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RunningwithScissors,13thEADConferenceUniversityofDundee,10-12April2019

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ApplyingDesignFictioninPrimarySchoolstoExploreEnvironmentalChallengesDeborahMaxwella*,TobyPillattb,LizEdwardsc,RachelNewmandaUniversityofYork,UnitedKingdombUniversityofSheffield,UnitedKingdomcLancasterUniversity,UnitedKingdomdGrowtheatreCIC,Sheffield*Correspondingauthore-mail:[email protected]

Abstract:Thispaperpresentsacasestudydescribingtheuseofdesignfictioninacross-curricular projectwith four classes across two primary schools in inner-citySheffield. The project combined elements of a Mantle of the Expert dramatic-inquiryapproachwithdesignthinkinganddesignfiction,toexploretheworldofthehoneybee.Weworkedwith the schools and childrenduring half a term, leadingthemthroughasetofactivities (includingdrama,design,creativewriting,and3Dprototyping) toenable thechildren todiscoverandunderstand the threats facingbees, beekeeping, pollination, and the global environmental ramifications of aworldwithout bees. This paper describes the approach adopted and the createddesignfictions.Wediscussthevalueandlimitationsofourapproachandconcludeby offering suggestions for researchers and teachers wishing to engage youngpeoplewithcomplexproblemspaces.

Keywords:Design fiction, Speculative design, Primary education,Mantle oftheexpert,Environment

1.IntroductionClimateandenvironmentalchangesarebecomingincreasinglyvisibleinmassmedia,activism(e.g.theUKbasedExtinctionRebellionmovement)and,unsurprisingly,intheproliferationofnoteworthyweatherevents.Childrenandyoungpeoplefaceanuncertainfutureasourchangingclimateisforecasttohaveanincreasinglydetrimentalimpactonourdailylives.Whilsttheirvoicesarebeginningtobeheard(e.g.HaynesandTanner,2015),itisimportantthattheyareabletounderstand,criticallyengagewithandreflectuponthechangesbeingwrought,suchthattheybecomeempoweredtoactpositivelyandknowledgeably.Wearguethatadesign-ledstudyofthehumblehoneybee,oftenseenasanindicatorforenvironmentalhealth(Porrinietal,2003),canbeanaccessibleandpositivewayintoconsiderandopenupdiscussionsofwiderenvironmentalconcerns.

Honeybees,alongwithotherinsectpollinators,arevitalforpollinationgloballyandholdaprominentroleWesternculture,fromManchester’scitywidesymbolofindustriousnessandstrength,tonovelssuchasLalinePaull’sTheBees(2014)andMajaLunde’sTheHistoryofBees

MAXWELL,PILLATT&EDWARDS

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(2017),andaplethoraofbeeproducts(includingManukahoney,antibacterialpropolisandvenominfusedmoisturisers).TheworkreportedinthispaperwaspartoftheTellingtheBeesproject,whichsoughttoexplorepast,currentandfuturenarrativesaboutbeesandbeekeepingthroughtheuseofdesign(e.g.Maxwelletal2016).Topromptdiscussionanddebate,ourfuturenarrativeswereinformedbytheuseofspeculativedesign(Edwardsetal2016).

InthispaperwepresentacasestudydescribingtheuseofdesignfictionintwoprimaryschoolsinEnglandtoenablethechildrentodiscoverandunderstandthethreatsfacingbees,beekeeping,pollination,andtheglobalenvironmentalramificationsofaworldwithoutbees.

2.BackgroundDesignFictionisaformofspeculativedesignwherebyprototypesareusedtothinkaboutfutures(Bleeker,2009;Sterling,2012),theideabeingthat“positioninganimaginedtechnologywithinanarrativeworldrequiresadesignertothinkbeyondtheimmediateimplicationsofthattechnologyandconsideritwithinabroadersocialandculturalnarrative”(Tanenbaumetal.,2017).Followingitsinception,theconcepthasbeenusedbyresearchersanddesignersinvariousways(Coultonetal.,2017),butofteninvolvestheuseofdiegeticprototypes(Kirby,2010);artefactsthatmightlivebelievablywithinafictionalworld.Thedesignsactas“entrypoints”(Ibid.)intotheimaginedfutureworlds.Supportingmaterials,suchasadvertisingmaterialsorinstructiondocumentsforthefictionalobjects,arehooksthataddtotherichnessoftheworld,givecredencetothefictionsandrevealmoredetailsabouthowthedesignsexistwithinthatworld.Thisrealisticrenderingofanimaginedfutureworldpromptsreflectionsontheimplicationsofparticulardesigns,encouragesquestionsabouttheworldinwhichthatdesignfictionexists,andchallengesustoconsiderhowapluralityoffutureworldsmightemergefromourpresentandpast(cf.Coulton&Lindley2017).

DesignFictionhasbeenusedpreviouslyinthecontextofsustainablefutures(Hauseretal.,2014;Tanenbaumetal.,2016;Tanenbaumetal.,2017).IntermsofapplyingDesignFictionineducationalcontexts,thereisnodocumentedusewithinprimaryschools,althoughithasbeenappliedwithinHigherEducation(Hauseretal.,2014)andsecondaryschools.Inthelatterexample,DesignFictionwasmobilisedasaparticipatorymethodtoexplorepossibleeducationalfutures(Dugganetal.,2017).Overasix-weekperiod,childrenbetweentheagesof13-14usedarangeoftechniquesincludingdiscussion,shortstories,comicstripsand‘photovoice’methodstoenvisionfuturescenariosfortheirownschoolseveralyearsinthefuture.However,theprojectwasabandonedduetoethicalconcernsrelatingtothecontentofthedesignfictionandtheconsequentlossofsupportfromteacherscollaboratingintheproject.

