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DO NOW:
1. Describe the early earth.
2. What was the first type of life like?
3. How did the experiments of Spanallzani, Pasteur, and Redi influence the way scientists viewed life?
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Evolution: How species have changed over time
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First a Perspective of Time
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Those who influenced Darwin
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GEOLOGYHutton and Lyell (geologists
James Hutton (1785) hypothesized earth to be very old when he examined
geologic features such as rock layers and erosion Charles Lyell (1833)
Hypothesized that complex geologic processes like erosion, volcanoes, etc. shaped the earth as we currently see it.
CONCLUSIONS: EARTH IS VERY VERY OLD! Today’s best guess??? 4.6 Billion Years
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1809:Lamarck’s Theory
Use and Disuse:Body parts that are used more grow
stronger and bigger.Body parts not used will deteriorate.
Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics:Physical changes that occur in an
organism are inherited by its offspring.
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Thomas Malthus (1798)
Observed human population growth will eventually hit a limit due to living space and available food. Darwin would later apply this to all organisms where these limits result in competition.
While Lamarck's reasoning behind why change happened was flawed, Lamarck and Malthus both greatly influenced the thinking of Mr. Charles Darwin.
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Charles Darwin-1800’sWas a Naturalist – mostly observed
organisms in their natural habitats rather than conducting experiments.
Made most of his observations on the Galapagos Islands
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Charles Darwin
Did much of his work in the Mid-1800’s
** Keep in mind this is BEFORE Mendel, Watson and Crick***
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Charles Darwin
Introduced the idea of Natural Selection as a way for new species to form (speciation).
Published The origin of Species in 1859
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The Theory of Natural SelectionAssumptions:
There are not enough resources for all to survive
genetic variation exits in all populations.
Results:
1. Competition
2. Survival of the fittest
3. Descent with modification
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Assumption 1: Not enough resources
What resources are we talking about?
Are there enough for everyone?
Food ShelterSuitable Mates
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Assumption 2: Genetic variation exists
Where do these differences come from?
Remember it doesn’t have to be a NEW gene, just a new combination of genes
Mutations Genetic Recombination
Sexual reproduction
Migration
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Result 1. Competition
Individuals will compete for the limited resources.
Goal is to survive and pass on genes
“winner” gets to pass genes on at higher rate.
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Result 2. Survival of the FittestNot all variations are equal. Some are
better at competing in their environment than others.
These individuals are more likely to “win” and survive to pass on their genes.
Fitness: an organisms ability to survive and reproduce.
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Result 3. Descent with ModificationDescent – To come fromModification – With changes
More of the “fit” genes will be passed on than “unfit”
In future generations, the frequency of fit genes increases, while the frequency of unfit genes decreases.
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3. Descent with ModificationNew generations will resemble
previous generations (descent) BUT
more individuals will have the “best” variation PLUS new mutations and combinations (with modification)
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An Example
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Example:
What is the genetic variation? What is the selective pressure? Who has the advantage? What would we predict for the next
generation? Why might the “unfit” phenotype stick
around?
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Rules of EvolutionMutations and their phenotypes are
random. Meaning?
Variation must exist in the population BEFORE selective pressure occurs
If no “fit” variation exists when pressure begins, entire population dies = Extinction
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Rules of EvolutionIndividuals can not evolve, only
species
A fit trait in one environment might be eliminated as a weakness in another
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Types of Selection
Natural SelectionWhat determines which variation gets passed on?What is the outcome?
Artificial Selection (a.k.a. selective breeding)What determines which variation gets passed on?What is the outcome?
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Types of Selection
Directional Selection: One extreme or the other is “favored” and increases in frequency while midrange and other extreme decrease
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Types of Selection
Stabilizing Selection: Midrange is favored and increases in frequency while both extremes decrease.
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Types of Selection
Diversifying/disruptive Selection: Both extremes are favored and increase while midrange decreases.
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At what point is a new species formed?
Evolution – change in allele frequency
Speciation – such change that new population is a different species
– two organisms that can successfully reproduce and produce viable, fertile offspring
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Examples:
Cross between a Pug and a Beagle - different breeds but SAME species
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Examples:
Offspring: Puggle! Both viable (obviously) and fertile
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Examples:
Cross between a Horse and Donkey - different species
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Examples:
Offspring: Mule! Viable but infertile
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Gene Pool Isolation
Two populations become separated so their genes are no longer mixed
Mutations appear independently in each population
Selection happens independently in each population
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Mechanisms of IsolationGeographic – Physical barrier separates two
populations
Behavioral – mating behaviors of some are not attractive to others.
Temporal – fertility occurs at different times
Mechanical – different physical means of reproduction
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Principle of a Common Ancestor
Descent with Modification – over generations descendents can look quite different from ancestors.
Thus, organisms that seem very different might share a common ancestor
Suggests if you go far enough back, we are all related!
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Phylogenetic tree: Family Tree of Life
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Phylogeny
the connections between all groups of organisms as understood by ancestor/descendant relationships.
