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Preface
ThisEncyclopaediaprovidesthestudent(whetherprofessionaloramateur)ofpoliticalthoughtwithareliableguidetothemajorideas
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anddoctrinesthatinfluencethecontemporaryworld;itoutlinesthethoughtofleadingpoliticaltheorists,pastandpresent,andconsidersthewaysinwhichthinkingaboutpoliticshasevolvedhistorically.Wehaveconfinedourattentionlargelytothewesterntraditionofpoliticalthoughtalthoughwe
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haveincludedsurveyarticlesonChinese,HinduandIslamicpoliticalthoughtwhichwehopewillintroducethereadertothesenon-westerntraditions,wemakenoclaimtocomprehensivecoverage.Wehaveincludedthethoughtofphilosophers,historians,lawyers,economistsandsociologistsonlywhentheyhavemadesome
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directcontributiontopoliticaldebate.Inordertokeepentriesonindividualthinkerswithinreasonablebounds,wehavemadeextensiveuseofsurveyarticlestocovermajorepisodesinpoliticalthought(e.g.theGreeks,theRenaissance)andmajortraditions(e.g.liberalism,Marxism);minorfiguresfallingwithinthescopeofsuch
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articlesaregiventwoorthreelinesandcross-referenced.Finally,wehavenotattemptedtodealcomprehensivelywiththespecialistliteratureofmodernpoliticalinstitutions,thisbeingthepurposeofaforthcomingcompanionvolume,TheBlackwellEncyclopaediaofPoliticalInstitutions.
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Writingaboutpoliticalideasisinasmallwayitselfapoliticalactivity.Ourpolicyhasbeentoselectthebestcontributorforeachtopicregardlessofacademicorpoliticalallegiance,andtoplacenorestrictionsonchoiceofapproach.Webelievethattheoutcomeisacollectionofarticlesthatareauthoritativewithoutbeingdullorstereotyped.
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Buttheattentivereaderwillsoonbecomeawarethatfewpoliticalideascanbegivenasimple,straightforwarddefinition;norcantherebeuncontroversialreadingsoftheworksofpoliticalthinkers.Thisisuncomfortableterrainforthosewhobelievethattoeveryquestionthereisonerightanswer.If,besidesbeinginformative,
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wehavesucceededincommunicatingsomethingoftheopen-endednessofpoliticalthinkinginthearticlesthatfollow,weshallfeeldoublypleased.
DLMJCWECAROCTOBER1986
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Contributors
AzizAl-AzmehAAUniversityofExeter
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JuliaAnnasJEAUniversityofArizona
PeterD.AnthonyPDAUniversityCollege,Cardiff
ShlomoAvineriSAHebrewUniversityofJerusalem
TerenceBallTBUniversityofMinnesota
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BenjaminR.BarberBRBRutgersUniversity
RodneyBarkerRBLondonSchoolofEconomics
JonathanBarnesJBBalliolCollege,Oxford
BrianBarryBMBLondonSchoolofEconomics
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DavidBeethamDBUniversityofLeeds
RonaldBeinerRSBUniversityofToronto
RichardBellamyRPBUniversityofEdinburgh
AntonyBlackAB
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UniversityofDundee
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EditorialNotes
1Itisimportanttomakefulluseofthecross-referencingsystem.Ineachentrycapitalsareusedtoindicateotherentrieswherefuller
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informationcanbefound.Consulttheindexforacompletelistofreferencestoaparticulartopicorperson.
2EachentryisfollowedbyareadinglistthatincludesmodernEnglishlanguageeditions(wheretheseexist)ofthetextsreferredtointheentry,aswellasrelevantsecondary
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literature.Materialthatisespeciallysuitableforfurtherreadingisindicatedbyanasterisk(*).
3Whenaparticulartextisdiscussedinanentrythedateoffirstpublicationisgiveninbrackets.(Occasionally,incaseswherethetextremainedunpublishedforalong
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period,thedategivenisthedateofcomposition.)Textsgiveninthereadinglistbutnototherwisementionedhavetheoriginaldate(ifthisdiffersfromthatoftheeditioncited)inbracketsafterthetitle.
4Sourcesofquotationsarenormallyindicatedsimplybyauthor'sname
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andapagenumber;fulldetailsaregiveninthereadinglist.Iftwoormoreworksbythesameauthorappearinthelistashorttitleisusedtoavoidambiguity.
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A
Absolutism
Thetermnowhasnoprecisemeaning.Itislooselyappliedto
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governmentsexercisingpowerwithoutrepresentativeinstitutionsorconstitutionalrestraints.Thoughoftenusedtodayasasynonymfortyrannyordespotism'absolutism'isusuallyappliedtoearlymodernstates.AsamemberofafamilyofregimetypesitwasjoinedinthenineteenthcenturybyBonapartismorCaesarism;andinthe
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twentieth,bytotalitarianism.Allregimetypesinthisfamilyhavegeneratedanalogousdiscussionsaboutthequestionsofwhetherabsoluteortotalpowerwaseverinfactattained,orisinprincipleattainable.(SeealsoDESPOTISMandTOTALITARIANISM.)
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ThetermfirstappearedinFrenchinabout1796andinEnglishandGermaninabout1830.Like'enlighteneddespotism'itwasaneologismcoinedbyhistoriansafterthedisappearanceofthephenomenonitwasmeanttodesignate.Duringthenineteenthcenturyitwasforthemostpartusedpejoratively.Itisstillusedbyhistoriansofpolitical
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theory,andbythoseconcernedwiththeemergenceofstatesfromthesixteenthtotheeighteenthcenturies.Ontheonesideabsolutismfiguresindiscussionsofsovereignty,constitutionalism,rights,resistance,andproperty;ontheotheritfiguresinhistoriographicaldisputesamongnon-MarxistandMarxisthistoriansabout
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thedating,functions,andclassorsocialbasisoftheperiodoncedescribedastheageofabsolutism(16481789).Somenon-Marxisthistoriansregardabsolutismasacontestedconceptbetterrenderedasabsolutemonarchy.
Historiansofpoliticalandlegalthoughthavelearnedtoexercisecautionwhen
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treatingboththedisputesoccasionedbymorecentralizedandefficientmonarchiesandthetheoriesusedtolegitimateortoassailthem.Atissueisthemeaningofthelanguageusedbyearlymoderntheoristsandthedegreeofactualunrestrainedpowerattainedinthepracticesoftheregimestheydesignated.Themost
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prominentadvocatesofabsolutismamongpoliticaltheoristswereBODINandBossuetinFrance,HOBBESandFILMERinEngland.Indiscussingthecontestedconceptsusedbyandaboutthem,Dalyhasproposedthatanalystsaskthefollowingquestionsaboutusesofthewordsabsoluteandabsolutismintheseventeenth-century
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politicalvocabulary:
[W]hatdoestheusermean?Inwhatpartofthecenturyishespeaking?Whatparty,orfactiondoeshebelongto?...[Ishesaying]Thatthekinghasnosuperior?Orisnotelected?Orcannotberesisted?Does'absolute'refertotheking'spowertooccupythethrone,ortotheextentofpowerthethronegiveshim?Doesitrefertoaparticularlegalrightortotheformofgovernment?
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Doesitdenoteamonarch'srighttoraisetaxesandmakelawwithoutconsent?(pp.24950)
JeanBodinwasthemostimportanttheoristofSOVEREIGNTY.ThedisordersofhistimeinFranceledhimtoassumetheneedtoconcentrateauthorityinacentralizedstate.Politicalandsocialstability,heheld,requiredthatin
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everystatetherebeasupremeorsovereignauthority,unlimitedinitsjurisdictionandperpetualinitsexerciseofpower.SovereigntydidnotimplyforBodinunlimitedpoweroverthepersonsandpropertyofsubjects.Thesovereignwassubjecttolimitationsimposedbynaturallawandfundamentalcustomarylaw(e.g.consentto
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taxation).Butneithernaturalnorcustomarylawmightbeenforcedbythe
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B
Babeuf,FranoisNol(Gracchus)(17601797)
Frenchrevolutionary.Babeufextendedthe
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radicalprinciplesoftheRevolutiontoademandforsocialequality,arguingforcommunityoflandandgoods.SeeCOMMUNISM.
Bacon,Francis,LordVerulam(15611626)
Britishstatesmanandphilosopher.Baconspentmoreofhislifeinthe
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practiceofthepoliticalartsthaninreflectionuponthem.ThenephewofLordBurghley,hewasboththeconfidantoftheEarlofEssexandintheendthemanwhohadtodrawupEssex'sindictmentfortreason.EvenbythestandardsofTudorandJacobeanEngland,Bacon'scareerwasastormyone,involvingalong-drawn-
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outstrugglewithSirEdwardCOKEonhiswaytothelordchancellorship,andasuddendismissalfromhighofficeunderimpeachmentforbribery.Notedinhisowndayastheauthorofshrewdmemorandaonmattersofimmediatemoment,hishistoricalreputationrestsonhisphilosophyofscienceandonhisunfinishedsketchesofa
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scientificutopia.
AthisaphoristicbestinhisEssays(1625),BaconisathismostseriousinTheAdvancementofLearning(1605)andinhisutopiansketchfortheNewAtlantis(1627).Baconwashostiletotheexcessesofscholasticismandtotheoristswholookedonlyforevidence
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tosupporttheirownpreconceptions;hewasanuncomprisingempiricistwhotookthefirststepstowardselaboratinganinductivelogic.Norwasinductionamatterofsimplypilingupsupportingevidence;wecouldonlybeconfidentofageneralizationifwehadlookedforcontraryevidence,too.Buttheadvancementofscience
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wasnotjustamatterofgoodmethod;itneededpoliticalsupport.InNewAtlantistheCollegeoftheSixDays'WorkswasanembryonicRoyalSocietywhosefounderswereindeedstimulatedbyBaconwhichwouldsupportinventionanddiscovery.Thepoliticalbackgroundtoallthisisonlyimplicit,butitappearstobean
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enlightenedtheocracyalthoughintheEssayshewritesasadiscipleoftherepublicanMachiavelli.
BaconcombinesthemesfromPLATOandtheENLIGHTENMENT,andstandsatthejunctionbetweenChristianEuropeandthesecular,scientificworldwhichreplacedit.AR
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Reading
Bacon,F.:TheAdvancementofLearningandNewAtlantis,ed.A.Johnston.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1974.
:Essays,ed.J.Pitcher.Harmondsworth:Penguin,1985.
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*Manuel,F.andManuel,F.:UtopianThoughtintheWesternWorld.Cambridge,Mass.:Belknap,1979.
*Quinton,A.:Bacon.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1980.
Bagehot,Walter(18261877)
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Britishjournalistandpoliticalandconstitutionaltheorist.BagehotwasbornintoaUnitarianbankingfamilyinthewestofEnglandandeducatedatUniversityCollege,London,afterwardsreturningtoSomersettohelpinrunningthefamilybank.LaterhebecameeditorfirstoftheNationalReviewandthen,from
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1860tohisdeath,ofTheEconomist.Hewrotecopiouslyfortheperiodicaljournalsofthetimeandhisbestknownworks,TheEnglishConstitution(1865)andPhysicsandPolitics(1867),bothappearedoriginallyasseriesofarticles.Apolymath,hewroteperceptivelyandentertaininglyon
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C
Cabet,tienne(17881856)
Frenchsocialist.Advocatedaregimented
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formofcommunisminhisutopiannovelVoyageenIcarie(1840),andattemptedtoimplementit(withlimitedsuccess)atanIcariancolonyinIllinois,USA.SeeCOMMUNISM.
Calhoun,JohnCaldwell(17821850)
Americanstatesman.
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Calhounservedasrepresentative(181017)andsenator(183244,184550)forSouthCarolina;hewassecretaryofwar(181725),secretaryofstate(18445)andvice-presidentoftheUnitedStates(182532).HewroteADisquisitiononGovernmentandADiscourseontheConstitutionandGovernmentoftheUnited
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States,bothpublishedafterhisdeath,aswellasnumerousaddressesandletters.
Originallyamilitantnationalist,notablyamongthe'warhawks'atthetimeofthewarof1812,CalhounbecamemoreandmoreidentifiedwiththedefenceoftheSouth,slavery,andtherightsof
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thestateswithinthefederalunion.
InhisDisquisition,Calhounrejectedthedoctrineofnaturalrights,contendingthathumanbeingsarenotbornfreeandequal,butina'socialandpoliticalstate',subjecttoauthority.Calhoun'stheory,however,restsonindividualisticpremises:
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self-preservationis'theall-pervadingandessentiallawoftheanimateduniverse'and'directorindividualaffectionsarestrongerthan...sympatheticorsocialfeelings'.Infact,Calhounsawadangerinsociability;hedefendedinequalityasanecessaryspurtoeffort,anticipatingSOCIALDARWINISMbyarguingthatcompetition
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forrankprovidesthe'greatestimpulse'tohumanprogress.Freedomisthenaturalhumangoal,butitisa'rewardtobeearned',notanoriginalright.