InmoretraditionaldesignandHCIfields,abodyofworkaddresseschildren'sparticipationinthedesignofnoveltechnologies(e.g.Fitton,2015;Fitton,2016).Fitton’sworkpositionschildrenas“youngdesigners”usingdesignskillslikescenariosketchingforideationandintroductiontodigitaltechnologies.Thisresearchissituatedinparticipatorydesign,whichemphasisestheroleofparticipantsas‘experts’intheirexperience.Iverson's(2017)conceptofdesignprotagonistsaimstoempowerchildrenindevelopingtechnologyandcriticallyreflectingontheirdesigns.Otherresearchfocusesonchildren'smakerskills,programmingcompetenciesanddesignidentity(e.g.Iivari,2018).Forthespecificsof3Dprinting,Berman(2018)hasshownhowacasualmakerapproachcanbeusedtoengageprimaryschoolstudentsinasimplified3Dprintingprocess.

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3.MethodsInTellingtheBeesweworkedwithfourclassesofYear5primaryschoolchildren(over80pupils,age9-10)across2schoolsininner-citySheffield,hereafterreferredtoasSchool1andSchool2.Theseschoolsaresituatedinareasofacutedeprivation;forexample,atSchool166%ofchildrenareeligibleforfreeschoolmeals.Thisraisesanumberofbarrierstolearning:highproportionsofchildrenaredesignatedwithSpecialEducationalNeeds,parentalaspirationstendtobelow,andthereishigherthanaveragepupilmobility.Theschoolsaimtoproviderichculturalexperiencesthatmightnotbeavailableathome,andwhichprovideopportunitiesforfirst-handlearning.Additionally,theyarecommittedtotacklingpoorlydevelopedverbalskillsandlowself-esteem.Withtheseissuesinmind,andpriorexperienceofworkingwithourpartnerGrowTheatre,bothschoolswerekeenforustoworkwiththeirYear5children,whentheyarejustbeginningtodeveloptheirindependentlearningandteamworking.Intermsoflogistics,thisalsoavoidedtheproblemsofworkingwiththeolderYear6children,whohadSATsexamsandwerepreparingforsecondaryschool.

Bothschoolsjoinedtheprojectduringasinglehalfterminsummer2017,butinSchool1theactivitieswerecondensedintoaweekofintensiveengagement,whileinSchool2theywerespreadoutoverthecourseofthewholehalfterm.Whileweundertooktogiveeachschoolasimilarsetofactivitiesandexperiences,thesedifferentchronologiesandintensitiesofengagementyieldedslightlydifferentoutcomesandaffordances;inparticular,theyaffectedtowhatextenttheteacherscouldincorporatetheprojectthemesintotheirwiderteaching.

Inbothschools,weincorporatedtheprojectactivitiesintothecorecurriculumaspartofthenormalschoolday,andparentalpermissionwassoughtviatheschoolstocollectanduseanydata(e.g.photographs,writtenclasswork).Datawasgatheredthroughouttheproject,mostlyintheformofdocumentingthechildren’sclassworkinvariousmedia,butitalsoincludedananonymised,game-basedbaselineevaluationfromchildrenatthefirstevent,andsimilarreflectiveanonymisedwrittenfeedbackinthelastclassroomactivity.Inaddition,teachersfrombothschoolswereinterviewedafewweeksaftertheclass-basedworkended.

Animportantpartofourapproach,andonewhichtheschoolswereattractedto,wasthatwedevelopedDesignFictionsincombinationwithelementsoftheMantleoftheExpertteachingmethod.Thismethod,whichinvolveslearnersroleplayingasexpertsinaparticularfield,isrootedinthreepedagogicstructures–inquirylearning,dramaforlearningandexpertframing–thatputstheemphasisonlearningthatis“child-centred”butnotchild-led(Aitken,2013).Atitsheartisaphilosophythatvaluesthe“dialecticprocessingofinformation”throughsocialinteractionandactiveparticipationingroups(Heathcote&Herbert,1985).Becominganexpertinvolveslearninghowtoseetheworldfromaknowledgeableperspective,anddevelopingtheskillsneededtomakegooddecisions.Thischallengestraditionalrolesineducationinwhichlearnersare“passivereceiversofknowledge”andteachersholdpowerasthe“giverofknowledge”(Aitken,2013).Theapplicationofdramatechniques–suchasrole-play–isintendedtohelprepositionthelearnerasanexpertandtheteacherasfacilitator,enablingaprocessofself-directedresearchanddiscovery.

Inpartnershipwithprofessionalactorsandexperiencedtheatrepractitioners,andreflectingthecommitmentwithinMantleoftheExperttoaholisticapproachtoeducation,theseperformativeelementswereusedthroughouttheprojecttosupportandenrichthelearningprocess.Tothatend,wedevelopedanarrativecorearoundwhichthedesigningandmakingactivitieswerecontextualised:thechildrenwereaskedtoformimaginarydesigncompaniesthatwerebeingconsultedonwaystoaddresscatastrophicdeclinesinthehoneybeepopulationinanearfuturewherebeeswereeithera)extinct,orb)extremelyrare.Eachgroupwastoproduceanimaginative


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productdesignthatwouldprovideasolutiontoalleviateoneoftheconsequencesofthelackofbees.

