Scientific Knowledge
“The object of research is to extend human knowledge beyond what is already known.
But an individual’s knowledge enters the domain of science only after it is presented to others in such a fashion that they can independently judge its validity”
“On being a scientist” 2009, Natl Acad Sci, Eng and Inst of Med
Sharing Scientific Knowledge
“Science is a shared knowledge based on a common understanding of some aspect of the physical world”
Presentations at meetings
Publications in peer reviewed journals (research results are privileged until they are published)
Dissertation/thesis
Why Publish?
“If it isn’t published, it hasn’t been done”
Sharing scientific information is how science moves forward
Measure of productivity: one of the first things that potential employers look at (in both academia and industry)
Scientific publication is a team effort
Authors
Editor-in-Chief, Associate Editors, Editorial staff
Reviewers
In natural sciences, this process is confidential
Authorship
List of authors establishes accountability as well as credit
should include only persons who make a direct and substantial contribution
Acknowledgements can be used to thank people who indirectly contribute
Author responsibilities
Ensure that work is new and original
Not published elsewhere
All authors agree on content and are listed with proper affiliation
Copyright permissions
What is publishable….
Journals like to publish papers that are going to be widely read and useful to readers (SCI ranking/impact factor)
Original and significantWell organized and well writtenconcise and yet completeClear acknowledgement of other work in the
field
What is not acceptable…..
Routine extensions of previous reports
Incremental or fragmentary reports
Verbose, poorly organized papers (poorly written, poor quality figures)
Violations of ethical guidelines (plagiarism of any type or degree, questionalbe research practices)
Research Misconduct
Fabrication: making up data and recording or reporting them
Falsification: manipulating equipment or processes, or changing/omitting data
Plagiarism: appropriation of another person’s ideas, processes, results or words without giving appropriate credit
It does not include honest errors or differences of opinion
Research misconduct is a serious violation
http://ori.dhhs.gov/
http://ori.dhhs.gov/misconduct/cases/
Subject to fines, barred from funding, dismissal from position
Plagiarism
Plagiarism: using ideas or writing of someone else without giving proper credit
Self-plagiarism: the verbatim copying or reuse of one’s own research
Both are considered unacceptable in scientific literature
Internet makes plagiarism easier to do but also easier to catch!
Data Manipulation
Manipulating data in order to deceive others violates both basic ethics and accepted standards of professionalism
Could potentially impede progress in the field and harm other research groups
Undermines own authority and trustworthinessCan have devastating impact on society as a
wholeIf the work is important people will try to
repeat it
Good Record Keeping
Maintain an accurate, accessible and permanent record of data
Record sufficient detail for others to check and repeat work
Notebook with numbered pages or computer application
Date every entry
Writing and Publishing a paper
Getting ready with dataSelecting a journalFirst draftStructure of a scientific paperSubmissionReviews, revisionGalley proofs
Getting the data ready
Manuscripts should be data drivenEasiest to write the paper around (GOOD)
figures and tablesOrganize results to follow a logical sequenceConsolidate data plots and create figures
(most journals will limit figures to 6-8)Additional supporting information can be
included in Supplemental Material
Selecting a Journal
Specialized vs general
Impact factors
Visit the journal website for: the scope of the journal Instructions for authors (format) Instructions for submission
First draft
It’s a draft, it doesn’t have to be perfect yet
Note good and bad writing styles in the literature and try to emulate the good writing style (not too complex or convoluted – clear and concise is ideal)
Keep in mind who the audience is for the journal that you plan to submit to.
HELP! With writing
The Purdue Online Writing Lab http://owl.english.purdue.edu/
ACS Style GuideStrunk and White “The Elements of Style”
Friends
Technical writing is usually third person, past tense, often passive voice (but active is more interesting to read)
Writing tips
Write complete sentences that don’t run onFollow standard English grammarClear paragraphsConcise!Don’t try to impress readers with words no
one ever uses (25₵ words)Do not use slang, colloquial expressions,
overly emotional or childish phrases
Structure of a Scientific Paper
TitleAbstractIntroductionMaterials and Methods (some journals put this
last)ResultsDiscussion/ConclusionsAcknowledgementsReferencesSupplemental Material
Title Page
Compose a title that is simple, attractive and accurately reflects the investigation
Try to avoid acronyms that are only used in a highly specialized community
Many journals require keywords on the title page, these are used by search engines
Author names, affiliations and contact author information
Abstract
Usually ca. 250 words
Keep it simple and informative
What the study is about and how it was done (avoid detailed experimental procedures)
Generate enthusiasm about the work! State the major conclusion in the last sentence.
Body of the manuscript
Introduction Start with general background of topic Discuss previous work, put this work in context Point out the main issues addressed in this work
Materials and Methods Enough detail for someone to repeat the work Include manufacturers and suppliers of everything
Results Detailed Make sure figures/tables are in order presented in
text
Body of the manuscript, cont’d
Discussion/Conclusions Compare and contrast results to previous work Sufficient to back up conclusions Avoid strong statements like “I proved that…”
Acknowledgements Funding agency and people who provided assistance
References Endnotes is recommended
Supplemental Material
Submission
Proofread the manuscript carefully, including table and figure captions and references
Write a cover letter to the Editor including a brief paragraph highlighting the importance of the work; many journals allow you to request an associate editor.
Make a list of suggested reviewers, most associate editors will select one or two of your suggestions (if needed, list reviewers that you don’t want)
Review Process
Most journals send the manuscript to 2-3 reviewers. The process is confidential.
Usually, reviewers point out mistakes, flaws and suggest ways to improve the paper through additional discussion or experiments.
Read the comments carefully and don’t take them personally.
Revision
Make the reviewer’s suggested changes, if applicable
You will need to write a reply to the reviewers that contains a point by point answer to each criticism; if the reviewer didn’t understand something, you need to make it more clear.
Be polite and be respectful if you disagree with the reviewer
Revision, cont’d
Don’t get mad. If you can’t stand it, write a really nasty reply and then delete it.
If you believe that the review is unfair or a personal attack, contact the Associate Editor who is handling the paper.
Submit the revised version of the paper
If accepted, galley proofs usually arrive within two weeks
Publication
Most journals now publish “Epubs” online before the print edition comes out so check your proofs carefully
For on-line only journals, the reference is the doi (digital object identifier)
As soon as the paper is accepted, add it to your CV!
Get to work on the next paper