Theseargumentsobviouslydidnotapplytoslavery:slaveswereexcludedfromcompetitionandcouldnot
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'earn'freedom.Calhoun'smostbasicjustificationofslaveryderivedfromthe'scientific'caseforracialinequality.Healsocontended,however,thatslaverymoderatesclassconflict(becauseslaveownersmustcarefortheir'capital')andtherebypromotessocialstability.
LikemostSouthern
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theoristsCalhouncontendedthatthestates,originallysovereign,hadcreatedtheUnionand,sincesovereigntycannotbedivided,retainedtheirsovereignrightofsecession.Hewentbeyondthislegalcase,however,todevelopamoredistinctiveandtheoreticalargument.FollowingMADISONinTheFederalist(no.10),
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Calhounmaintainedthatthechiefdangertorepublicangovernmentisthepossibilitythatpowerwillfallintothehandsofsomenarrowpartyorfaction.Publicspiritisnoadequateprotectionagainstthis,giventhepriorityofindividualfeelingsandprivateinterests.Itisnecessarytodesigninstitutionswhichmakeitimpossiblefor
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governmenttosuppressanymajorinterestinsociety.Madisonhadconsideredthatthediversityofinterestsinthefederalunion,combinedwithmajorityrule,wouldachievethisresult.Calhounfoundthisargumentinadequate,andwithitthefederalconstitution.
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FollowingtheprecedentofTimothyFord'stheoryofthe'dualcontract'(1794),Calhouninsistedthat'interestsaswellasnumber'mustbeconsideredinthedefinitionofamajority.Amajoritymustbe'concurrent',madeupofmajoritieswithineachinterest,sothateach
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D
DanteAlighieri(12651321)
Italianpoet.ForDante,theroleofthepoet
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includedthemoralist,thephilosopherand,inhisDivineComedy,theprophet.ConvincedbyhisbriefbuttraumaticpoliticalcareerinhisnativeFlorencethatthesocietywhichitrepresentedrequiredfundamentalmoralreformDante,inthelasttwentyyearsofhislife,graduallyarrivedatavisionofanidealsocietywhere
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individualswouldbefreetofollowthepathofvirtueleadingtoultimatesalvation,anditisinthisessentiallyreligiouscontextthathispoliticalthoughtmustbeseen.
Dante'sFlorencewasthewealthiestandmostself-confident,butalsothemostturbulent,oftheself-governingItaliancities.It
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acknowledgedanominalallegiancetotheHolyRomanEmperor,butinpracticetookadvantageoftheineffectualityofimperialauthorityinItalytoexpandattheexpenseofitsTuscanneighbours,whilekeepingatarm'slengththepowerwhichhadsoughttosupplanttheempireinItaly,thepapacy.InNovember1301thegoverningparty,
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towhichDantebelonged,wasoverthrowninacoupwiththeconnivanceofPopeBonifaceVIII,whohopedtherebytoincreasehisinfluenceoverthecity'saffairs.Dante,whowasinRomeonanembassytoBonifaceatthetime,wasamongthosecondemnedintheirabsencebythenewgovernment,andsoneverreturnedtothecity.This
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experiencelefthimprofoundlydisillusionedbothwithFlorenceandwithitseconomicandsocialvalues,andwithapoliticallyaggressivepapacy;theconvictionthatbothmustbemadetoacceptconstraintsontheirpoliticalpowerunderliesallhissubsequentthought.
Theworksoftheearly
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yearsofhisexileshowDanteexploringtheimplicationsofthisconviction,asitdevelopsintothecomprehensivevisionofsocialandmoralorderoftheDivineComedy.Theseshorterpoemsandunfinishedprosetreatisesrevealamarkedpreferenceforlayasagainstclericalinstitutions,andmoresympathythanwould
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havebeennormalinGuelphFlorenceforthelastHohenstaufenclaimantstotheimperialtitle.WhatismissinguntilthelastbookoftheConvivio(c.1307)isthatsenseofthesacreddestinyofRomeasthecapitaloftheuniversalempire,whichisevidentlyderivedfromDante'sre-readingofVirgil'sAeneid,andwhichisproclaimedasanarticle
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offaiththroughouthismatureworks.
TheDivineComedy(begunabout1304)reflectsthewideningscopeofDante'spoliticalconcerns.IntheInferno,Florenceanditsproblemsdominatethepicture:acommunitywherefamilyandcivicloyaltiesconflict,whoseprevailing
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philosophyismaterialismandwhoseprosperityrestsonthesociallysterileactivityofusury,isshownasfundamentallyunstableandcorrupt.Atthesametime,thechurchisincapableofexercisingitsproperspiritualfunctionbecauseoftheworldlinessofitsleaders;andtheDONATIONOFCONSTANTINE,wherebythefirstChristianemperorsupposedly
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bestowedhistemporalpowerintheWestonthepapacy,isseenasafatefulmistakewhichmarkedthebeginningofthechurch'sdeclinefromitsprimitivefaith.InthePurgatorioDanteturnstothelargerpoliticalorderwhichallowssuchdevelopmentstotakeplace.Thereshouldideallybetwopowersor'suns'whichshouldguideman's
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spiritualandtemporalaspirations;but'onehasextinguishedtheother'(Purg.xvi,106ff),thechurchhavingtrespassedonthe
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E
Ecclesiology
Thetheoryandpracticeofchurchgovernment,developedbypopesand
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medievalcanonlawyersfromthetwelfthcenturyonwards,whichincludedthebasesforandorganizationofpapalandepiscopaladministration,withemphasisgiventoconciliarpowers(seeCONCILIARISM).Attheheartofmuchecclesiologicaldoctrineliesthehistoryofmedievalrepresentativeinstitutionsingeneral.(SeeMEDIEVALPOLITICAL
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THOUGHT.)JC
Egalitarianism
SeeEQUALITY.
Elitism
Anapproachtounderstandingpoliticsandhistorywhich,inits
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strongestform,holdsthatsocietiesarealwaysdominatedbyaminority(theelite)whichtakesthemajordecisionswithinthesocietyandwhichconcentratespowerinitsownhands.Byextensionthetermelitistissometimesusedpejorativelyinpoliticaldebatestodescribepolicieswhichareallegedtopromotetheadvantage
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ofaminorityandexcludethewiderpopulation.Thetermeliteoriginallymeantthe'elect'orthebest.Thetermisstilloccasionallyusedinthissenseinordinaryspeechwhenpoliciesaresometimesdefended,particularlyineducation,as'elitist',meaningthattheyareintendedtoproducethebestormostable.Inpoliticalthoughtelitism
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hasamoretechnicalreferencetocertainmodesofexplanationwhichderivefromtheworkoftheItaliansociologistsMOSCAandPARETO.
These'classicalelitists'arguedthatthetraditionalclassificationofpoliticalsystemsintomonarchies,aristocraciesanddemocraciesignoredthe
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moreimportantcommonfeaturethatallwereruledbyaminority,orelite.Theelitegaineditsdominantpositionasaresultofitspossessionofsomeresourcesorattributeswhichwerevaluedintheparticularsociety.Thisbasisoftheelite'sdominationwasnotnecessarilyeconomic,eventhoughanelitemightpossiblyuseits
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dominationtogainwealthandmaterialadvantage.Inmanysocietiesauthoritywasexercisedbypriestswhosecontrolofreligiousdogmaandsymbolsgrantedthemdecisivepoweroverthepopulation.Alternatively,militaryofficersmightconstitutethedominantgroup,governingthecountryeitheropenlyorcovertly.Inothersystems
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theseniorstateofficialsmightbetheelitecontrollingpoliticaldecisions.AccordingtoPareto,theeliteheldpowerbecauseitpossessedappropriatepsychologicalqualities,ofcunninganddeceitorofstrengthanddecisiveness.Innocasedidthemassofthepopulationexercisecontrol,eveninademocracywheretheidea
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oftheruleofthepeoplewasamythconcealingactualdominationbyaninnergroupofpartyleaderswhomanipulatedthesystemofrepresentation.
Mostelitistsarguethattheelitemaintainsitsdominationbyacombinationofcoercionandmanipulation.The
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relativelycompactsizeoftheeliteenablesitsmemberstoacttogetherinaconsciousandcohesivemanner.Theelite'sprocessesofcommunicationareeasieranditsmemberscanberapidlymobilizedtoformulateapolicyandtakeaninitiative.Theelitehastheadvantagesoforganization(particularlystressedbyMICHELS).This
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isinsharpcontrasttothe'mass'ofthepopulationwhoaretypicallyregardedasatomizedandincapableofrapidspontaneousactionunlessthemselvesledbyaneliteor'counter-elite'.Theelitenormallyuses
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F
Fabianism
ThetermisusedtoreferbothtoageneralpositionwithinSOCIALISMandtothe
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viewsofaspecificgroupoflateVictorianandearlytwentieth-centuryBritishsocialists.Thetwousesarerelated.
AsageneraltermFabianismdescribesastyleofsocialismexpressingtheessentialargumentsofthehistoricalFabianSocialists.Itsprincipalfeaturesare:
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(1)anemphasisonmeritocracyandtheresponsibilityoftrainedexpertsinthemanagementofpublicaffairs;
(2)adistrustofradicalorconfrontationaltacticsandaconfidencethatplannedanddeliberatereform,carriedoutasaresultof
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thetriumphofreasonandthepresentationofevidence,canslowlybutinevitablycreateasocialistsociety;
(3)abeliefinreasonasapossibleanddesirablemotivatingfeatureofgovernmentandpolitics;
(4)thepursuitofefficiencyinpublic
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affairs,justifiedbyempiricallydemonstrablecriteria;
(5)commitmenttoaformofdemocracyinwhichindividualsparticipateintheirvariousrolesascitizens,workers,etc.,contributingbytheireffortstothecommongoodfromwhichtheybenefit;anda
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correspondingdisinclinationtosupporttheadvocacyofformsofdirectpopularpower.
Inthislast,broadsenseawholeseriesofsocialistthinkersandpoliticiansfromHughDaltontoAnthonyCROSLANDhavebeendeemedtobe'Fabian'.
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Asanhistoricallyspecificterm,FabianismdescribestheviewsoftheleadingmembersoftheFabianSocietyfromthesociety'sformationin1884untilthelate1930s.Althoughtheword'Fabian'wasusedtodescribetheviewsofthegroupasawhole,theSocietyhadaheterogeneousmembershipwhichincludedthesometime
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secularistandtheosophistAnnieBesant,thefuturegovernorofJamaicaSydneyOlivier,andthepoliticalscientistGrahamWallas.WhatgavetheFabiansunitywasthepresenceofalargenumberofambitiousprofessionalandintellectualmenandwomenwhoseownskillsandaspirationscomplementedthe
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meritocraticambitionsoftheSocietyitself.TheprincipalexponentsofFabianviewstypifiedthischaracteristicofthemembership.BeatriceWebbwasanupper-middle-classsocialinvestigator,herhusbandSidneyWebbacivilservantturnedpoliticianandsocialscientist,andGeorgeBernardShawanovelist,playwrightand
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journalist.ThemostmaverickmemberoftheSociety,H.G.Wells,wasperhapsthemostambitiousofall,bothonhisownbehalfandonbehalfofthemeritocracywhichonoccasionheelevatedtoacasteofsamuraiorironsides.Thevarietyofopinionsheldbymemberswentfarbeyondanythingthatcouldbepresentedasa
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single,distinctiveposition.ThereweredifferencesevenamongtheprincipalFabians,betweentheWebbs'admirationforadministrationandparticipation,Shaw'sbeliefinleadership(aviewwhich,hesaidwithcharacteristicmodesty,hesharedwithLENINandothernaturalTories),andWells'sdepictionofa
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dedicatedoligarchiccaste.Nonetheless,certainbroadviewscanbesaidtocharacterizetheclassicFabianismoftheWebbsandShaw.
BysocialismtheFabiansunderstoodthe
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G
Gaius(activeAD13080)
Romanjurist.HisInstitutesanticipatedthose
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ofJUSTINIAN.SeeROMANLAW.
