaminants.Themostfeasiblealternativesourcemaybe865
GMoilby2020,butalgalandmicrobialsourcesshouldbekeptunderreviewandinterimsolutionsare866
requiredtomanagethissituationcost-effectively.Althoughalternativeplantproteinfeedingredients867
(e.g.beansandpeas)arebeingstudied,especiallythosethatcanbegrownintheUK,itisimportant868
to be able to concentrate the protein in order for it to replace SPC. The technical process and869
associatedlogisticsthereforeneedtobedefinedandofferacost-effectivesolution.870
30
Acknowledgements871Thispaperisbasedonarecentstudybytheauthorsconductedon‘Theproductionofhighquality872
healthyfarmedsalmon(Salmosalar)fromachangingrawmaterialbase,withspecialreferencetoa873
sustainable Scottish industry’ (Shepherd et al., 2015).Weacknowledge the support of the Scottish874
AquacultureResearchForum(SARF),whichcommissionedthisstudy(ProjectSP007),andafulllistof875
allindividualsandstakeholderorganisationstowhomwearegratefulisincludedintheoriginalstudy876
report(Shepherdetal.,2015).877
878
879
31
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Wang,J.,Pollak,D.W.,Bostick,M.W.,Bosak,M.D.,Macool,D.J.,Hollerbach,D.H.,Zhang,H.,Arcilla,1020D.M.,Bledsoe,S.A.,Croker,K.,McCord,E.F.,Tyreus,B.D.,Jackson,E.N.,Zhu,Q.,2013.Production1021ofomega-3eicosapentaenoicacidbymetabolicengineeringofYarrowialipolytica.Nat.Biotechnol.102231,734-740.1023
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1033
35
Tables10341035
Table 1. Comparison of farmed salmon production (tonnes), feed supply volume (tonnes), and1036correspondingfeedconversionratio(FCR)forScotlandandNorwayinyears2013and2014(source:1037KontaliAS).1038
1039
1040
Table2.Estimatedglobalproduction(a)andconsumption(b)ofcombinedEPAandDHA(tonnes)in2014(after1041Meinich,2014).1042
Table2a1043
Estimatedglobalproductionofcrudefishoil 800,000EstimatedglobalproductionofEPA+DHA 140,000Estimatedglobalyear-endcarryoverofEPA+DHA 30,000EstimatedglobalavailabilityofEPA+DHA 170,0001044
Table2b1045
EstimatedglobalconsumptionofEPA+DHAinsalmonfeed 50,000EstimatedglobalconsumptionofEPA+DHAbynon-salmonaquaculture 50,000EstimatedglobalconsumptionofEPA+DHAfordirecthumanconsumption 61,000EstimatedtechnicalusageofEPA+DHA(e.g.hardening,tanning,energy) 9,0001046
1047
2013 2014
Farmedsalmonproductionaswholefishequivalent
Salmonfeedsupply
FeedConversionRatio
Scotland
163,234
214,000
1.31
Norway
1,143,500
1,487,600
1.30
Scotland
179,022
221,000
1.23
Norway
1,198,900
1,598,800
1.33
36
Table3.FAOfishmodel:overalltrendsto2022forworld(milliontonnesinliveweightequivalent)(FAO,2014).1048
Baseperiod 2022scenarios
2010-2012Baseline Intermediate
OptimisticMixed
Totalfisheryproduction(World) 153.940 181.070 188.093 194.800 194.792
Aquaculture 62.924 85.124 92.402 99.330 99.330
Capture 91.016 95.946 95.692 95.474 95.462
Fishmealproduction(productweight) 6.103 7.021 7.358 7.679 7.734
Fishoilproduction(productweight) 0.980 1.079 1.0871.094
1.088
Fishtradeforhumanconsumption 36.994 45.08245.566
46.237 46.566Fishsupplyforhumanconsumption
131.741 160.514167.397
173.969 174.032
Percapitaapparentfishconsumption(kg)
18.9 20.7 21.6 22.4 22.4
1049
1050
37
Figures1051
1052
1053
Fig.1.NutrientsourcesinNorwegiansalmonfarmingfrom1990to2013.Eachingredienttypeisshownasits1054percentageofthetotaldiet(Ytrestøyletal.,2015).1055
1056
1057
65.4
33.524.8 19.5 18.3
24.0
31.1
16.611.2 10.9
22.2
35.5
36.7 36.7
12.518.3 19.2
9.6 11.2 8.4 11.1 11.2
1.0 2.0 2.2 3.1 3.7
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
1990 2000 2010 2012 2013
Ingredientsources(%)1990-2013
microingredients
starch
plantoil
plantprotein
marineoil
marineprotein
38
1058
Fig. 2. Prices of fishmeal, fish oil, rapeseed oil, soymeal and wheat delivered Europe, from 2006 to 20131059(source:MarineHarvest,2014,afterChr.Holtermann).1060
1061
Fig.3.Worldfishmealandfishoilconsumptionbyaquaculture(rightaxis)(---)comparedwithgrowthin‘fed’1062aquaculture(lefthandaxis)(___)2000–2012(milliontonnes)(sources:IFFOdataandFAO,2014).1063
1064
1065
1066
39
1067
1068
Fig.4.Annualworldfishmealproductionbymajornationalproducerfrom2006to2015(tonnesx1000).1069
1070
1071
Fig.5.Annualworldfishoilproductionbymajornationalproducerfrom2006to2015(tonnesx1000).1072
5,2865,698
5,1614,903
4,648
5,854
4,743 4,9304,509
4,787
0
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Peru Chile Thailand U.S.A Japan Scandinavia* Others
*IncludesDenmarkandNorwaysource:IFFOandISTAMielkeGmbH,OILWORLD
9781,064 1,082 1,046
905
1,098
935 922 929846
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Peru Chile Scandinavia* U.S.A Japan Other
*IncludesDenmark,Norway&Icelandsource:IFFOandISTAMielkeGmbH,OILWORLD
40
1073
Fig.6.Worldfishoilconsumption(tonnesx1000)byaquaculture,directhumanconsumption(DHC),andother1074usesfrom2005to2015(source:IFFO).1075
1076
Fig.7.Use(%oftotalaquacultureuse)offishoilbydifferentcategoriesoffarmedfishandcrustaceansin20131077(source:IFFO).1078
60%
4%
23%
6%0%
2%5%
Salmonids Other Marinefish Crustaceans Cyprinids Eels Tilapias