Insomeways,theoveralldesignarcfollowedaconventionaldoublediamondprocess(DesignCouncil,2007),withearlyactivitiesfocusingondefiningtheproblemandexploringthebackgroundcontext.ThisinvolvedaninitialfieldvisittotheNationalTrust’sClumberParkestatewhere,withthesupportoftheGardensTeam,wehostedaseriesofintroductoryactivitiesthatincludeddramagames,atalkandobservationhiveviewingwithabeekeeper,andatalkaboutpollinationwithinthewalledgardenorchard.Unsurprisinglythisfieldtrip,toaplacethatmightotherwisehavebeeninaccessibletomanyofthechildren,provedtobeoneofthemostpopularoftheproject’sactivities.

Backintheclassroom,conventionaldesigntools–includingmoodboards,sketchingandstoryboardingtemplates–wereusedtohelpexplorethepossiblecausesandimplicationsofcatastrophicbeedecline,anddevelopideasforpotentialsolutions(seeFigure1).Onceeachgrouphadsettledonanidea,theyalltookpartinastructuredpeercritiquesessiontoenablethemtorefinetheirideasfurtherandpractisetheartofpresentingandgivingandreceivingfeedback.Thesedesigntoolsandtechniqueswereblendedwithdramaandrole-playactivities.ForexamplethepeercritiquetooktheformofaDragons’Den(BBCTV)styleperformativepitch,whiletheircompleteddesignswerethesubjectofafilmednewsreport.Throughouttheprocessandideadevelopment,informalfeedbackfromtheprojectteamandteachersaimedatopeningupandpushingtheideasfurtherthroughquestionsabouthowandwhythedesignsfunctioned,ratherthanclosingdownimaginativeaspects.

Figure1.DesigntemplateforTheChemicalScannerconceptshowingstoryboardcellsandwrittenfeedbackfromtherestoftheclassonpost-itnotes(fromstructuredpeercritiquesession).

Inaddition,todevelopchildren’swritingskillsandexpandthefictionalworldinhabitedbytheirprototypes,eachgroupworkedtogethertocreatetheirownnewspaperthatincludedphotographs


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oftheirdramapieces,writtenreportsoftheirideas,creativewritingintheformofpoetryandjokes,andillustrationsoftheirdesign(e.g.asanadvert).Thesewerecollated,transcribedandprintedupintoacompletesetofnewspapersforeachclass(e.g.seeFigure2).

Figure2.Sampleimagesfromtheschoolnewspaperscreatedbythechildrenillustratinga)anadvertfortheUltraBeehivedesign(lhs)andb)anarticledescribingabeedomedesignwithimagesfromdramaactivities,asketchandlo-fimodelofthedome.

Tofinalisetheirdesigns,thechildrenproducedtechnicaldrawingsbeforecreatinglo-fiphysicalartefacts.Followingthis,andtosupportthedevelopmentofdigitaldesignandmakingskills,eachgroupusedopensource3Dmodellingsoftwaretocreateartefactsthatcouldbe3Dprinted(seeFigure3).Itwasinitiallyintendedthattheseartefactswouldbedigitalversionsoftheirdesigns,buttheapproachwaschangedafterworkingwiththetwoclassesatSchool1–thechildrensimplydidnothavetheskillsnorthetimetoconverttheirphysicalmodelstodigitalform.Instead,pupilsatSchool2produceddigitaldesignsoffuturisticbee-friendlyflowersandpollen.Thesedisplayedanarrayofcharacteristicsthatreflectedtheirsubjectlearning;forexample,flowersthathadappendagesthatprovidedshelterfromtherain,andpollenthatwasdesignedtoadheremoreeasilytoforagingbees.

The3Dprintswerethenexhibited,alongwitheachclass’newspapers,atourprojectpartnerorganisation,YorkExploreLibrary.Ahive-shapeddisplaycasewasconstructed,whichincorporatedadigitaldisplayandsensorsystem,suchthatplacingeachdesignonaplinthwouldtrigger(viaNFCtags)avideoanimationtellingthestoryofhowitwouldsupporthoneybees,orhelpuscopeinaworldwheretheynolongerexisted(Figure4).AllfourclassesparticipatedinafinalfieldtriptoYorkwheretheywereabletoseetheirworkexhibited.


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Figure3.Lo-fimodeloftheBeeArmourdesign(lhs)modellingprotectivearmouronherwingsandfeet,andtheplasticinemodelsportingthe3Dprintedarmourartefact(rhs).

Figure4.InteractiveExhibitionHivedisplaycaseshowinga)allthe3Dprinteddesignfictionsandthescreen(lhs)andb)closeupoftheshelfcontaininganearfieldcommunication(NFC)readerunderneathitwithadesignfictionplacedontheshelf.

4.DesignFictionsBetweenthefourclasses,19designswerecreatedandrenderedasfinal3Dprintedprototypes.Thephysicalprints,whilstevocative,wereinmanycasesrathervisuallyabstractwiththeirintentionandintendedfunctionalitynotalwaysimmediatelyapparent.Therefore,inordertoprovidesomeexplanatoryinterpretation,theinteractiveexhibitioncasewascreated(Figure4).TheuseofsinglecolourPLAprints(anecessarylimitationofprojectresources)impactsthebelievabilityoftheartefactsasdesignfictions–theylackscaleandappearsomewhatsimplisticandtoy-like.However,thematerialsimilaritiesacrossartefactsimbuedasenseofcoherence;ofbeingpartofacollection.