Gandhi,MohandasKaramchand(18691948)
GreatIndianleader,andastimulatingthinker.GandhiwastrainedasalawyerinEngland,andafteranindifferentlegalpracticeinIndiaheleftfor
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SouthAfrica.Duringhisstaythereofovertwodecades,heconductedmanycampaignsagainstracialdiscriminationanddevelopedhiswell-knownmethodofsatyagrahaornon-violentresistance.AfterhisreturntoIndiain1915hebecametheunchallengedleaderoftheIndiannationalistmovement.Heevolvedanewlanguageofpolitical
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discourse,anapparentlyarchaicbuthistoricallyevocativesetofsymbols,andasimpleandausterelifeasawayofidentifyinghimselfwithhispoorestcountrymen,andmobilizedthemundertheleadershipoftheradicallytransformedCongressParty.HelaunchedtheNon-cooperationMovementin1920,theCivil
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DisobedienceMovementin1930andtheQuitIndiaMovementin1942.HewaslargelyresponsibleforIndia'sindependencein1947.Hismomentoftriumphwasalsohismomentoffailure,forindependencewasmarkedbywidespreadHindu-Muslimriots,theferocityofwhichshatteredhimandsappedhiswilltolive.Althoughfrailand
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broken,hetrekkedhiswaytodistanttrouble-spotsandsingle-handedlyrestoredpeaceandgoodwill.WhenafanaticHinduassassinatedhim,AlbertEinsteinthoughtthatfuturegenerationswould'scarcebelievethatsuchaoneasthiseverinfleshandbloodwalkeduponthisearth'.
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Gandhi'smoralandpoliticalthoughtisbasedonarelativelysimplymetaphysic.ForhimtheuniverseisregulatedbyaSupremeIntelligenceorprinciplewhichhepreferredtocallsatya(Truth)and,asaconcessiontoconvention,God.Itisembodiedinalllivingbeings,aboveallmen,intheformofself-conscioussoulorspirit.
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Thespiritconstitutesman'sessence.Beingmerelyamaterialconstruct,thebodyisultimatelyunrealandhasnomoralclaims.Allwantsanddesiresbeyondthebiologicalminimumareformsofsensualindulgenceandspirituallydegrading.ForGandhicontemporarywesterncivilizationiscentredaroundthebody,asis
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evidentinitsmultiplicationofwants,lackofself-restraintandthedeclineofmoralandspiritualdepth,andisunlikelytolastlong.
Gandhiarguesthatsinceallmenpartakeindivineessencetheyare'ultimatelyone'.Theyarenotmerelyequal,but'identical'.Assuch,loveis
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theonlyproperformofrelationbetweenthem;itis'thelawofourbeing',of'ourspecies'.Loveimpliescareandconcernforothersandtotaldedicationtothecauseof'wipingeverytearfromeveryeye'.Negativelyitimpliesahimsaornon-violence.Gandhi'sentiresocialandpoliticalthoughtisanattempttoworkouttheimplicationsofthe
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principleofloveinallareasoflife.
ForGandhithestate'representsviolenceinaconcentratedform'.Itspeaksinthelanguageofcompulsionanduniformity,sapsitssubjects'spiritofinitiativeandself-help,and'unmans'them.Sincemenarenotyetmorally
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developedandcapableofactinginasociallyresponsiblemanner,thestateisnecessary.However,ifitisnottohindertheirgrowth,itoughttobesoorganizedthatitsactivities
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H
Habermas,Jrgen(1929)
Germanphilosopherandsocialscientist.Habermas
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isthemostimportantcontemporarythinkeroftheFrankfurtSchoolofCRITICALTHEORY.LikeotherthinkersinthattraditionherejectstheorthodoxMarxiannotionthatthenormativestandpointforaradicalcritiqueofcapitalistsocietyistheprivilegedroleoftheproletariat.Habermas'sworkasawholecanperhapsbebest
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understoodasawide-rangingsearchfor'adequatenormativefoundationsforacriticalsocialtheory'.
Habermas'seffortshavefocusedontheconceptofRATIONALITYandtheproblemofsocietalrationalization.Hehascriticizedthereductionoftheformertopurely
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instrumentalcalculationsandtriedtoconstructa'morecomprehensive'account.Thedevelopmentofsuchanaccountisnecessaryforanadequateunderstandingandcritiqueofthe'one-sided'processofsocietalrationalizationwhichhascharacterizedthedevelopmentofcapitalism.Thisnotionofone-sidednessreferstoanincreasingtendencyfora
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technical,instrumentalorientationtosociallifetomarginalizemorereflective,normativeandaesthetic,expressiveorientations.
ThisdualfocusonrationalityandrationalizationhasmeantthatHabermas'sworkhascontinuallyengagedbothabstracttopicsin
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epistemologyandthephilosophyoflanguage,aswellasmoreconcretequestionsinsocialtheorysuchaslegitimationproblemsinadvancedcapitalismandtheimportanceofnewsocialmovements(e.g.women,radicalecologists,counter-culturalmovements,gays).
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InthecourseofhiswritingsHabermashasshiftedhisstrategyfortreatingrationalityandrationalization.Hisfirstmajorbook,KnowledgeandHumanInterests(1968),attemptedanepistemologicalcritiqueoftheprevailingpositivistmodelofknowledge(seePOSITIVISM).Briefly,hearguedthatthismodelincorporatedonlyone
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knowledge-constitutiveinterestofthehumanspecies:thetechnicalinterestincontrol.Thismodelthreatenedtousurptheplaceofother,equallybasic,modelsofknowledgewhicharegroundedintwootherknowledge-constitutiveinterestsandwhichcanhelpilluminatetheproblemsofsocietalrationalization.
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Hermeneuticorinterpretiveknowledgeanswerstothepracticalinterestinexpandingcommunicativeinteraction,andcritical,emancipatoryknowledge(suchascriticalsocialtheory)answerstotheemancipatoryinterestinremovingstructuresofdomination.
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Bythemid-1970sHabermaswasbecomingincreasinglydissatisfiedwiththisframeworklinkingknowledgeandreasontouniversal,'anthropologicallydeep-seated'interests.Heshiftedhisfocusawayfromepistemologytolanguage.Hedecidedthataproperunderstandingofrationalitywouldemergenotfromspeculation
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aboutknowledge-constitutiveinterests,butfromatheoreticalreconstructionofthecompetenceactorsdemonstrateinlinguisticinteraction.Wheneveractorsengagein'communicativeaction',thatis,orientthemselvestowards'reachinganunderstanding',theymutuallyimputeacertainaccountabilitytoone
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anotherinrelationtothevalidityoftheclaimstheyraiseintheirspeechacts.Habermasarguesthattherearethreeuniversalclaims:truth,normativelegitimacy,andsincerity.Eachactorhasanintuitiveunderstandingofthedifferencesbetweentheseclaimsaswellasof
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I
IbnKhaldun*
AbuZayd'Abdal-Rahman
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Ibn*Muhammad(13321406)Arabcourtier,condottiere,
judge,historian,andpolymath.BorninTunis,IbnKhaldunspentmorethanhalfhisstormycareerpursuingelusiveambitionsatthecourtsofFez,Granada,
Tlemcen,andBougie.InthemorestableconditionsofCairo,wherehesettledin
1378,hepursuedasuccessful
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andcontroversialcareerasjudgeandprofessor;in1401hehadacolourfulencounterwithTamerlaneoutsidethewallsofDamascus.Ibn
KhaldunisbestknownforhisMuqaddima(1377),theprolegomenontohis
UniversalHistory(137782);heisalsotheauthorofatreatiseonmysticism,ajuveniletheological
commentary,andofotherjuvenilianolongerextant.
-
IbnKhaldun'swasanhistoricalenterprise.HesetouttocomposehisUniversalHistoryoftruthfulandconnectednarratives,andinthisspirithewrotetheMuqaddima.Inithediscussedtheemergenceofhumancollectivities('umran*)asaresultofpropitiousecologicalandclimatic
factorswhichmadepossible
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thecontinuityandthepreservationoforganizedhabitation;thisinitselfhadcomeintobeingaftermen,naturallyfractiousandpredatorybutunableto
survivesingly,hadtogethercontractedtoliveinsociety.Inorderforsocietytocohere,itplacesoverandaboveitselfacoerciveauthority,muchasalivingorganismisheld
togetherbythedominanceofaparticulartemper.This
-
coerciveauthoritystartsundertribalconditionsas
chieftaincy,andchieftaincy,animatedbytheanimal
facultyofthepsyche,yearnsforgreaterglory,andwhensuccessfulbecomeskingshipwiththeestablishmentofastate,daula.Ascoercive
authority,politicalleadershipwieldstogetheracommunityasacohesivepoliticalunit,'asabiyya.Butwiththe
foundationofthestatethis
-
unity,basedonrealorfictitiousbondsofkinship,
ultimatelybreaksdownasthesovereigndissociateshimselfinpracticefromhisoriginalconstituencyandembarksuponanabsolutistcourse.Thisbringsinitswakegreatwealthandprosperity,buteventuallydevelopsintoa
tyrannywhichhasadeleteriouseffectonthe
welfareofthesubjects,withtheincreasinguseof
-
monopoliesandextortionatetaxation,withthe
fragmentationofthestateatitsextremities,andwitha
highincidenceofpestilentialandothercalamities.Thuswithinthespaceofthreegenerationsthestaterunsthroughfivephaseswhichbringsaboutitssenescencewitheffeminacyandtyranny;thelife-spanofthestateis
thus,underoptimalcircumstances,120years,the
-
lengthoftheGrandLunarYearoftheastrologers.Finally,theMuqaddima
providesauniquesketchofsocial,cultural,scientific,andeconomicconditionsthatprevailundertheaegisofaprosperousstatebeforeit
atrophiesandistakenoverbynewclaimantsforanother
dynasticround.
IbnKhaldun'sdiscussionislearned,andinformedbya
-
robustrealismderivedfrompoliticalactivityandhistoricalknowledge.Hisobservationshaveoftenbeenconstruedasabasisforascribingtohimsociologicalandothermoderntheoriesofthestate.ThestateintheMuqaddima,however,iscastinamouldderiveddirectlyfromArabichistoricalwriting,andtheparadigmIbnKhaldun
-
developedwasmeanttoserveasagaugefordifferentiatingtruefromfalsehistoricalnarratives,'Umranand'asabiyyaareunthinkablewithoutthecontextofthestate
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J
Jacobinism
ThetermderivesfromtheJacobins,therevolutionarygroup
-
which,underRobespierre'sleadership,imposedtheReignofTerroronFranceduring17934.Usedmorewidely,itisthebeliefthatthewillofthepeoplecanberepresentedbyasmallelitegroupwhoactintheirnamebutarenotformallyaccountable.Inthissenseithasbeenapplied,usuallyinacriticalspirit,tothetheory
-
andpracticeoflatergroupsandindividuals,includingBLANQUIandLENIN.DLM
Jefferson,Thomas(17431826)
Americanstatesmanandpoliticalphilosopher.JeffersonservedasgovernorofVirginia,
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delegatetotheContinentalCongress,andthirdpresidentoftheUnitedStates,18019.HewrotetheDeclarationofIndependence,theVirginiaStatuteforReligiousFreedom,NotesontheStateofVirginia,andnumerousaddressesandletters.Neartheendofhislife,JeffersonfoundedtheUniversityofVirginia.
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Jefferson'searlypoliticalwritingscentredaroundtherevolutionarycauseoftheNorthAmericancoloniesseekingindependencefromtheBritishEmpire.DrawingontheEnglishtheoryoflibertiesderivedfromanANCIENTCONSTITUTION,anduponJohnLOCKE'spoliticaltheory,Jefferson
-
developedafederatedtheoryoftheBritishEmpire.Inthisfederatedview,alllegislativebodieswithintheEmpire(e.g.theBritishParliamentandtheVirginiaHouseofBurgesses)were'free,equalandindependent',andtheCrownservedmerelyasanimpartialarbiteramongtheseseparatelegislatures,preservingtherightsof
-
each.Giventhisview,theBritishParliament'sregulationoftheAmericancoloniesinthe1760sand1770swasregardedasausurpationofthecoloniallegislatures'prerogatives,andtheCrown'ssupportofParliamentwasconsideredtyrannical.Jefferson'sviewsduringthisperiodaremostsuccinctlyexpressedinA
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SummaryViewoftheRightsofBritishAmericaandtheDeclarationofIndependence.
AftertheAmericanWarofIndependence,Jefferson'spoliticalwritingsfocusedontheformationofanewrepublicinAmerica.FollowingARISTOTLE,Jeffersonconsideredman
-
naturallysocial,butrequiringparticipationinsmalldemocraticcommunitiestocultivatehissocialandpoliticalfaculties.JeffersonencouragedthedivisionofVirginiainto'Wards'of56squaremilesand100citizenstoreplicatetheclassicalGreekpolis.HealsobelievedthatthroughparticipatoryDEMOCRACYcitizenswouldrecognize
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thebestamongthem,thoseof'wisdomandvirtue',whomJeffersoncalledtheNaturalAristocracy.ThisNaturalAristocracywouldthenbeelectedtoprominentpositionsofpoliticalleadershipandwouldserveasrepresentativestotheincreasinglycentralizedgovernments(county,stateandnational)ofthelarge
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Americanrepublic.Insupportofthisidealoflocaldirectdemocracy,Jeffersonadvocateduniversalpubliceducationandrougheconomicequality.Advancementintheeducationalsystemwastobeaccordingtomerit,andthestatewastogrant50acresoflandtoeverycitizennotholdingsuch.Jeffersonopposedtheinstitutionofslavery,
-
butadvocatedagradualemancipationofblackslavesandtheirresettlementinAfrica.Hewasopposedtowomenparticipatinginpolitics.
