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Chapter 1Chapter 1
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The Field of Social Psychology: How We Think about and Interact
with Others
Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
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Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
The Field of Social PsychologyThe Field of Social Psychology
• Social Psychology– A Working Definition
– Its Cutting Edge
– Research Methods
– Quest for Knowledge and Rights of Individuals: Seeking a Balance
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Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
A Working DefinitionA Working Definition
• Social Psychology: The scientific field that seeks to understand the nature and causes of individual behavior and thought in social situations– Scientific in nature and follows core values:
• Accuracy, Objectivity, Skepticism, Open-Mindedness
• Does not rely on personal experience, intuition, and “common sense” notions
– Focuses on the behavior of individuals
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Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
A Working DefinitionA Working Definition
– Seeks to understand the causes of social behavior and thought, which includes:
• Actions and characteristics of others• Cognitive processes: Memories, inferences• Environmental variables• Cultural context• Biological factors
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Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
A Working DefinitionA Working Definition
Evolutionary Psychology: A new branch of psychology that seeks to investigate the potential role of genetic factors in various aspects of human behavior
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Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
A Working DefinitionA Working Definition
• What are your thoughts?What are your thoughts?– Are the findings of social psychologists simply common
sense?• Why or why not?
– What are examples of behaviors or situations that would be more likely studied by a social psychologist than by a sociologist?
– What environmental, cultural, and biological factors may be of interest to social psychologists?
• Why?
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Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Its Cutting EdgeIts Cutting Edge
• Recognizes that cognition and behavior are two sides of the same coin
• Examines Social Neuroscience: research area that seeks knowledge about the neural and biological bases of social processes
• Studies role of implicit (nonconscious) processes
• Adopts a Multicultural Perspective: A focus on understanding the cultural and ethnic factors that influence social behavior
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Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Research MethodsResearch Methods
• Systematic Observation—behavior is systematically observed and recorded– Naturalistic observation—systematically
observe behavior in natural settings– Survey Method—large number of people
answers questions about their attitudes or behavior
• Has many advantages• Must meet certain requirements
– Issues of sampling and wording of items
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Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Research MethodsResearch Methods
• Correlational Method—a scientist systematically observes two or more variables to determine whether changes in one are accompanied by changes in the other
– Allows predictions to be made
• A stronger correlation yields a more accurate prediction.
– Correlations range from -1.00 to +1.00.
» The farther away from 0, the stronger the correlation.
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Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Research MethodsResearch Methods
– Correlations can be either positive or negative. • A positive correlation means that as one variable increases
the other increases or as one variable decreases the other decreases—the two variables move in the same direction.
• A negative correlation means that as one variable increases, the other decreases—the two variables move in opposite directions.
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Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Research MethodsResearch Methods– A correlation
between variables does not mean that one variable causes changes in the other variable.
• Correlation does not equal causation.
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Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Research MethodsResearch Methods
• What are your thoughts?What are your thoughts?– What social psychological topic would be good to study using the
systematic observation method?
– What social psychological topic would be good to study using the survey method?
– What are examples of a positive correlation and a negative correlation?
– Why doesn’t a correlation between two variables mean that they are causally related?
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Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Research MethodsResearch Methods
• Experimentation (Experimental Method)—one or more factors (the independent variables) are systematically changed to determine whether such variations affect one or more factors (dependent variables)
– Used to attain the goal of explanation
– Can determine causal relationships
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Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Research MethodsResearch Methods
– Involves two key aspects
• Independent Variable—variable that is systematically changed in an experiment
• Dependent Variable—variable that is measured in an experiment
– Has two requirements to be valid and successful
• Random Assignment of Participants to Groups—research participants must have an equal chance of being exposed to each level of the independent variable
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Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Research MethodsResearch Methods• And, all factors that might affect behavior other than
the independent variable must be held constant. – If not, the independent variable may be confounded with
another variable, which results in meaningless findings.
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Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Research MethodsResearch Methods
– Because experiments are often conducted in laboratory settings, the issue of external validity—the extent to which the findings can be generalized to real-life social situations and to people different from those who participated in the experiment—often is raised.
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Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Research MethodsResearch Methods
• Interpreting Research Results
– Inferential Statistics—special form of mathematics that allows the evaluation of the likelihood that a given pattern of research results occurred by chance alone
• If the likelihood that the results were due to chance is low (less than five times in a hundred), the results are described as significant.
– Results are viewed as tentative until replicated.
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Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Research MethodsResearch Methods
– Interpreting diverse results• Involves a statistical technique called meta-analysis
– Data are combined from independent studies in order to determine whether specific variables (or interactions between variables) have significant effects across these studies.
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Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Research MethodsResearch Methods
• The Role of Theory in Social Psychology– Procedure involved in building theories:
• Theories are proposed on the basis of existing evidence.
• Theories help to organize information and make predictions about observable conditions.
• Hypotheses based on a theory are tested by research.
• If results support theory, confidence in theory is increased. If not, theory is modified and further research is conducted.
• In the end, the theory is accepted or rejected, but always remains open to further testing and refinement.
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Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Research MethodsResearch Methods
The Roleof Theory
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Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Research MethodsResearch Methods
• What are your thoughts?What are your thoughts?– What are advantages and disadvantages of each type
of research method that social psychologists use?– If a researcher was conducting an experiment to see
whether the attractiveness of a job candidate affected people’s likelihood to hire the candidate, what would be the independent variable in this study?
• What would be the dependent variable in this study?
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Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Seeking an Appropriate BalanceSeeking an Appropriate Balance
• The Use of Deception—a technique whereby researchers withhold information about the purposes or procedures of a study from their participants. – Some kinds of research may require it.
– However, its use raises ethical issues:• Participant could be harmed (experience distress,
anxiety).
• Participant could develop negative attitudes toward psychological research.
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Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Seeking an Appropriate BalanceSeeking an Appropriate Balance
– Safeguards that must be followed:• Informed consent—provide research participants with
as much information as possible about a research project before they decide whether to participate in it.
• Debriefing—at the conclusion of the study, provide participants with full information about the nature of the research and the hypotheses under investigation.
• Deception should be used only when absolutely necessary and care must be taken to protect rights, safety, and well-being of participants.
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Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Seeking an Appropriate BalanceSeeking an Appropriate Balance
• What are your thoughts?What are your thoughts?– Is deception sometimes warranted in social
psychological research?• Why or why not?
– What are examples of social psychological topics that may need to be studied using some sort of deception?
– Are the safeguards taken by social psychologists when deception is used sufficient?
• Why or why not?