Table1summarisesthedesignsthattheschoolchildrencreated.Therewassomenotableoverlapinideas;mostobviouslythreevariationsona‘beedome’(arisingindependentlyacrossdifferentclasses


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andschools),wherebeescouldliveinsafetyfrompredatorsandparasites(similartotheEdenProjectorevenTheTrumanShow).Oneofthesedesignshadanadditionaltwist,inthatitincorporatedanetworkofmobiletubesextendingoutfromthemaindome,allowingbeestoflysafelyanddirectlytoforagingsites.Whilsttherewasnotsuchobvioussimilarityinsomeoftheotherideas,thereweredefinitecommonalitiesinthemesofprovidingsafespacesforbeestorestin(see4&5inTable1),andcreatingtechnologicallyadvancedsecurehives(see6-8inTable1).

Table1.Summarytableofall19designfictionsdescribingtheideasandgroupedbysimilarityofthemes

Name ClassID Description

1 HoneySauceDispenser

SCH1/B Synthetichoneyproductthatcontainsatinyamountofgenuinehoney

2 LaserBeeWash SCH1/B Laserbeewashremovesparasitesfrombees

whentheyenterthehiveThesesimilarideasemergedfromdifferentschools3 BeeUltralizor SCH2/B Ashowerforbeesthatkillsparasites

4 SafeSpaces SCH2/B Awelcominghabitatforbeesthatfindthemselvesstrandedincities Similarideason

beehabitatsfromdifferentschools5 HiveHotel SCH1/A

Asafespaceforbeestoliveandrest,withitsownsecuritysystemtomakesureonlybeescanenter

6 Beeshield SCH2/B Asecuritysystemforhivesthatpreventsinfectedinsectsandinvadersfromentering Designsto

createsecurehives

7 UltraBeehive SCH1/A Asafeandfortifiedbeehive

8 TheNet SCH1/B Thenetisplacedoverthehivetostopparasitesentering

9 Beetopia SCH2/A Ahugecovereddometoprotectsafe,includesasugarwaterriver,flowersandbeehives 3beedome

ideasfromdifferentclassesandschools

10 BeeDome SCH2/B Alargecovereddometoprotectbeesfromdisruptiveweatherandpollution

11 PowerfulDome SCH1/A

Alargecovereddometoprotectbees,withmechanisedtubesforbeestovisitflowersoutsidethedome

12 VirusExtractor SCH2/A

Ahandheldvirusextractorsprayforplants.Visitingbeestakeupthesprayedpollenthatkillsparasiteswhenthebeesreturntotheirhive

Designsthataddresschemicalsandpesticides13 TheChemical

Scanner SCH1/B Ahandheldscannerthatsucksupbadchemicalsinplantsthatkillthebees

14 AntidoteFlower SCH2/A Anantidoteflowerwithcrushedtabletsinthe

middle

15 BeeArmour SCH1/B Toprotectbeesfrombattlesanddying

16 HoneyMachine SCH2/B Asortingmachinethatcleanschemicalsfrom

pollenandhoneythatbeescanrecollect

17 TheShopHive SCH1/A Abeehivedesignforshopstoincreasebeecoloniesandreducecostofhoney

Servicedesignidea


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18 BeeBackpack SCH2/A Aroboticbeethatinfiltratesthehiveandspraysthebeestodealwithparasites

19 BeeRay SCH1/AThispotionshrinksapersontobeesizetobeabletoteachthebeeshowtodefendthemselvesagainstpredators

Thisdesignsitswithintherealmsofsci-fiandfantasy

Thedesignscanbeevaluatedinavarietyofways,rangingfromassessmentsoftheirsuccessasexamplesofdesignfiction(e.g.theirabilitytoa)suspenddisbelief,b)provokediscussionandc)besituatedinanearfutureworld)orhowsuccessfultheprocesswasatengagingschoolchildren(e.g.asreflectedinenthusiasm,thoughtfuldesign,productivegroupworking),tohowbeneficialtheoveralldesignprocesswasfortheschoolsthemselves(e.g.intermsofmeetingcurriculumobjectivesandsupportingwiderteachingactivities).

However,asameanstovisuallyconsidertheideasasasinglecohort,theoft-citedfutureconesdiagram(e.g.Coulton&Lindley,2017)offersareadytooltoexaminethechildren’sworkfromadesignfictionperspective.Figure5showshowthedesignsmaptothefuturecones,theirhorizontalpositionreflectingthetimeframeinwhichthedesignmightbemadereal,frompresenttofarinthefuture,andtheirverticalpositionindicatingthelikelihoodofthedesignactuallyexisting,fromprobabletopossiblefutures.Exemplardesignfictionswouldgenerallysitwithinnearfutureandpossiblesectionsofthediagram.

Figure5.Designfictionsmappedtothefuturescone(adaptedfromCoulton&Lindley,2017).NumbersrelatetoorderinginTable1.