Jefferson'sreligiousbeliefscorrespondedtohispoliticaltheory.AconservativeUnitarian,
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K
Kant,Immanuel(17241804)
Germanphilosopher.Kantwasbornanddiedat
-
Knigsberg,EastPrussia.HisphilosophicalreputationrestsonthethreeCritiques-PureReason(1781),PracticalReason(1788)andJudgment(1790).In1785hepublishedtheGroundworkoftheMetaphysicofMorals,whichfirstsetforththecelebratedcategoricalimperativealwaystohavea'goodwill',totreat
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personsasendsinthemselves,nevermerelyasmeanstoarbitraryends.Kant'spoliticalthoughtwasdevelopedaftertheFrenchRevolutioninTowardEternalPeace(1795),theMetaphysicalElementsofJustice(1797),andTheConflictoftheFaculties(1798);itscentralideaisthatpoliticsmust'bendtheknee'tomorality.
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ItisplainlyKant'scentralpoliticalconvictionthatmoralityandpoliticsmustberelated,since'truepoliticscannottakeasinglestepwithoutfirstpayinghomagetomorals'.Atthesametime,however,Kantdrewaverystrictdistinctionbetweenmoralmotives(actingfromgoodwillor
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respectforthemorallaw)andlegalmotives,andinsistedthatmoralandlegalincentivesmustneverbecollapsedintoeachother;thisiswhyheargued(inTheConflictoftheFaculties)thatevenwithgrowing'enlightenment'and'republicanism'therestillwillnotbeagreaterquantityofmoralactionsintheworld,butonlya
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largenumberoflegaloneswhichroughlycorrespondtowhatpuremoralitywouldachieveifitcould.(Attheendoftime,apurelymoral'kingdomofends'willpredictablynotberealizedonearththoughitoughttobebutonecanreasonablyhopeforabetterlegalorderwhichisclosertomoralitythanarepresentarrangements.)Morality
-
andpubliclegaljusticemustberelatedinsuchawaythatmoralityshapespoliticsbyforbiddingwar,byinsistingon'eternalpeace'andthe'rightsofman'withoutbecomingthemotiveofpolitics(sincepoliticscannothopefor'goodwill').
Giventhistension
-
betweenamoralityandapubliclegaljusticewhichmustberelatedbutwhichequallymustremaindistinct,itmaybethatthenotionof'ends'canhelptoserveasabridge:forpubliclawcertainlyupholdssomemoralends(e.g.nomurder),eventhoughthatlawmustcontentitselfwithalegalmotive.
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Usingteleologyasabridgeconnectingthemoraltothepolitical-legalrealmisnotaveryradicalinnovation,sinceKanthimselfused'ends'intheCritiqueofJudgmenttounitehiswholephilosophy.Hedidthisbyarguingthatnaturecanbeestimated(thoughneverknown)throughpurposesandfunctionswhich
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mechanicalcausalityfailstoexplain,thatpersonsasfreeagentsbothhavepurposeswhichtheystrivetorealizeandviewthemselvesasthefinalendofcreation,andthatartexhibitsa'purposivenesswithoutpurpose'whichmakesit(notdirectlymoralbut)thesymbolofmorality.Surely,then,ifendscanlinkorbethoughtofas
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linkingnature,humanfreedomandart,theycanlink(muchmoremodestly)twosidesofhumanfreedom:namelythemoralandthelegalrealms.
Nowif'goodwill',inthemoralrealm,couldmeanneveruniversalizingamaximofactionwhichwouldfailtorespect
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personsasendsinthemselves,thenmoralityandpoliticslawcouldbeconnectedthroughKantianteleology.Ifallpersonshadagoodwill,thentheywouldrespectallothersasendsindeedasmembersofa'kingdomofends';but,althoughitoughtto,thisdoesnotactuallyhappen,thankstothe
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L
LabourTheoryofValue
Thistheorymaintainsthateverycommodityeverygoodproducedbyhuman
-
labourandcapableofbeingexchangedforothergoodshasavaluethatisdeterminedbythetotalquantityoflabourneededforitsproduction;thisincludesboththelabourexpendeddirectlyonmakingitandthelabourrequiredtoproducetherawmaterialsandimplementsusedintheprocessofproduction.
-
Thisthesishasplayedaninfluentialroleinsocialandpoliticaltheory,buttheusemadeofithasvariedagreatdeal.InsomehandsithasbeenusedtodefendprivatePROPERTY:LOCKE,forexample,claimedthatnine-tenthsorevenninety-ninehundredthsofthevalueofanythingdependedonthelabour
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employedinmakingit,andusedthistosupporthisargumentthatthepersonwholaboursonsomethingbecomesitslegitimateowner.InCLASSICALPOLITICALECONOMY,thelabourtheoryofvaluewasusedprimarilyasanexplanatorytool,theclaimherebeingthattheratiosinwhichallcommoditieswouldtend
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toexchangeweregovernedlargelybytheirlabour-determinedvalues.MARXmadeanadditionalandmorecriticalclaim.Hearguedthatlabour,asacommoditylikeanyother,wouldnormallyexchangefortheequivalentofitsowncostofproductiontheminimumsubsistencerequiredtomaintainandreproducethelabourer.
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Thelabourpowersoldwould,however,beusedbythecapitalisttocreatesurplusvalue,hencetheworkingclasswasthevictimofEXPLOITATION.
Thelabourtheoryofvaluehasbeenattackedonanumberofgrounds:itoverlooksthefactthatcapitalaccumulationrequiresdeferred
-
consumption,andcapitalthereforeunavoidablycommandsapremiumoverandabovethelabouritembodies;itmistakenlyassumesthatthelabourusedinproductionishomogenous;anditneglectstheinfluenceofdemandontherelativepricesofcommodities.AsaresultithasnowbeenabandonedoutsideMarxistcircles,andeven
-
withinthemitremainsamatterofcontroversyhowessentialthelabourtheoryistotheMarxistcritiqueofcapitalism.DLM
Reading
Meek,R.L.:StudiesintheLabourTheoryofValue,2ndedn.London:Lawrence&Wishart,
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1973.
Labriola,Antonio(18431904)
ItalianMarxistphilosopher.LabriolawasborninsouthernItalyandstudiedundertheHegelianBertrandoSpaventaatNaplesUniversity.Heisprincipallyknownasthe
-
firstHegelianMarxist,althoughVICO,SPINOZAandthepsychologyofHerbartwereequallyimportanttohisintellectualdevelopment.Hewasthefirsttostress,somethirtyyearsbeforethepublicationofMARX'sEarlyWritings,theroleofconsciousnessandofpraxisinMARXISM,andcriticizedtheevolutionarymaterialismofhisfellow
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ItalianMarxist,AchilleLoria.Labriola'sprinciplewritingsareInMemoryoftheCommunistManifesto(1895),OnHistoricalMaterialism(1896)andTalkingaboutSocialismandPhilosophy(letterstoSorel,1897).Noneoftheseworksisasystematictreatise;rathertheyare'preliminaryclarifications'ofthematerialistconceptionof
-
history.Thefirsttwopieces,publishedinFrenchbySORELandinItalianbyCROCE,becameminorclassicsofMarxistliterature,winningthepraiseof
-
M
Macaulay,ThomasBabington(18001859)
Britishhistorian,politicianandessayist.
-
Macaulaywasthesonofaleaderofthemovementagainsttheslavetrade,andwasbroughtupamongEvangelicals.HeattendedTrinityCollege,Cambridge,andlaterbecameabarrister.Hisbrilliantessaysonliterary,historicalandpoliticaltopicsintheEdinburghReviewmadehimitsleadingcontributorandledtohiselectiontothe
-
HouseofCommonsasaWhig(18304,183947,18526);hisspeechesmadehimaleadingfigure,especiallyduringtheReformBilldebates(18312).HewasLawmemberoftheGovernor-General'sCouncilinIndia(18348),andproducedthePenalCodeforIndia.HislastingfamerestsonhisHistoryofEngland(184861).
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InspeechesandwritingMacaulaydiscussedauthorsandproblemsthatarewithintheprovinceofpoliticalphilosophy.HisessayonMACHIAVELLIaddressedissuesofpoliticalmorality.HisspeechonthecivildisabilitiesoftheJewsusedargumentsthathadacloseaffinitywithLOCKE's
-
LetterConcerningToleration.HisarticlesontheutilitariantheoryofgovernmentdefendedBENTHAM'scontributionstolawreformbutcriticizedJamesMILL'smethodofdeductivereasoning,andhereheusedargumentsthatcanbetracedbacktoBURKE.HisessayonMILTONallowedhimtopresentarationaleforlibertyofexpression.In
-
speechesinsupportofparliamentaryreformheanalysedthecausesofrevolutionanddefendedgradualandconciliatoryconstitutionalchangeasawayofavoidingit.
Macaulay'spositionontheseissueslendsupporttotheconventionalviewinwhichheislabelledaliberalWhigandmoderate
-
liberal(seeLIBERALISM).Thisview,however,failstorecognizethatbothinhispoliticalcareerandinhiswritingheputforwardthepoliticsoftrimming.AsadistinguishableandprincipledtheoryofpoliticstrimmingisassociatedwithGeorgeSavile,MarquessofHalifax,authorofTheCharacterofaTrimmer(1688).Inthistheory,for
-
MacaulayasforHalifax,regimeswerethreatenedbycentrifugalforcesthatdrovethoserepresentingdiverseopinionstoextremessome,whowereexcessivelycriticaloftheregime,threateninganarchy,others,zealoustodefendestablishedwayswithrepression,threateningdespotism.Thetaskofthepoliticianwastoavoidsuch
-
extremes,tocombinelibertythatstopsshortofanarchywithorderthatstopsshortofdespotism.Thisgoalwouldbeachievedbyfrustratingthefanatics,zealotsandirreconcilablesthatrepresentedextremistsectsandfactions,andbypromotinggradualchange,reconciliation,stabilityandcentristpolitics.Thosewho
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sharedthisunderstandingweregivenheroicstatus,mostnotablyWilliamIIIandHalifax,and,toacertainextent,Burke;thosewhoseextremismmadethemobstaclestotrimmingwerevillains,e.g.JamesII,TitusOates,Paine,Ultra-Tories,philosophicradicals,doctrinaires.AsapoliticianMacaulaywassensitivetodiscontents
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thatcouldleadtorevolutionandthatcouldprovokedemandsforrepression.HesoughtamiddlecoursebetweentheextremesofradicalismandUltra-Toryism,andhesympathizedwithflexibleTories,especiallyCanning,andbecamespokesmanfortheconciliatoryWhigs(seePHILOSOPHICRADICALISM).
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Macaulay'strimmingwasespeciallyevidentintheHistoryofEnglandwhichcontainedthe
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N
NationalSocialism
TheideologyoftheNationalSocialistGermanWorkersParty(NSDAP),
-
betterknownastheNaziparty,whichwasformedin1919andunderHitlerruledGermanybetween1933and1945.Nationalsocialismessentiallycombinedtwodoctrines:thefascistbeliefthatnationalunitycouldbestbesecuredbyanall-encompassingstatedirectedbyapartywithonesupremeleaderembodyingthenational
-
will,andtheracistbeliefinthesuperiorityoftheAryanpeoples,implyingthatotherracesmightjustifiablybesubjugatedoreliminatedentirely.Althoughnationalsocialismwasthemostspectacular,andinsomerespectsthemostsuccessful,ofallformsoffascism,itwasintellectuallylesssophisticatedandless
-
interestingthanFrenchorItalianfascism.
Itspoliticalsuccesslayinitsabilitytosynthesizeoftencontradictoryelementsintoadoctrinewithuniversalappeal'socialism'fortheworkingclass,anti-bolshevismfortheemployers,nationalismfortraditional
-
conservatives,andanti-semitismforallwholookedforascapegoatonwhomtopintheblameforthelossofworldwaroneandtheeconomicdisastersofthe1920s.Domestically,thisrecipewasagreatsuccess;internationally,itweakenedtheso-calledAxis,orwartimealliancebetweenItaly,GermanyandJapan.Italyhadevery
-
reasontofearGermannationalism,whichcouldonlyreviveseparatistaspirationsintheformerSouthTyrolandbodedillforItalianambitionsinAfrica;JapancouldhardlybeunawarethatHitler'sambitionsfortheAryanraceleftlittleroomforitsown,andthatthe'YellowPeril'hadfrequentlyfeaturedintherhetoricofhispre-warspeeches.