Express relationships using a CLADOGRAM
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Common ancestor
Humans and chimps have a common ancestor.
THAT IS NOT THE SAME AS SAYING WE WERE ONCE CHIMPS!!!
Think about it: Do you and your cousin share a common ancestor? Does that mean you are your cousin? Does that mean that either of you are that ancestor?
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Evidence of Common ancestry
Comparative Anatomy – examining body partsHomologous structures – similar in
form, but not necessarily function; suggests common ancestorResults from divergent evolution
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Evidence of Common ancestry
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Evidence of Common ancestryComparative Embryology – examining
developmental patterns
Similar organisms follow similar developmental patterns
We all start off the same – a single egg
BUT the series of steps that follows is most similar between closely related organisms
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Evidence of Common Ancestry
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Evidence of Common ancestry
Comparative Biochemistry – examining DNA and protein sequences
Remember: DNA contains info to make proteins. Proteins are responsible for our traits.
Organisms with close ancestors share a large percentage of DNA.
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Evidence of Common ancestry
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Evidence of a Universal Common Ancestor
All life is cellular
All life encodes its information in nucleic acids(DNA/RNA)
All life shares the same genetic code (AUG = Met)
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Evidence of a Universal Common Ancestor
All Life uses ATP as its energy molecule
Suggests we are all derived from the same thing and that thing had all these traits!
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Additional Evidence of Evolution (but not necessarily common ancestry)
Fossil RecordVestigial organsBiogeography
Analogous traitsConvergent evolution
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Additional Evidence of Evolution (but not necessarily common ancestry)
Fossil RecordPreserved
remains of ancient life in sedimentary rock
Even of species no longer in existence (most!)
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Fossils
Fossils are often found in the layers of sedimentary rock.
See changes in fossils over time
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Dating FossilsAbsolute Dating: Using radioactive
organic material in a sample we can get a more accurate age of a fossil
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Dating FossilsRelative Dating: Fossils found in
lower levels are older than upper levels.
Can’t provide exact age, just which is older
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Dating FossilsAbsolute Dating: Radioactive
organic material is used to get a more accurate age of a specimen.
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Geographic DistributionBiogeography – study of the distribution
of plants and animals throughout the world and their climates
Convergent Evolution: Unrelated organisms exposed to same environmental pressures may develop similar traits to cope with those pressures
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Analogous Structures
May serve same function, but are structurally different and did NOT come from a common ancestor
Evolved independently
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Vestigial Organs
Structures that serve little to no purpose NOWSnake skeletons with leg bones and
pelvisBlind, cave-dwelling fish have eye-
sockets but no eyes.
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Vestigial OrgansGives insight into PAST needs of
organism as well as where this organism has come from
What happens first: Need for organ disappears? Or mutated organ appears?
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Genetics in EvolutionDarwin did his work before Mendel
and didn’t understand genes or how inheritance worked.
Thanks to Mendel we know how/why traits get passed from parent to offspring
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Phenotypes NOT genotypesNatural selection acts on phenotypes
NOT genotypes
But in turn will influence allele frequency.
Why aren’t all bad alleles eliminated??
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Mechanisms of Evolution
Remember, it is variation that proposes and selection that disposes
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Mechanisms of Evolution
Genetic DriftEvolution without natural selection
Chance occurrences change allele frequency
More common in small populations
What if more of the “unfit” survive?
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Genetic Drift Founder Effect
Founding Population B
DescendantsSample of
Original Population
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Mechanisms of Evolution
Endosymbiotic theory• Mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved
from free living prokaryotic organisms
• A larger cell engulfed them
• A symbiotic relationship formed
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Endosymbiotic theory
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Evidence of endosymbiosisBoth have their own DNA and produce
their own proteins
Both reproduce independently from the cell through a process like binary fission (bacterial reproduction)
Double membranes of both are similar to prokaryotic membranes
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Patterns of EvolutionMass Extinction
Periodic large-scale extinction events
Dramatically changes landscape eliminating or creating selective pressures
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Patterns of Evolution
Adaptive RadiationSingle species evolves into
several different species that live in different ways (adaptations)
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Patterns of EvolutionCo-evolution
Due to close relationship two species share with each other, change in one organism results in a change with the other.
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Patterns of Evolution
GradualismWhat Darwin subscribed toTiny changes accumulate over
huge period of time to yield large changes.Think Grand Canyon only organisms
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Patterns of Evolution
Punctuated EquilibriumMore modern theory proposed by Gould
and Eldridge
Proposed change occurs in spurts followed by periods of stasis
More support in fossils!
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Are organisms always evolving?Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium – suggests no!
Under certain conditions, populations won’t evolveConditions:
1. Large population
2. No migration in or out
3. No natural selection
4. Random Mating
5. No net mutations
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How do we tell?
Determine allele frequencies over different generations.
If they are static no evolution, equilibriumIf they change evolution
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Genetic EquilibriumCan it really exist? For long?
Why?