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Itisworthnotingthespreadofdesignsacrossthecone,fromideasthat,invariousforms,areverynearfutureandalmostinexistence,tothosethatareveryunlikely.Inonecase,theBeeRay,extendsbeyondtheconesofpossiblefuturesintotherealmofsciencefictionandfantasy.Itisalsoworthnotingthatthechildrenwerenotexplicitlytaskedwithcreatingdesignfictions,i.e.theywerenottoldwhatdesignfictionsare,butrathersimplyaskedtocreatedesignsforafutureworldinwhichbeeshadeitherbecomeextinctordrasticallyreducedinnumbers.Throughoutthedesignprocess,theprojectteamconstantlyencouragedthechildrentodeveloptheirideasfurtherdeveloped;forexample,byaskinghowsomethingmightworkorwhatmaterialsmightbeused.Carewastakennottoinhibit,restrictorotherwiseharshlycritiquethechildren’simaginings.However,oneexceptiontothiscamewhenweobservedawell-meaningteacherdissuadeagroupfrompursuingafairlyradical,yetinterestingdesignidea,onthebasisthatitwastoounrealisticandsilly.

Therestofthissectionpresentsthreediverseexamplesofthechildren’sdesigns.

4.1ArtificialHoneyThisdesignwascreatedinresponsetoafuturescenarioinwhichallhoneybeeshadbecomeextinct.Thechildrenhypothesisedthatthislosswouldleadtohugeincreasesinthepriceofremaininghoney.Inordertodealwiththisimbalanceinsupplyanddemand,theycreatedaproposalforHoneySauce–asyntheticformofhoneythatcontainedaminisculeamountofgenuinehoneytogiveitanairofauthenticity.Their3DprinteddesignwasamodeloftheHoneySaucedispenser(Figure6).

Viabilityofdesignfiction:

Thisdesignworkswellintermsofitsbelievability;itiseasytoseehowthisproductmayarisethroughsimpleeconomiclogic,anditwouldbetrivialtorealisetechnically.Thedesignfictionisalsosetfirmlywithinafuturethatwewilllikelyenter.Arguably,itisalreadywithus:artificialhoneyalreadyexists,bothillicitlyandonthesmallprintofjarsofhoneycomb(e.g.“Honeygate:HowEuropeisbeingfloodedwithfakehoney”,2018).Thisdesignissetapartfrommostofthedesignsintheproject,inthatitisrelativelyabstract.Thephysicalartefact(producedasarequirementofthetasktheyhadbeenset)wasnotnecessarilythebestoutputforconveyingthedesignidea.Indeed,asetofadvertisingmaterialsmayhavebeenmoreappropriateinthisinstance.

Figure6.TheHoneySauceartificialhoneydesign,illustratinga)ThejunkmodellingprototypeshowinghowtheHoneySaucemightbemanufacturedandb)the3Dprintedartefactofthetopofthesaucedispenser.


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4.2BeeWashesTwoofthedesigns(fromdifferentschools)relatedtobeewashes.Thesedeviceswouldattachattheentranceofbeehives,wheretheywouldremoveanyunwantedparasitesorpesticideresiduesfromthebeesastheyenterthehive.Oneofthesetooktheformofashower,whiletheotherwasalaserthatdetectedparasitesandvaporisedthem(seeFigure7).TheseideasreflectedclasslearningaboutthegrowingnumbersofparasitesandpeststroublinghoneybeesintheUK,includingtheendemicvarroadestructormiteandthethreatofthesmallhivebeetle.


Thisdesignconceptisfirmlysituatedwithinthenearfuturesectionofthediagram,andontheborderbetweentheprobableandpossiblefutures.Whilsttoourknowledge,alaserbeewashdoesnotcurrentlyexist,therearecomparableproductsthatthechildrenwerenotawareof.Forinstance,thebeegym(Figure8)isasmallplasticframewithwiresstrungacrossit.Beesvoluntarilypassbetweenthewirestoknockvarroamitesfromtheirbodies.Anelectronicallyoperateddoortoabeehivewouldbefeasible:thereisonlyoneentranceandexitinaconventionalbeehive,whichbeekeepersalreadycontrolbymakingitnarrowertowardstheendofsummertohelpbeesguardagainstwasps,andbyfittingmouseguardsbeforewinter.Moreover,electronicdoorsexistforotherlivestockandpets,includinghenhousesandcatflaps.Whileabeedoorandcleansingsystemwouldrequireveryrapidandaccurateopeningandclosing,thiscouldbetechnicallyrealised,perhapsinpartusingcomputervisionandmachinelearning.

Figure7.Junkmodelshowingthelaserwashandahappy,parasitefreebee.


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Figure8.BeeGym(fromhttp://www.beegym.co.uk)

4.3TheShopHiveTheShopHivehadasimilarstartingpointastheArtificialHoney:thattherewerefewhoneybeesleftintheworld,leadingtohoneybecomingexceptionallyexpensive.Thisgroup’ssolutionwasnotsomuchanartefactorproduct,butratheraserviceorpolicydesign.Intheirfuture,eachshopwouldlegallyberequiredtokeepabeehiveontheirpremises.Thiswouldhopefullyrescueandreinvigoratethebeepopulation,therebyintroducingnewsuppliestomarketthatwouldbringdownthecostofhoney.Whenthegroupwasaskedtodevelopaphysicalmodelrepresentingtheiridea,theywereinitiallystumped.Theirdesigndidnotnecessarilyrequireaphysicalartefacttohelpexplainit.Indeed,thislevelofabstractionwassomethingthattheprojectteamdidnotanticipate.Thegroupeventuallysettledoncreatingaprototypeforahivethatcouldbeinstalledinshops(seeFigure9).