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Nazismhadintellectualpretentions,buttheycameapoorsecondtoanenthusiasmforbruteforceandthecultoftheleader.LiberalshaveoftenaccusedHegeloflayingthefoundationsofNazism(seePopper,vol.II);theNazisthemselvesfrequentlyclaimedanintellectualkinshipwith
-
Nietzsche.Infact,Hegel'sconservativeliberalismwasatworstintermittentlyauthoritarian,andhisinsistenceontheruleoflawandconstitutionalsafeguardsforprivaterightswasutterlyuncongenialtoNazism,whileNietzsche'scontemptforthepretensionsoftheGermanEmpireisanindicationofhowremovedhisideals
-
werefromanythinginnationalsocialism.WhereItalianfascismcouldboastofGentile,andFrenchfascismofBARRSandMAURRAS,Nazismwasintellectuallybarren.AlfredRosenberg(born1893,hangedasawarcriminalOctober1946)wasitsonly'philosopher',andhisbest-knownwork,TheMythoftheTwentiethCentury(1930)isa
-
discordantjumbleofracistandvolkischideaslooselyattachedtoahistoryofEuropeanculturewhichbizarrelyattemptstoprovethateverythingworthhavinginEuropeanhistoryisofNordicorigin.
Nationalsocialismisofsociologicalratherthanintellectualinterest.Ithasbeenhandledbestby
-
writerswhohaveunderstooditasanintellectualpathology,whetherthathasbeeninterpretedasanepisodeinthehistoryofmasssociety(seeArendt)orasaresponsetothedesireforthetranscendental(seeNolte).Its'socialism'meantlittlemorethanthatthestate'srightstranscendedthoseofprivateowners;itsappeal
-
totheVolkwashardlymorethananexcusetodestroythesecondaryorganizationsofliberalsociety,tradeunionsinparticular,and
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O
Oakeshott,MichaelJoseph(1901)
Britishpoliticalphilosopher.Oakeshott
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graduatedfromCambridgeUniversityin1923,andtwoyearslaterbecameafellowofGonvilleandCaiusCollege.In1951hewasappointedtotheuniversitychairofpoliticalscienceattheLondonSchoolofEconomics,fromwhichheretiredin1968.
Inhisfirstmajor
-
philosophicalwork,ExperienceanditsModes(1933),Oakeshottsetouttoelucidatetheconstitutivecharacteristicsofdifferentformsofunderstandinghumanexperience.Forhimexperienceisasinglewholeofwhichthemindandtheexternalworld,thesubjectandtheobject,areone-sidedabstractions.Allattemptstounderstandit
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fallintooneoftwocategories.Theyunderstanditeitherfromspecificstandpoints,or'asawhole'and'foritsownsake'.
Byitsverynatureeverystandpointisbasedoncertainassumptionsorpresuppositions,whichitdoesnotandcannotquestion.Itabstracts
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relevantaspectsofthetotalityofexperienceandoffersahomogeneous,sovereignandself-containedaccountofthem.Oakeshottdistinguishesthreesuchstandpointsor'modes',namelypractice,scienceandhistory,towhichhelateraddedpoetry.Thepracticalmodeviewsexperiencesubspecievoluntatis(underthe
-
aspectofwill).Itpresupposesseparate,uniqueandself-containedindividualswantingtosatisfytheirdiversedesires,andunderstandsthetotalityofexperienceintermsofsuchconceptsastheself,theother,change,desire,good,bad,ought,pleasureandpain.Historyviewsthetotalityofexperiencesubspeciepraeteritorum(underthe
-
aspectofthepast)andsciencesubspeciequantitatis(undertheaspectofquantity).
Unlikethemodes,philosophyisconcernedtoofferunconditionalandunabstractedexperience.Assuchitavoidsallpartialstandpointsandassumptions.ForOakeshottphilosophyis
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uniqueamongallintellectualinquiriesinbeingradical,self-consciousandrigorouslyself-critical.Aconstantandrelentlesscritiqueofassumptions,itsownandthoseofthemodes,isitsmostdistinctivecharacteristic.
InExperienceanditsModesOakeshottsaid
-
littleaboutthenatureofpoliticsandpoliticalphilosophy.Hebegantowriteabouttheseafewyearslater,forexample,inhisIntroductiontoHobbes'sLeviathan(1946),severalessaysinPoliticaandtheCambridgeJournal,andhisInauguralLecture(1951).SomeoftheseessayswerelatercollectedinhisRationalismin
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Politicsandotheressays(1962).DuringthisperiodOakeshottadvancedseveraldifferentviewsonthenatureandtaskofpoliticalphilosophy,suchastheexplorationof'thenatureandearthlydestinyofman',acriticalexaminationofcontemporarycivilization,andconceptualanalysis.AsforPOLITICS,hesawitastheactivityofattending
-
totheperiodicallyhighlightedincoherencesinthe'atoncecoherentandincoherent'patternofarrangementsobtainingineverycommunity.Itdoesnotandcannotconsistindecidingeachdaywhattodoandhowastheempiricistsmaintain,norinimplementingsomeabstractprinciples,ideasordoctrinesastherationalistsmaintain,but
-
inpursuingtheintimationsoftheexistingtraditionsofbehaviour.ForOakeshotttheempiricistsandrationalistswhollymisunderstandthenatureoftimeandknowledge,thetwocentraldimensionsofpoliticallife.Forone,timeisa
-
P
Pacifism
Thebeliefthatallwarsarewrong,howevergoodthecausethatisbeingfought
-
fororwhateverthethreattoone'sowncountry.Thisbeliefhasoftenbeenbasedonreligiousconvictionbutitalsohashumanistandpoliticalroots.Pacifismiscloselylinkedtoresistancetowar,butnotidenticalwithit,sincesomemovementshaveopposedwarsfornon-pacifistreasonsandbynon-pacifistmeans.
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PacifismintheWestspringsfromearlyChristianity,whichinterpretedliterallytheNewTestamentteachingto'resistnotevil'andtoturntheothercheek.ChristiansrefusedtoserveintheimperialRomanarmies.GraduallytheChristianchurchevolvedatheoryofJUSTWAR,whichtriedtolimitwarfareby
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specifyingjustcausesandjustmethodsofwar,butenabledChristianstofightwhentheirgovernmentsrequiredthemtodoso.NeverthelessautopianstrainwithintheChristianfaithhaskeptreappearingandreassertingapurepacifism.SectswhichupholdapacifistwitnessincludetheQuakers,theMennonites,theDukhoborsandJehovah's
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Witnesses.SomeChristianshavethereforeviewedpacifismasprimarilyareligiousratherthanapoliticalcommitment,althoughtheQuakershavealwaysbeenactiveinpoliticsaswell.
BytheRenaissance,politicalwriterswereputtingforwardsecularargumentsagainstwar.
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Erasmus,theDutchphilosopherofthesixteenthcentury,attackedthecultofchivalryandtheglorificationofwartoexposethebarbarityofwarfare.Overthenexttwocenturiesanumberofpoliticaltheoristsconcernedthemselveswiththeproblemofhowtosecureinternationalpeace,andaftertheendoftheNapoleonicwarsin
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1814popularpeacemovementsgrewupinEuropeandtheUnitedStates.Thesemovementsdrewprimarilyonaliberalbeliefthateconomicprogressandcooperationandthespreadofreasonthrougheducationshouldmakethebrutalityanddestructivenessofwarobsolete.
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Themajorityofpacifistshavebeenliberaldemocrats,andpacifismisusuallydismissedbyMarxistsas'bourgeois'.Butthesocialistinternationalcongressesatthebeginningofthiscenturyadvocatedworking-classresistancetocapitalistandimperialistwars,andaminorityofsocialistswere
-
alsopacifistswhoopposedallwars.Resistancetowar,includingstrikes,desertionandmutiny,ispartoftheanarchisttradition,andlinkedtoanarchistoppositiontothestate(seeANARCHISM).Mostanarchistshaveacceptedtheneedforviolentmethodsofpoliticalresistanceagainstthestate,butsome
-
anarchistshavealsobeenpurepacifists.ThebestknownexampleisLeoTOLSTOY,whosewritingsinfluencedGANDHI'Sexperimentsinnon-violentresistance.
DuringthefirstworldwartheintroductionofconscriptioninBritainandtheUnitedStatesledtowidespreadconscientious
-
objectionbyindividualswhorefusedtofight.Sincethenpacifismhasbeendefinedmorestrictlytomeanapersonalcommitmentnevertoserveinthearmedforces.InthissenseithasbeenmostcommonincountrieswithaProtestantandaliberaltradition,whichencouragesindividualstotakeaconscientiousstandandalsotendstomake
-
governmentsmoretolerantofreligiousconscientiousobjectiontowar.
Manypacifistshavebecomeincreasinglycommittedtotheuseofnon-cooperationornon-violentresistancetoopposeracialismor
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Q
Quesnay,Franois(16941774)
Frencheconomist.Intellectualleaderofthe
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physiocrats,andanearlyexponentofthedoctrineofLAISSEZ-FAIRE.SeePHYSIOCRACY.
R
Racism
Asapoliticaltheoryand
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asthebasisforatheoryofhistory,racismbecameafactorinEuropeanhistoryinthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcentury.Asapoliticalforce,itcametotheforeintheanti-semitismoftheturnofthecenturyanditconstitutedtheintellectualfoundationofNazism.
Theintellectualoriginsof
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racialexplanationsofthehumanworldgobacktotheeighteenthcentury.Itwasatthattimethatanthropologycameintobeing,anewscientificdisciplinewhichattemptedtodetermine,bytheuseofempiricalmethods,theplaceofmaninnature.Menwereobserved,evaluated,compared.Atthesametime,asearchforunity
-
andharmonyinhumanaffairsgaverisetoabeliefintheunityofthefleshandthespirit.Thisunity,itwasbelieved,couldalsobeobservedandevaluated.
AlthoughthegreatnaturalistsandanthropologistsoftheeighteenthcenturysuchasLamarck(17441829),
-
theauthorofPhilosophiezoologique(1809),whosestudiesonthemutationofspeciesheraldedthoseofDarwin,orBuffon(170788),theauthorofthecelebratedHistoirenaturelledel'homme(1778)offeredamaterialistandenvironmentalistexplanationofracialdifferences,theircriteriaofclassificationwere
-
alreadyofahighlysubjectivecharacter.Theuseofstereotypesbecameverycommon,andvariationsinphysicalcharacteristicswereheldtoindicatetheexistenceofmental,psychologicalandculturaldifferences.Fromthebeginningofthenineteenthcenturymanyscientifictexts,suchasworksofnaturalhistoryoranthropology,were
-
alreadyopenlyracist.Thenewsciencesofhumanity,modellingthemselvesasfaraspossibleonthehighlyrespectedphysicalsciences,tended,atthatperiod,toattributetomentalormoralcharacteristicsthesame
-
S
Saint-Simon,Claude-HenrideRouvroy(17601825)
Frenchsocialist.An
-
aristocratbybirth,Saint-Simonabsorbedfromtheeighteenth-centuryENLIGHTENMENTaninterestinphilosophyandthesciences,andtheapplicationofknowledgetothesolutionofsocialproblems.Yethisownfirstpronouncementsonthesemattersdidnotappearinprintuntilthefirstdecadeofthenineteenthcentury,by
-
whichtimehisexperienceofviolentupheavalintheAmericanandFrenchrevolutionshadconvincedhimoftheurgentneedforaprogrammeofsystematicsocialreorganization.Hesubsequentlyundertookpioneeringinvestigationsconcernedprincipallywiththeestablishmentofascientificstudyofmanandsociety-a'social
-
physiology'.Asasocialreformerheputforwardproposalswhichatfirstcouldhardlybedistinguishedfromliberaldoctrines,buthegraduallymovedawayfromorthodoxliberalismtowards'industrialism',atheorywhichcontainedmanysocialisticelements.
Oneofthemost
-
significantfeaturesofSaint-Simon's'socialphysiology'wasitsunderlyingconceptionofhistory.InspiredbythemechanicaldeterminismoftheNewtonianworld-viewandtheoptimismofEnlightenmentphilosophiesofPROGRESS,Saint-Simonattemptedtorevealtheinexorablepatternofhistoricalchange,notonlyinthe
-
pastandpresent,butalsothroughscientifically-basedanticipationsofthefuture.Thisperspectiveledhimtostresstherelationshipbetweenscience(theoreticalknowledge)andindustry(meaning,atthistime,allproductiveactivity,notjustmanufacturing)asthekeyagentsatworkinshapingsuccessivetypesofsocietyinthecourseof
-
man'sevolutionfromprimitivetomoderntimes.