Theprototypehivewascertainlynotthestrongestintermsofitspotentialtechnicalfeasibility.Littlethoughtwentintothedesignofthehiveintermsofitsaffordancesandfeatures.Thiswassomewhatdisappointinggiventhatrecentinnovationsinhivedesignsuggestthiswouldhavebeenafruitfulareaofinvestigationandimaginativethinking(e.g.theFlowHive,2018).Nevertheless,thestrengthofthisdesignisinitsunderlyingsocialconcept.Beekeepinginurbanandindoorenvironmentsisbecomingincreasinglypopular,andsomeoftheemergingcommercialandconceptdesignsspeaktothisaudience(e.g.BEEcosystem,2018andPhilipsUrbanBeehive,2018).WhiletheShopHiveistechnicallypossible,thedesignitselflocatedquitefarintothefutureanddeepintotherealmofpossible,ratherplausible,futures.Thisisdueprimarilytotheunlikelihoodofthelegislationbeingcreatedandbroughtintoeffect.


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Figure9.TheShopHivedesignconcept,illustratinga)thejunkmodeldesignconstructedfromplasticine,andb)3Dprintedartefact.

5.Discussion5.1Reflectionsonapproach OurapproachofmarryingDesignFictionwiththeMantleoftheExpert(MoE)techniquewasintendedtosupportbothholisticlearningandstimulatecreativity.Arguably,thisapproachmeantthatwewereneitherapplyingapureversionofMoE,norfocussingwhollyontheprocessesandaffordancesofmakingDesignFictions.UnderMoE,childrenusuallytakeownershipoftheirownlearning,yetinourprojectthiswasdifficultduetotheneedtofocusonthetopicandguidechildrenthroughadesignprocess.SomeofthepotentialofDesignFictionswasalsolost,assubstantiallearningtimewasdevotedtogainingknowledgeaboutbeesandbeekeepingasopposedtoreflectingonandcritiquingthepossibleworldsinwhichthechildren’sdesignsresided.Indeed,itwasstrikingthatthekeenestreflectionscameduringteacher-ledPhilosophyforChildren(P4C)sessionstowardsthestartoftheproject,ratherthanattheendaftertheDesignFictionshadbeenproduced.Forexample,oneteacheratSchool2enthusiasticallyrecountedhowchildreninherclassthoughttheyoughttopetitiongovernmenttoconservewildflowersandparks,buttheteachersatSchool1weredisappointedthattheydidnotruntheP4Csessionstowardstheendoftheproject,whenthechildrenhadmoreknowledgeofthesubject.

Theschools’curriculumandlogisticalrequirementsalsohadanimpactonoutcomes.OurworkatSchool2,spreadoveranentirehalfterm,presentedmoreopportunitiesforteacherstoexplorethetopicinothersettings,inawaythatSchool1couldnot.ItwasgratifyingtoseechildrenatSchool2workonbeethemeparksinMaths,foragingflightpathsinGeography,andadaptingfolktalesaboutbeesinEnglishandDrama.Thisledtothechildreninthisschoolhavingmuchdeeperknowledgeofbeesandbeekeeping,andtheenvironmentalissuesthattheyface.AtSchool1,theteachersfeltthattheirshorterengagementmeantthattheirinitialknowledgeofthetopicwasinsufficientforaddressingthetask,butarguablythislackofsubjectscaffoldingmeantthattheirDesignFictions


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weremoreimaginativethanthoseproducedatSchool2,eveniftheworldswerelessrichlydetailed.ThisraisesinterestingquestionsabouttheextenttowhichDesignFictionsfindabalancebetweenbeinggroundedinrealworldknowledgeandpureimagination.

Intermsofwhatthechildrenthoughtoftheproject,twoaspectswereparticularlypopular:theopeningfieldtriptoClumberPark,andundertaking3Dmodellingoncomputersandseeinga3Dprinterinaction.Theseelementswerethemostnovelintermsofbreakingfromtheusualschoolroutineandprovidingnewexperiences.WhileweshouldnotperhapsreadtoomuchintotheirenjoymentofClumberParkonabeautifulearlysummer’sday,theirclearenthusiasmforbothphysicalanddigitalmakingwasstriking.Oneteacherremarkedhowwellthechildrenworkedin“notonlythinkingaboutthebees’problems,buttheirownproblemswhilsttheyaremaking,whilsttheyareworkingtogether”(teacherfromSchool1).Thisthinking-through-makingandcollaborativeworkingwasalsoreflectedinthereactionsofthechildren,amixofwonder,aweandpride,whentheyfirstviewedthe3Dprintsoftheirdesigns.Thiswasevidentdespitetheprojectteam’sconcernsregardingthebelievabilityandfidelityofthe3Dprinteddesigns.

5.2Materialsandbelievability Designfictionsaimtorenderafictionalfutureworldbelievablesothatpeoplecanthinkaboutthatworldanditsimplications–howitmightcomeintobeingandwhetherthatwouldbeapositiveornegativedevelopment.Theroleofthedesignfictionprototypesistounlockthisfutureworld.Forthisreason,designfictionprototypesareusuallyintendedasconvincingobjectsinourimaginingofthatworld–theyareusuallymadetothescalethattheywouldbefound‘inreallife’,andtheyaremadefrommaterialsthatmakethembelievableasfunctioningobjects.Examplesincludetheiconicflip-topcommunicatorsinStarTrek,orthepackagingandmarketingmaterialsforPolly,thesmart,InternetOfThingskettle(Lindleyetal.,2018). Inourproject,therewasnotthebudget,timeormaterialstoproducesuchrealism.Moreover,theschools’desiredlearningoutcomeswereafactor.Therequestfor3Dmodellingand3Dprintingwithintheprojectchannelledthechoicesofmaterialsandtechnology.

Theiterativedesignprocessthatledtothefinal3Dprintsprovidedopportunitiestoworkacrossdifferentmedia:sketchingmultipleideas,junkprototypingwithdifferentmaterials,anddrawingandwritinganewspaperarticle.Thesestagesinthedesignprocessgavethechildrenmuchmorecontrolinshapingthedetailoftheirdesignsincomparisontothefinal3Dmodelling.Theteachersnotedthatthechildren“absolutelyloved”workingwiththe“differentbitsandbobs...liketheplasticine”(teacherfromSchool2)inthejunkmodellingphase.Theycommentedthatthechildrendonotusuallyhavetheopportunitytoworkwiththosekindsofmaterialsandthattheyenjoyedthechallengeofproblem-solvingastheytransformedtheir2Ddrawingsinto3Drepresentations.

Evenifthedesignfictionsthemselvesdidnotlookphysicallybelievableasobjectsfromtheworld,theirverymateriality,their‘thingness’(Ingold,2013),allowedthechildrentosuspenddisbelief,andengageinimaginative,creativereflection. OneoftheaimsofMoEistoframetheactivitiesasprofessionalwork.Whileitwasdifficultforthechildrentousethe3Dsoftwaretoachieveaprofessionalrealism,thecombinationoftheoutputsfromtheproject–thenewspapers,filmeddramaclipsandcollaborativelymadejunkmodels–overallproducedasenseofqualityandprofessionalismthatelicitedprideamongstthechildren,staffandparentsacrossbothschools.

Thematerialsusedinthefinalrenderingsmaynothavebeenbelievablewithinthefutureworlds,buttheirnoveltytothechildrenmeantthattheypotentiallygavecredencetotheirassumedrolesasexperts;asdesignersthatcanproduce3Dprintedobjects.Thecombinationofdesignanddramacomplementedeachothereffectivelyinthisprojectbyreinforcingthissenseof‘steppingout’from


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theirusuallivedreality.Thisthenenabledquiterapidanddetailedlearningaboutcontemporary(andfuture)environmentalissues.

5.3EngagingwithEnvironmentalIssues Honeybeesareakeystonespecies,prodigiouspollinators,withlongstandingrelationshipswithhumans.Theyarecommonlyviewedas“good”insects,particularlyincomparisontootherinsectssuchaswaspsandspiders.Assuch,beestendtoelicitagreatdealofenthusiasmandanecdotes.InSchool2,whereourworkwasspreadoverawholehalfterm,thechildrenoftenspontaneouslyrecountedstoriesaboutbeesthattheyhadsavedintheplaygroundorathome.TheirwiderlearningwassufficientlydetailedenoughtobeabletoidentifyasurprisinglydiverserangeofUKplantsandflowerspopularwithbees.Similarly,thecommentscapturedduringpeercritiquesessionsrevealedthoughtfulquestionsandcomments:‘Wouldn’tthe[bee]shower[idea]heart[hurt]them?’and‘Howwillbeetopia[beedomeidea]workinhotcountrieslikeAfricawherethereisnotmuchrain?’,clearlydemonstratingwiderthinkingandunderstandingbeyondtheirownlocalcontext.

Whilsttheprojectcentredonhoneybees,discussionsthroughoutextendedfarbeyondhoney.Talksbybeekeepersatthestartofprojecthighlightedtheprocessandimportanceofpollination.Aproblemmappingandexplorationsessionenabledchildrentothinkthroughtheconsequencesofthelossofbees,fromlackofcloverandthereforegrazingforcows,tothelossoftheirfavouritefruitsandevencotton.Thedesignfictionsthemselvesnaturallyrelatetobees,butmanyofthemconsiderwiderenvironmentalandsocialissues.Forexample,thechildrenthoughtcarefullyabouthowtoprovidesafespacesforbeesinanincreasinglyhostileenvironment,aswellastheimplicationsforsocietyandoureconomiesifbeesandotherpollinatorsweretobecomeextinct.Thisdepthoflearningwasreflectedinanevaluationsessionheldattheendoftheproject,wherechildrenrecitedanextensivearrayofbeefacts,manyofwhichtheystillretainedfourmonthslaterwhenwemetthemforourfinalengagementatYorkExploreLibrary.Moreover,someofthesefactsweremixedwithempathytowardsbees:“beesonlyhaveonesting,likeweonlyhaveoneheart”.Insum,asresultoftheproject,thechildrendevelopedabroad,nuancedunderstandingofbeesandwiderenvironmentalchallenges.Thisincreaseinempathyandwiderlearningskillssupportsthefindingsofotherstudiesthathaveemployeddesignapproachesinschools(e.g.Carrolletal,2010).