Saint-SimonwasoneofthefirstthinkerstoidentifythemainfeaturesofanemergentINDUSTRIALSOCIETY(or'industrialsystem'),andtotrytoshowhowsuchasocietywaslikelytodevelopoutofthecollapseoffeudalism.Centraltothis
-
endeavourwastheargumentthateverytypeofsocietyisbuiltonthefoundationsofaparticularsystemofbeliefs,andthatoncethesebeliefslosecredibility,thesocialordermustitselfdisintegrate.Thus,forSaint-Simon,itwasultimatelytheEnlightenmentattackontheologywhichprecipitatedthe
-
destructionofthefeudalsystem;anditfollowedthatonlyanew,alternativesetofbeliefsmodern'positive'sciencecouldfurnishthebasisforthepost-feudal,industrialorder.Thiswouldhappenonlywhentheoldrulingclassesoflandednobilityandclergy(thetwinpillarsoffeudalism)hadbeenreplacedbythenew,
-
ascendantclassesofscientists,engineersandartists(intheintellectualsphere),andentrepreneurs,industrialistsandproducers(inthemorepracticalsphereofpoliticsandadministration).Suchanimageofmodernsocietydoesperhapssuggestrulebytechnocrats,oritmightbeseenasanothervariation
-
onthethemeofcapitalisticutilitarianism.Boththeseinterpretationshavesomejustification,sinceSaint-Simonclearlyhopedtoelevateprofessionalexpertsofvariouskindstopositionsofauthority,expertswhosemaintaskwouldbetopromotehumansatisfactionswithinanessentiallycapitalisticframeworkbasedonthe
-
maintenanceofprivatepropertyrights.YetothermorecollectivistictendenciesinSaint-Simon'sthoughtmustbetakenintoaccount,
-
T
Tawney,RichardHenry(18801962)
Britishsocialphilosopherandeconomichistorian.
-
BorninIndia,andeducatedatRugbyandBalliolCollege,Oxford,Tawney'sChristiansocialmoralismandaprevailingconcernwiththe'socialquestion'firstledhimintoeducationalsocialworkatToynbeeHallinLondon'sEastEnd.However,soonconvincedthatsocialreconstructionwasmoreimportantthancharitablesocialrelief,he
-
increasinglyturnedhisattentiontowardseducation,economicandsocialresearch,andpolitics.ThusbeganhislifelongassociationwithadulteducationthroughtheWorkers'EducationalAssociation;withtheLabourandtradeunionmovements(hewrotemanypolicydocumentsfortheLabourParty,andrepresentedtheunionside
-
ontheSankeyCommissionontheCoalIndustry);andwiththeLondonSchoolofEconomics,whereheheldthechairofeconomichistory.OnhiseightiethbirthdayTheTimeswrote:'NomanalivehasputmorepeopleintohisspiritualandintellectualdebtthanhasRichardHenryTawney...'.
-
Inpart,suchaclaimrestedonTawney'sownpersonalqualitiesandmoralstature.However,itrestedevenmoreonhiscontributiontosocialthoughtinBritainduringthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury.InaseriesofinfluentialbookshesetouttoidentifythemoraldisorderofBritishcapitalistsociety(The
-
AcquisitiveSociety,1921),toexploreaspectsofthehistoricalgenesisofthiskindofsociety(mostnotably,inhisReligionandtheRiseofCapitalism,1926),andtooutlinethebasisforanalternative,socialist,formofhumansocialorganization(inEquality,1931).Thesepivotalworksweresupplementedbyessays,speeches,and
-
papersoneducation,socialreform,Christiansocialthinking,andsocialism.SomeofthismaterialiscollectedinTheAttack,andotherpapers(1953)andTheRadicalTradition(1964).Takentogether,Tawney'sworkarguablyrepresentsthemostinfluentialandauthenticstatementofearlytwentieth-centuryBritishSOCIALISM.
-
Itwasasocialismthataddresseditselftogeneralhumanvaluesandtheirsocialexpression,areflectionofTawney'sChristianhumanism.Itwas,therefore,notasocialismofclasspower,economicdetermination,orhistoricalinevitability.IfTawney'shistoricalstudiesofthe
-
developmentofcapitalismgavehisworkaffinitieswithMarxism,bothhisindictmentofcapitalismandhispresentationofthesocialistprojectrestedondistinctivefoundations.InthenotesforhisCommonplaceBook,writtenintheyearsjustbeforethefirstworldwar,Tawneyhadrecordedthatsocietywas'sickthroughtheabsenceofamoral
-
ideal'.ItwasthismoralsicknessthatprovidedthethemeforTheAcquisitiveSociety,withitsanalysisofasocietyinwhichindustryandpropertyhadbecomedetachedfromanyprinciplesoffunctionandpurpose(thesearekeyTawneywords)andsoinhabitedarealmofmorallawlessnessinwhichacquisitionand'industrialism'were
-
unconstrained.Thedisordersofcapitalistsociety,reflectedinaneconomiclifethatis'inaperpetualstateofmorbidirritation',weretobeseenasinevitableconsequencesofitsmoralvacuum.Againstsuchasociety,Tawneyadvancedadoctrineoffunctionalpropertyandcommonsocialpurpose.
-
Inhishistoricalwork,Tawneywasconcernedtoexplorehowacapitalisteconomyhadcometoacquireitsautonomyfromageneral
-
U
Utilitarianism
Thenameofthattraditioninethicaltheorythat,eitherdirectlyor
-
indirectly,assessestherightnessofacts,policies,decisions,andchoicesbytheirtendencytopromotethehappinessofthoseaffectedbythem.ItisassociatedwiththenamesofJeremyBENTHAMandJohnStuartMILL,morerecentlywiththoseofHenrySIDGWICKandG.E.Moore,and,morerecentlystill,withthoseofJ.J.C.SmartandR.M.Hare.
-
SincethedaysofBenthamandMill,ithasneverceasedtooccupyacentralplaceinmoraltheorizing;andtoday,asaresultofthewidespreadgrowthofappliedethics,ineveryareaofwhichitunderpinsoneofthecontendingpositions,ithascometohavesignificantimpactuponthemoralthinkingofmanylaymen.
-
Benthamheldthatactsarerightiftheytendtopromotehappinessandwrongiftheytendtoproducethereverseofhappiness,andthathappinessistobeunderstoodaspleasureandunhappinessaspainortheabsenceofpleasure.Pleasuresandpainsweretobeassessedorweighed
-
bymeansofafelicificcalculus(forexample,bytheirintensity,duration,andpropinquity)thatenabledunitsorvaluesofpleasuresandpainstobeassignedandtobesummed.Thiscalculuswasperson-neutral,capableofbeingappliedtothedifferentpleasuresofdifferentpeople,aswellasintensity-sensitive,capableofcapturingthe
-
differentlevelsofpleasuresofdifferentpeople.Extent,orthetotalnumberofpersonsaffectedbytheact,wasanimportantpartofthecalculus.Rightnesswasdetermined,therefore,bysummingtheunitsorvaluesofthedifferentpleasuresandpainsproducedinthedifferentpeopleaffectedbytheact:anactwasrightifit
-
producedanetbalanceofpleasureoverpain.Theoverallaimwastomaximizepleasure,thatis,toproducethegreatestnetbalanceofpleasureoverpainforthecollectivityofthoseaffected.Theformula'thegreatesthappinessofthegreatestnumber'cametoexpressthisaim,andthecircleofsocial,political,andlegalreformersthathad
-
gatheredaroundBenthamcarriedthisformulaforchangeintosociety(seePHILOSOPHICRADICALISM).
Inspiteofsomereservations,JohnStuartMillacceptedBentham'sgeneralposition,includingBentham'shedonismandhisviewthatouractionsaremotivatedentirelybypleasureandpain.Mill
-
wanted,however,todistinguishqualities,aswellasquantities,ofpleasuresandtospeakofhigherandlowerpleasures;andthisposesdifficulties.Foritisunclearwhetheradistinctionbetweenqualitiesofpleasurescanbesustained(alongthelinesthatpleasureispleasure,thoughwhatcausesitcanvary)and
-
whethersuchadistinctionlendsitselftoacalculusthatenablesunitsorvaluestobeassignedtopleasuresandsoforpleasurestobesummedandcompared,interpersonally.
TheclassicalutilitarianismofBenthamandMillisaformofact-utilitarianism(doubts
-
haveoccasionallybeenexpressedaboutthisinterpretationofMill),andthistypeofutilitarianism,accordingtowhichanactisrightifitsconsequencesareatleastasgoodasthoseofanyalternative,istodaycontrastedwithothertypes,suchasrule-utilitarianismandutilitariangeneralization(and,also,motive-
-
utilitarianism).Accordingtorule-utilitarianism,anactisrightifitconformstoarulethegeneralfollowingofwhichwouldhave(orhas)goodconsequences.Thepointofthistypeoftheory,whichexistsin
-
V
Vattel,Emmerichde(17141767)
Swissjurist.Hismajorwork,TheLawofNations
-
(1758),wasaninfluentialexpositionoftheprinciplesofINTERNATIONALLAW.
Vico,Giambattista(16681744)
Italianphilosopher,historianandjurist.Vicolivedanddied,incomparativeinternationalobscurity,inNaples,
-
whereheheldthechairofrhetoricattheuniversityfrom1699to1741.Internationalinterestinhisworkcameinthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies,throughthepowerfuladvocacyfirstoftheFrenchhistorianMicheletandthenoftheItalianphilosopherCROCE.
Ofhismoreimportant
-
earlyworks,OntheStudyMethodsofourTime(1709)revealsaninterestintheeducationofthelegislatorandinthenatureofpoliticalwisdom,butOntheAncientWisdomoftheItalians(1710)isprimarilyconcernedwithanon-Cartesiantheoryofknowledge.AmoresystematicinterestinpoliticaltheoryisfirstexpressedinOnthe
-
CoherenceoftheJurist(1721),butislaterdevelopeddifferentlywithinthecontextofascienceoftheprinciplesofhumanity,whichisthesubjectofhismasterpiece,TheNewScience.Thisexistsinthreedifferenteditions(1725,1730,and1744)betweenthefirsttwoofwhich,inparticular,therearemajordifferencesinform.
-
ThecentralfeaturesofVico'spoliticalthoughtareconsequencesoftwodifferenttheses.First,thatnationsshareacommondevelopmentalnaturewhichchangesascertainfundamentalconcepts,primarilythoseoftruthandofjustice,emergeanddevelopinthecourseofhumaninteractionwithin
-
society.Second,thattheformofastateandofitsgovernmentmustconformtothenatureofthepeoplegoverned.Fromthesetheses,itfollowsthattheformsofastateanditsgovernmentwillchangeinaccordancewiththedevelopmentofthesefundamentalconcepts.
Vicodevelopsthese
-
claimsinproducingatheory,the'idealeternalhistory',aboutanecessaryprocessofcultural,social,andpoliticaldevelopmentanddecaywhich,incertaincircumstances,wouldoccurinthehistoryofanyactualnation.Inthefirstphaseor'era'ofthisprocess,awhollypoeticorimaginativesocialandphysicalworldisseen,inatotally
-
mythicalway,asdifferentaspectsofGodorofthegods.PossessionbelongsimmediatelytoGodbutmediatelytothosewhoclaimtointerpretHiswishes,makesacrificestoplacateHimandbringHislawtothepeople.Makingcertainassumptionsaboutthenaturaldevelopmentoffamilies,Vicoconcludesthattheformofstateappropriatetothis
-
phaseisthatofatheocraticdespotisminwhichallrightsofpossessiondevolveuponthefatherofthefamily,inwhosepersonareunitedallthreesacerdotalfunctions,andthencetohisnearestkin.
Inthesecondera,theformofthestateisdeterminedbythedesire
-
ofthefathers'descendantstoretainthevastprivatepossessionswhichtheyhaveinherited,thejustificationforwhichliesintheirclaimtosemi-divinestatus,i.e.,tobebornofunionsofmortalsandgods.ToexplainthisformofstateVicomakestwofurtherassumptions.First,thataclassdistinctionwillhavearisenwithintheoriginal
-
familystatesthroughtheadmissionintothemofexternalvagrantswholacksemi-divinestatusand,therefore,anycivilrights.Second,that
-
W
Webb,Beatrice(18581943)andSidney(18591947)
Britishsocialreformers.
-
ProminentmembersoftheFabianSociety,theWebbswereknownespeciallyfortheircollaborativeresearchineconomicandsocialhistory.SeeFABIANISM.