6.ConclusionsTheprojectwaswellreceivedbystaffatbothschoolsduetothehighlevelsofstudentengagementandenthusiasm,aswellasfortheprideengenderedintheproductionandexhibitionofthefinaldesigns.AtSchool1,staffwereimpressedwiththedepthofknowledgeandknowledgeretentionthatresultedfromthelearner-centred,design-approachtowardthetopic.

OurprojectsuggeststhatDesignFiction,usedinconjunctionwithMantleoftheExpert,canbeausefulapproachforaddressingcomplexissues,suchasglobalenvironmentalthreats,becauseitprovidesopportunitiesforchildrentocastforwardandimaginativelythinkthroughmaking,performinganddiscussingfuturesettings,inwaysthatstimulatemultiplesensesandrespondtothebreadthofpreferredlearningstylesinaclassgroup.

Itcanbechallengingforchildrentothinkaboutfuturesandtherecanbeatendencytofixateonthefinalartefactasafinishedproduct,ratherthanastartingpointforthinkingaboutthefuture.Dramacanenhancecriticalandreflectivethinkingaboutdesignfictionartefacts,whichsupplementscreativethinkingaboutfutureworlds.


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Hereweofferseveralconsiderationsonthethemesofplanningandpreparations,materialsandtechnologiesandstructurewithinthecurriculum,forresearchersandeducatorswishingtopursuethisapproach.

1. Schoolandteacherbuy-incaninfluencetheprojectprogressionsosignificantpreparationandplanningisneededtoensureeveryoneunderstandstheaimsandisawareoftheunfoldingstagesintheprocess.Theprojectneedssufficientresourceintermsofspace,staffingand,mostimportantlytime.Teachingandlearningstyles,learningoutcomesandcurriculumdemandsneedtoclarifiedattheoutsettoensureaconsistentapproach,especiallyiftheprojectismanagedbymultiplestaff.

2. Therearepracticaldifficultiesinrealisingtrulydiegeticprototypes,forexamplegettingaccesstoappropriatematerials,havingsufficientskill-levelstorealisecreationsasenvisioned,andclassmanagementchallengeswhenchildrenworkwithaplethoraofmaterials.Materialchoicescansignificantlyaffectthebelievabilityofthefictionssowesuggestthatflexibilityenablesstudentstoselectthebestmaterialstocreateabelievablerenderingoftheirdesign.Usersshouldbeawareofpotentialtensionsbecausesomematerialchoicescanexpandimaginationandcreativepotentialsbutpresentconflictswithcurriculumobjectives.Inourcase,itwasdesirableforstudentstolearnto3Dprintbutitlimitedtheircreativeoutputs.

3. DesignFictioncombinedwithperformativeelementscanbeusedwithlittlesubjectknowledgetocreate‘Freezes’(dramaticmontagesetaroundadesignfiction)asarapidprocessforgeneratingquestionsaboutanewsubject.HoweverwesuggesttheDesignFictionmethodismostusefulwhenintegratedwithotherlead-inactivities,inthiscasethegardenvisitandbeekeepertalks,becauseextendingtheknowledgebasegiveschildrenmorecontenttoworkwithinbuildingtheirfictionsandconsolidatescross-curricularskillacquisitionanddevelopment.Ofthetwostructuresusedthelonger,half-termstructurewasmosteffectivebecauseitallowedtime,a)forconsolidationofknowledge,b)forchildren,teachersandresearchertoberesponsivetomaterials;andc)asabufferagainsttechnologyfailures.

Finally,wesuggestthedesignfictionworkcouldbefurtheraugmentedandappliedwithfollow-upactivitiesthatreintroduceexternalexperts,forexamplebeekeepersorenvironmentalscientists.Inthiswaythedesignfictionprototypescouldbeusedtoreflectbackonthepresent,futurechoicesandasawaytolearnaboutnewinnovationsthatmaybesimilartothedesignfictionscreatedbychildren.

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AbouttheAuthors:

DeborahMaxwellisalecturerinInteractiveMediaatUniversityofYork.Herresearchinterestsarearoundthewaysthatpeopleinteractwithandreshapetechnologyandtherolesthatstorytellingcanplayacrossmedia,particularlyinenvironmentalcontexts.

TobyPillattisanarchaeologistwithaneclecticsetofresearchinterests,encompassingcommunityheritage,trees,bees,uplandlandscapes,weatherandwhitecoal,aswellastheinterfacesbetweenart,archaeologyanddesign.HeregularlyteachesintheDepartmentofArchaeologyattheUniversityofSheffield.

LizEdwardsisaSeniorResearchAssociateatLancasterUniversityexploringtheuseofdigitaltechnologiesforengagementwithenvironmentalscienceacrossarangeofaudiences,particularlyintheareasoffloodingandbiodiversity.

RachelNewmanisCo-FounderandArtisticDirectorofGrowtheatre,aCommunityInterestCompanythatdevelopstheatreandcreativeprojectsinspiredbyourenvironment.PriortoGrowtheatre,Rachelworkedasafreelancetheatrepractitionerspecialisingincommunityandeducationalpractice,andintheEducationDepartmentattheCrucibleTheatre.

Acknowledgements:ThisworkwasfundedbytheArtsandHumanitiesResearchCouncil(AH/P009581/1).WeareparticularlygratefultothechildrenandteachersatthetwoprimaryschoolsinSheffield,andwealsothankClumberPark,designerMorvernOdling,andYorkExploreLibrariesandArchives.

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