Weber,Max(18641920)
Germanpoliticaleconomistandtheoretical
-
sociologist.Afterearlystudiesinthehistoryofcommerciallaw,WeberestablishedhimselfasoneoftheleadingfiguresinanewgenerationofhistoricalpoliticaleconomistsintheGermanyofthe1890s.Apersonalbreakdownin1898ledtohiswithdrawalfromacademicteaching,butdidlittletoimpairtheflowofhiswriting,the
-
rangeofwhichwasenormous.Itsunifyingfocuswasaconcernwiththemutualrelationshipbetweenlegal,politicalandculturalformationsontheonehand,andeconomicactivityontheother.Hisconcernwiththeseissuesbecameincreasinglytheoretical,involvingasystematizationofthemajorcategoriesofsocial
-
andpoliticallife,bothuniversallyandasdefinitiveofthespecificcharacterofmodernwesterncivilization.WeberwasalsoactivelyandoftencontroversiallyinvolvedinthepoliticalissuesofWilhelmineGermany,fromaprogressivenational-liberalstandpoint,aninvolvementwhichgaveparticularpointtohis
-
concernwiththedistinctionbetweensocialscienceandpoliticalpractice,andtheplaceofvaluejudgmentsintheformer.Itwasonlycomparativelylateinhislifethathecametothinkofhisworkas'sociology',anditisasoneofthe'foundingfathers'ofsociologythatheisnowknown.Hisworkis,however,toocomplexto
-
allowofanysimpleclassification,whetherintermsofdisciplinaryboundariesorofanyparticularschoolofthought.
WebermadehisinitialreputationinGermanywithastudyoftheimpactofcapitalistorganizationontheagriculturalestateseastoftheElbe,andits
-
implicationsforthecontinueddominanceoftheJunkersoverGermany'spoliticallife.Itisforamuchwiderstudy,however,oftheoriginsofcapitalismitself,thatheisbestknown(TheProtestantEthicandtheSpiritofCapitalism,19045).Theargumentofthisworkisthattheprofit-maximizingbehavioursocharacteristicofthe
-
bourgeoisie,whichcouldbeexplainedunderfullydevelopedcapitalistconditionsbyitssheernecessityforsurvivalinthefaceofcompetition,couldnotbesoexplainedundertheearlierphasesofcapitalistdevelopment.Itwastheproductofanautonomousimpulsetoaccumulatefarbeyondtheneedsofpersonalconsumption,animpulse
-
whichwashistoricallyunique.Webertraceditssourcetothe'worldlyasceticism'ofreformedChristianity,withitstwinimperativestomethodicalworkasthechiefdutyoflife,andtothelimitedenjoymentofitsproduct.Theunintendedconsequenceofthisethic,whichwasenforcedbythesocialandpsychologicalpressures
-
onthebelievertoprove(butnotearn)hissalvation,wastheaccumulationofwealthforinvestment.
EarlycriticsofWeber'sthesismisunderstooditasapurelyculturalexplanationforcapitalism,asifa'SiberianBaptistoraCalvinistinhabitantoftheSahara'must
-
inevitablybecomeasuccessfulentrepreneur.Weberwas,infact,wellawarebothofthematerialpreconditionsforcapitalistdevelopment,andofthesocialintereststhatareneededtosupportthe
-
Y
YoungHegelians
DisciplesoftheGermanphilosopherG.W.F.HEGEL,characterizedand
-
broughttogetherbytheirstressontheradicaltheologicalandpoliticalimplicationsofHegel'sthought.Thesetheysawasexposingthe'contradictions'andmystificationonwhichestablishedreligionandthePrussianmonarchy(andothermonarchies)rested.ThisbroughtthemintoconflictwithOldorRightHegelianswho
-
followedtheMaster'sviewthattherealwasrational,thatProtestantChristianityembodiedthetruthsofphilosophyinpictorialformandthatthePrussianmonarchyandcivilserviceapproximatedtotherationalstate,withanundividedsovereignwillandabureaucracyactingimpartiallyinthepublicinterest.Increasinglyanti-
-
theological,republican,democraticandevenrevolutionary,theYoungHegeliansstoodforhumanemancipation,substitutingindividualconsciousness,ortheuniversalconsciousnessofthehumanspecies,forHegel'sobjectivespirit.Theypreachedself-determination,andtheovercomingofalienationandofdivisivenessand
-
particularityinsociallife.TheythusimplicitlystressedKantianandFichtianthemesinHegel'swork,especiallyKANT'selevationofautonomyanduniversality,withoutsubordinatingthesetothesystematicand'external'structuresthatHegelthoughtnecessarytomakefreedomrational.
-
LeadingmembersofthegroupwereDavidFriedrichStrauss(180874),LudwigFEUERBACH(180472),BrunoBauer(180982)andhisbrotherEdgar(182086),ArnoldRuge(180380),MaxSTIRNER(realnameJohannCasparSchmidt,180656)andMosesHess(181275).Between1839and1842theyoungKarlMARXand,separately,
-
FriedrichENGELSwereassociatedwithmembersofthisgroupandwerestronglyinfluencedbythem.By1844MarxandEngelshadbecomesharplycriticaloftheYoungHegeliansfortheirelevationoftheoreticalcriticismandofconsciousness,andtheirneglectofsocialandmaterialrealities;in1845/6theydenounced
-
theminTheGermanIdeology.Thefailureofthe1848RevolutionandthedeclineofHegelianphilosophicalinfluenceintheGermanyofthe1850sand1860sspeltanendtotheYoungHegeliansasamovement.TheywenttheirseparatewaysandarenowstudiedchieflyfortheirroleintheintellectualevolutionofMARXISM.Ludwig
-
Feuerbach,whosereputationlongovershadowedthoseoftheotherYoungHegelians,becamelessandlessHegelianinthe1840s;heremains,however,animportantfigureinthecritiqueofreligionandthehistoryoftheology.MosesHesshasattractedindependentinterestasGermany'sfirstcommunist,preceding
-
Marxinthatrole,andastheauthorofRomeandJerusalem(1862),animportanttextinthemakingofmodernZionism.AnotherwriterlooselyattachedtothegroupwasthePolishnoblemanAugustvonCieszkowski(181494)whocametoBerlinin1832andwhoseProlegomenazurHistoriosophie(1838)
-
attractedinterestthen,andagainrecently,bycarryingYoungHegelianpositionsbeyondphilosophytoademandthatpracticalaction,'spontaneous,willedandfree',beappliedtochangetheworld.
IntimationsofthescandaltobecausedbytheYoungHegeliansandofthe
-
potentiallyradicalimplicationsoftheHegelianmethodwerefirstgivenbythepublication,anonymously,in1830,ofLudwigFeuerbach's
-
Index
TheEditorsandPublishersaregratefultoMaryNorriswhocompiledtheindex.Pagereferencestomajorentriesonasubjectare
-
inboldtype.
A
absolutemonarchy43,193
inEngland2,73
inFrance
-
2,5,167,168,215
absolutism(seealsodespotism;totalitarianism)13,126,1678,194,294,
369
action20,134,184,366
ActionFranaise98,328
Acton,JohnEmerich
-
Dalberg,Lord34,286
Adams,John45
Adorno,Theodor5,106,107,315,388
Aemilianus,PubliusScipioseeScipioAemilianus,Publius
-
agrariancommunism867,284,394
agriculture81,84,3723
inRussia2701
AlaricII448
Alembert,JeanleRondd'
-
5,91,167,168,345
Algeria58,147
alienation68,279,381,467,553
Marxon60,320
rightsand4434
-
Althusius,Johannes89,379,522
Althusser,Louis910,325,399
altruism,inHegel197
Ambrose,St2589
AmericaseeUnitedStates
-
ofAmerica
AmericanDeclarationofIndependence
3,223,254,291
AmericanRevolution20,1602,437
Burkeon50,53
FrenchEnlightenment
-
and1689
influenceonBritishradicals
416
republicanismand435
Ammon,Otto415
-
Anabaptists10,55,4245
anarchism1014,289,290,350,486,
535
Bakuninand334
communismand87
-
Godwinand1778
Kropotkinand2701
pacifismand363
politicalobligationand381
Proudhonand
-
4067
Tolstoyon524
ancientconstitution14,51,283,417
animalrights1416,445,532
anomie16,129,279
-
Anscombe,Elizabeth259
Apel,Karl-Otto108
Aquinas,Thomas1619,216,259,261,333,
429
architecture,Ruskinon460
-
Arendt,Hannah1921,29,209,541
mentioned108,117,118,279,351,388,
436,441,525
aristocracy4,43,46,186,193,339
Aristotleon22
-
attackson215,365,370,371,438
Burkeon52
Aristotle214,1812,218,220,429,
504
oncitizenship74
-
ondespotism120
onjustice127,136
onrevolutions437
mentioned16,27,115,138,155,193,198,201,254,261,318,334,344,376,434,502,515
-
Arnauld,Antoine175
Arnold,Matthew327,514
Aron,Raymond209,464
Arrow,Kenneth117,3845
arts
-
109,110,190,265,315,317,460,524
assassination13,541
associations889,360,520
political416
religious
-
94
typesof8
Athens182,375,489,490
atomism240,382
atomization46,320
-
Augustine,St,BishopofHippo17,247,68,115,2189,
329,479
andjustwar258,259
andprogress402
Aurelius,Marcus452
-
Austin,John278,38,309,369,370,494
Australia
federalstateof151
separationofpowersin473
Austria,liberalcorporatismin
-
104
authority2831,34,47,74,92,107,
108,156,284
(seealsopower)
anarchismand1011,178
inChristianthought319,425,426,427
-
elitismand131
inIslamicthought250
Lockeon217,293
Nietzscheon357
-
TheBlackwellEncyclopaediaofPoliticalThought
EditedbyDavidMiller
-
AdvisoryEditorsJanetColemanWilliamConnollyAlanRyan
-
Contents
Preface
vii
-
ListofContributors
ix
EditorialNotes
xiii
TheBlackwellEncyclopaediaofPoliticalThought
-
1
Index
555
-
MichaelH.CrawfordMHCUniversityCollegeLondon
AlfonsoJ.DamicoAJDUniversityofFlorida
MarkDavieMDUniversityofExeter
-
R.W.DaviesRWDUniversityofBirmingham
GraemeDuncanGCDNewcastlePolytechnic
RobertEccleshallRREQueen'sUniversityofBelfast
-
DanielEilonDEUniversityofWarwick
JeanBethkeElshtainJBEVanderbiltUniversity
JosephV.FemiaJVFUniversityofLiverpool
MosesFinleyMIF
-
MurrayForsythMGFUniversityofLeicester
ElizabethFox-GenoveseEFEmoryUniversity
MichaelS.FreedenMSFMansfieldCollege,Oxford
R.G.FreyRGFBowlingGreenStateUniversity,Ohio
-
RichardB.FriedmanRBFStateUniversityofNewYorkatBuffalo
RuthGavisonRGHebrewUniversityofJerusalem
IreneL.GendzierILGBostonUniversity
-
NormanGerasNGUniversityofManchester
-
PatrickRileyPRUniversityofWisconsin
AlanRitterAIRTrinityCollege,Hartford,Connecticut
JohnC.RobertsonJCR
-
StHugh'sCollege,Oxford
F.RosenFRUniversityCollegeLondon
NancyL.RosenblumNLRBrownUniversity
AlanRyanARPrincetonUniversity
-
LymanTowerSargentLTSUniversityofMissouri,StLouis
DavidLewisSchaeferDLSCollegeoftheHolyCross,Massachusetts
GordonJ.SchochetGJSRutgersUniversity
MortonSchoolmanMS
-
StateUniversityofNewYorkatAlbany
R.AndrewSharpRASUniversityofAuckland
JeremyShearmurJSGeorgeMasonUniversity
-
GarrettW.SheldonGSUniversityofVirginia
L.A.SiedentopLASKebleCollege,Oxford
G.W.SmithGWSUniversityofLancaster
JohnStanleyJLSUniversityofCalifornia,Riverside
-
PeterG.SteinPGSQueens'College,Cambridge
-
community;legally,asovereigncouldnotberesistedordeposed.Sovereigntyisabsoluteandindivisible.Eithertheprinceofanindependentstateisabsolute,orelseheissubjecttosomeotherpowersuchastheestates,whichisthensovereign.
-
AmoretheologicalversionofabsolutisttheorywasthatofBishopBossuet,acontemporaryofLouisXIV.BossuetcombinedtraditionalscripturalandmetaphoricalconceptswithnewerjuridicalandHobbesianarguments.ApplyingamodeofthoughtlongfamiliarinFrance,Bossuettreated
-
thekingasplacedbyGodinapositiontoadvancethepublicinterest,aswellastoprotecthumblesubjectsfromlocaltyrants.Suchfunctionsrequireapowerfulcentralauthority.BossuetwentontoclaimforthekinginthestatethesamepositionasthatheldbyGodintheuniverse.AHobbesianargumentwasaddedbyBossuetwhenheclaimed
-
thateveryoneinthestategainssecuritybysurrenderingtothesovereignallindividualrights.Themonarchy,likeGod,isbothconstitutiveanddirective;italonepreservesthepeoplefromanarchy.Bossuetmultipliedmoralinjunctionstotheking:heshouldruleinwaysatoncebeneficentanddisinterested;heshould
-
followestablishedlaw;heshouldrememberthatGodwilljudgehim.
Although'absolutism'wasanineteenth-centurycoinageinEnglish,thetermabsolutewashotlydisputedinsixteenth-andseventeenth-centurypoliticalandlegaldiscussionsofabsolutemonarchy.InTudor
-
EnglandSirThomasSmithcouldusethewordabsoluteinbothpejorativeandlaudatorysenses.HeblamedLouisXIforchangingFrancefroma'lawfulandregularraigne'to'absoluteandtyrannicalpowerandgovernment'.ButSmithproudlyascribedtoParliament'themosthighandabsolutepoweroftherealmofEnglande'(seeDaly,pp.
-
2289).
AmbiguitiesinTudorpoliticalusesof'absolute'gavewayintheseventeenthcenturytosharplyfocuseddisagreementsduringtheCivilWarandafter.Parliamentarywritersequatedabsolutepowerwithtyrannyororientaldespotism.Theyrefused
-
toallowthatthekinghadanyabsoluterighttoobedience.SamuelRutherfordwrotethat'anabsoluteunlimitedmonarchy...istheworstformofgovernment'(seeDaly,p.237).
AlthoughCivilWarroyalistwritersagreedaboutthepowersofthekingtheydidnotall
-
concurindescribingthesepowersasabsolute.SomewhoheldthatEnglandwasamonarchylimitedbylawdeniedthatthekinghadarbitrarypowertolegislateathis'willandpleasure'.EvenHenryFerne,whenarguingforcompleteandpassiveobedience,deniedthatnon-resistanceimpliedabsolutemonarchy:'Itisnotthedenialof
-
resistancethatmakesamonarchabsolute,butthedenialofalawtoboundhiswill'.Otherroyalisttheorists,aftertheRestoration,arguedthattheking'spowerswereabsoluteinthesensethattheycouldnotbelimitedbylaw.
Thetwobest-knowntheoriststoarguethatthe
-
king'spowerswerebothabsoluteandarbitrarywereHobbesandFilmer,bothofwhomappliedBodin'stheoryofsovereigntytoEngland.Hobbesascribedexclusive,unlimited,andirresistiblepowertothe'absolutesovereign',whetherkingorassembly.Healsotriedtoremovethedistinctionbetweenlimitedandabsolute
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monarchybydenyingthattyrannymeantanythingmorethanmonarchydisliked.
Hobbes'stheoryofsovereigntywassharedbySirRobertFilmer,whoalmostaloneamongroyalistswentontodescribethemonarchyasarbitraryinthesensethatthekingcoulddo
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whateverhewished.Thiswentbeyonddenyingthatanylegallimitationcouldbeplaceduponthesovereign,orthepositiveassertionthatthekingcouldexercisepowersbelongingtohim.Filmer,likeHobbes,deniedthattyrannywasameaningfulterm.Filmeralsoidentifiedthepowersofkingswiththoseoffathersasbeingalikenaturaland
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bestowedbyGod.
ThesepositionsofferedopportunitiestoFilmer'sWhigcritics.LOCKEattackedFilmer'sidentificationofabsolutewitharbitrarymonarchyasincompatiblewithcivilsocietyandasnoformofcivilgovernment.Whilefoundamongorientals,suchastheTurks,such
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rulewasdespotic.EnglishmencouldnotacceptwhatFilmeradvocated,describedbyLockeas:
aDivineunalterableRightofSovereignty,wherebyaFatherorPrincehathanAbsolute,Arbitrary,Unlimited,andUnlimitablePower,overtheLives,
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variousdoctrinalpressures,theboundariesoftheconceptofauthorityhaveturnedouttobeelasticafterall,thusopeningoutontoMaxWeber'sprojectevenwithinthe'modern'world.RBF
-
Reading
Arendt,H.:Whatisauthority?InBetweenPastandFuture.ClevelandandNewYork:Viking,1968.
*Flathman,R.:ThePracticeofPoliticalAuthority:AuthorityandtheAuthoritative.Chicago:Universityof
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ChicagoPress,1980.
*Friedrich,C.J.ed.:NomosI:Authority.Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress,1958.
Gadamer,H.-G.:TruthandMethod.NewYork:Continuum,1982.
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Hobbes,T.:Leviathan(1651),ed.C.B.Macpherson.Harmondsworth:Penguin,1968.
Oakeshott,M.:OnHumanConduct.London:ClarendonPress,1975.
Raz,J.:TheAuthorityofLaw.Oxford:ClarendonPress,1979.
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Spinoza,B.:Theologico-politicalTreatise(1670).InTheChiefWorksofBenedictdeSpinoza,vol.I,ed.R.H.M.Elwes.NewYork:Dover,1951.
*Watt,E.D.:Authority.London:CroomHelm,1982.
Weber,M.:TheTheoryof
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SocialandEconomicOrganization(1922),trans.A.R.HendersonandT.Parsons.NewYork:Macmillan,1947.
Wolff,R.P.:InDefenseofAnarchism.NewYork:Harper&Row,1970.
Autonomy
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Literallymeaning'self-rule',autonomyisascribedinpopularpoliticalparlancetoself-governingstates,ortoinstitutionsorgroupswithinstatesthatenjoyasubstantialdegreeofindependenceandinitiative.InpoliticalthoughtthetermisoftennowusedtorefertoanaspectofpersonalFREEDOM.Autonomous
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individualsarethosewhoseendsandpurposesareauthenticallychosen,asopposedtothosewhoallowthemselvestobeconditionedbyexternalforces.But,aswithpositivesensesoffreedomgenerally,thecriteriaofauthenticchoicemaybespecifiedindifferentways,andsoitmaybeamatterofdisputewhichpersonsshouldbecounted
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asautonomous.DLM
Reading
Young,R.:PersonalAutonomy:BeyondNegativeandPositiveLiberty.LondonandSydney:CroomHelm,1986.
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literary,political,historicalandeconomicsubjects,withaliterarymannerwhichwasgenial,tolerantandconversational;hisstancewasthatofashrewd,pragmaticmanoftheworldwhounderstoodbusinessandthestolid
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Englishnationalcharacterbutwhoneverthelessunderstoodtheimportance,inthelongrun,oforiginalspeculativeideas.
Bagehot'spoliticalpositionwasthatofanunillusionedconservativeliberalwhovaluedintelligenceandbelievedinprogressbutwhoknew
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thatintelligenceneededtobecomplementedbyrealismandtheabilitytoworkwiththeprejudicesandlimitationsofaveragemankind,andthatprogresswasthereforenecessarilyslow.Itwasaviewwhichreadilyfoundjustificationinthegradualistnotionsof'socialevolution'whichwerebecomingestablishedinhistimeand
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ofwhich,inPhysicsandPolitics,hebecamealeadingexponent.Bagehotwasalsoastrongbelieverinanotherpopularnotionoftheperiod,theimportanceof'nationalcharacter'inpolitics;hesawtheEnglishaspredominantlysluggishandinneedofideastosavethemfromstagnation,theFrenchastoovolatileandlacking
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thestabilityofhabitwhatheprovocativelycalled'stupidity'necessarytoself-government.HisearliestarticleswerewrittenfromParisin1852onthecoupd'tatwhichestablishedtheSecondEmpire;Bagehottooktheline,unpopularwithliberals,thatthecircumstancesjustifiedstrongmeasures,thoughhelaterbecamea
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criticofNapoleonIII'sregime.
InTheEnglishConstitutionBagehotsetouttoattackwhathepresentedastheorthodoxviewofthedivisionofpowersbetweenexecutiveandlegislature.Infactthisviewwasalreadyold-fashionedandBagehot'srevisionwasnotquiteas
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originalasheclaimed,butitwashewhogavedefinitiveformtotheneworthodoxy.HearguedthatexecutiveandlegislaturewerecloselylinkedbytheCabinet,whichwasessentiallyacommitteeoftheHouseofCommons.ThenewinterpretationthatBagehotproposedwasadistinctionbetweenthe'efficient'and'dignified'partsofthe
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constitution.TheefficientpartwastheHouseofCommonswiththeCabinetasitsexecutivearm,themonarchyandtheHouseofLordschieflybelongedtothedignifiedpart;thefunctionoftheformerwastoconductbusiness,thatofthelattertoprovidestabilitybytheimpressionitmadeonthepopularmind.
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InPhysicsandPoliticsBagehottriedtoadaptmodernbiologicaltheories,notablytheDarwinianstruggleforexistenceandphysiologicalexplanationsofhabitualandreflexbehaviour,toanaccountofhumanhistorysignificantlyderivedfromHenryMAINEandfromGeorgeGrote'sHistoryof
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Greece(seeSOCIALDARWINISM).Bagehotarguedthatprogressrequiredbothstabilityandinnovation.Stabilitywasproducedchieflybythepowerfulinfluencesofimitationandhabit,whichcoordinatedsocialbehaviorina'cakeofcustom',butthestruggleforexistencebetweensocietiesalsoattachedadvantagestosomekinds
-
ofinnovation.Abalancebetweenthetwowastheideal,andinthelateststageofhumanhistory,'theageofdiscussion',innovation,insteadofbeingaccidental,becomesthesubjectofrationalscrutiny.Liberalconstitutionalismisthereforepresentedasthelateststageofhistoricaldevelopmentandthebestguaranteeofcontinued
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orderlyprogress.JWB
Reading
Bagehot,W.:CollectedWorks,ed.N.StJohn-Stevas.London:TheEconomist,1965.[Vol.VcontainsTheEnglishConstitution,vol.VIIPhysicsandPolitics.]
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:TheEnglishConstitution.London:Collins,1963.
:PhysicsandPolitics.Boston,Mass.:Beacon,1956.
Buchan,A.:TheSpareChancellor:thelifeofWalterBagehot.London:Chatto&Windus,1959.
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*StJohn-Stevas,N.:WalterBagehot:astudyofhislifeandthought,togetherwithaselectionfromhiswritings.London:Eyre&Spottiswoode,1959.
Bakunin,Michael(18141876)
Russiananarchist.
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BakuninwasinfluencedinhisearlyyearsbyHEGEL,butonvisitingGermanyduring183941heabsorbedthemoreradicalideasoftheYOUNGHEGELIANS.DuringthenexttwodecadeshewaschieflyinvolvedinpropagatingthecauseofSlavnationalism.Imprisonedbythetsarfrom1851to1857,hereturnedtoWestern
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Europeinthe1860s,andpassedtheremainderofhislifeasanagitatorandpropagandistforANARCHISM.Famousforhisintriguesandthesecretsocietiesthathewas
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Burke'sdefenceoftheAmericanrevolutionariesissometimesseenassurprisinginviewofhislaterattackontheFrench.However,BurkesawtheAmericans'claimsasbasedonthetraditionalandpositiverightsofEnglishmentoreject
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taxationwithoutrepresentation,andnot,aswastobethecasewiththeFrench,rootedinabstractionssuchasthe'naturalrightsofmen'.WherehefoundAmericanshavingrecoursetospeculativepoliticalarguments,heroundlydeprecateditastheconsequenceoftheirmisgovernment.
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Burke'sreputationreacheditszenithinthenineteenthcentury,buthehascontinuedtoprovideinspirationforconservativeswellintothesecondhalfofthetwentieth.Awiderangeofinterpretativeliteraturecharacterizeshiminvariousways,fromakindofintuitiveandconservativeutilitarian,
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throughaproto-romantictoanessentiallylegalisticthinker.Sincethesecondworldwarthelegalisticschoolhasdominated,thoughsomehistorianscontinuetotrytoformulateatheoreticallyrespectable'pragmatic'Burke.
Burke'suseoflegalterminologyis
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everywhereabundant,butwhetherheshouldbeseenpredominantlyinthecommonornaturallawtraditionisunclear,asistheparticularhistoricaltwistthathegivestoboththesepatternsofthought.FutureworkonBurkebyhistoriansofpoliticalthoughtmaywellinvolvereassessinghisrelationshipwiththeSCOTTISHENLIGHTENMENT
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school,notablySMITHandHume,onwhommuchworkhasrecentlybeendone.ScholarsapproachingBurkefromliteraryfieldshavefocusedonhisstyleratherthanonthesubstanceoftheargumentsheuses.AsatisfactoryinterpretativesynthesismaywellresultfromviewingBurkeasprimarilyarhetorician,whodreweclecticallyon
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thefullrangeofargumentscongenialtohisaudience.IWH-M
Reading
Boulton,TJ.:TheLanguageofPoliticsintheAgeofWilkesandBurke.London:Routledge&KeganPaul;Toronto:Uni