Download - Flight Instructor Guide Whiteboard Layouts
CirCuit trainingBasiC ConCepts
2. Airmanship• Checktherightofwayrules• Checktheaerodromechart• Checkwindsockforwind
• AlwayscarryaVol4andaerodromechart• Radiocommunication
ObjectiveUsetheaircraftcontrolscorrectlytomanoeuvretheaircraftonthegroundataspeedappropriatefortheprevailingconditionsandsituation,followingaselectedpathandstoppingatanominatedpoint.
3. Aeroplane Management• Don’tusepowerVs.brakes• Seatpositionedforfullrudderdeflectionandheight• Enginewarmbeforemoving• Brakechecksoonafterfirstmoving• CarbheatONonlyforchecks• Faceintowindwhenstopped• Taxioncentreline• Watchforwingtipclearance• Noreverseavailable• Caution,surfaceconditions
5. Ground Exercise• Seatisadjustedandcomfortable• Onceengineiswarm,useenoughpowertoovercomeinertia• Testbrakesaftermovingoff• Maintainsafetaxispeed–fastwalkingpace• Maintainthecentreline(ifapplicable)• Turnusingtherudderpedalstoturnthenosewheel• Takeaccountofthewind,andthechangeinthewindasyouturn
• Wingtipclearancecanbejudgedusingshadows• Cautionslipstreamandjetblastfromotheraircraft• Slipstream(theairblownbackbythepropeller),canblowobjectsandpeoplearoundbehindyou
• Duringthetaxiandwhileturning,checkinstruments• Stopbyapplyingthetoebrakes• Applyparkbrake
4. Human Factors• Cleanwindscreen• Moveheadandbodytoavoidblindspots
1. ConsiderationsSpeed ControlThrottle controls speed. Forward is more power, and rearwards is less power• Morepowerisrequiredtogetstartedandovercomeinertia
Minimum power setting• Taxispeedisaffectedbysurface,slope,wind,andpowerused• Shouldbeafastwalkingpace–5to10km/h• Mayneedoccasionalgentle(cadence)brakingtomaintainthetaxispeedwhilemaintainingtherecommendedpowersetting
Speed = fast walking pace• Stopbyclosingthethrottleandusingthetoebrakestocometoahalt• Parkbrakeissetbyholdingdownthetoebrakesandengagingthelever
Directional Control• Nosewheelsteeringisachievedbyusingtherudderpedals,pushontheleftrudderandtheaeroplaneturnsleftandviceversa
• Windaffectsthespeedacrosstheground.Tailwindmakesyougofaster,headwindslower,andcrosswindwillpushthetailandmaketheaeroplaneturnintowind
• Makesureyoulookatapointinthedistance,notonejustaheadoftheaeroplane
Control Positioning • CompletedetailsareintheFlightManual• Aimtodeflectthecontrolsurfacethatwillbeaffectedbythewind,sothewindcannot‘pickitup’.
• Windfrombehind–controlcolumnforward(elevatordeflecteddownwards),aileronsneutral• Windfromahead–noelevatordeflectionneeded• Windfromtheleft–controlcolumnleft(leftaileronraised)• Windfromtheright–controlcolumnright(rightaileronraised)• Combinationoftheabovewhenwindisquartering.Forexample,windfromtheleftandbehind–controlcolumnforwardandleft.
taxiing
CirCuit trainingBasiC ConCepts
2. Airmanship• “Ihavecontrol/youhavecontrol”• “followmethrough”• Seeandbeseen• Clockcode,relativeheight/distance
• Horizonismainreference• Landfeatures• I’MSAFE
ObjectivesTooperatetheprimarycontrolsurfacesandtoexperiencethefeelandobservethefirstaerodynamiceffectontheaircraftinflight.
Tooperatetheprimarycontrolsurfacesandobservethefurther(orsecondary)aerodynamiceffectsontheaircraftinflight.
Tooperatetheancillarycontrolsandtoexperiencethefeelandobservetheeffectontheaircraftinflight.
3. Aeroplane Management• Enginecontrols
• throttle• mixture• carbheat• temperaturesandpressures
• Flapspeed–whitearc• Preflightinspection
5. Air ExerciseTaxipractice
Attitude• Attitudeflyingbyreferencingnoseandwingstothehorizon
Controls
Axis Control Input 1st Effect 2nd Effect Use
Lateral Elevator ControlColumn forward rearward
Pitch down up
– AttitudeandAirspeed
Longitudinal Aileron ControlColumn right left
Roll right left
Slip–Yaw Direction
Normal Rudder RudderPedals left right
Yaw left right
Skid–Roll Balance
Airspeed• Increasedairspeed–increasedcontrolfeel,responserate,movementneeded
• Decreasedairspeed–decreasedcontrolfeel,responserate,movementneeded
Power• Decreaseinpowergnosepitchdownandyawright• Increaseinpowergnosepitchupandyawleft• Mustbalancewithrudder
Flap• Extendingflapgincreaseinliftanddraggpitchchange–trimchangerequired• Retractingflapgdecreaseinliftanddraggpitchchange–aeroplanewillsink
4. Human Factors• Limitationsonlookout• Limitationsofmemory• Morecomfortablewithpractice/workload• Uncoordinatedlessonbynature
1. Principles of FlightOn the Ground• Controlspeedwiththrottleandbrakes• Onehandoncontrolcolumnandotheronthrottle• Dualcontrolsfitted
Aeroplane Axes
Primary Controls• Elevatorpitchesaeroplane–changingattitude• Aileronrollsaeroplane–changingdirection• Rudderyawsaeroplane–balancedflight• Slipstreamstrikesrudderandelevator
Ancillary Controls• Throttleaffectsspeed,directconnectiontopropeller• Trimtabsprovideaforcetoholdprimarycontrols• Flapchangesshapeofwing,increaseslift,drag,andL/Dratio–changespitch,trimchangerequired
Inertia• Tendencyforbodytoremainincurrentstate–inspeedordirection
Slipstream• Increasedpowergincreasedslipstream• Increasedflowoverelevatorgmoreeffectivecontrol(notapplicabletoTomahawks)
• Strikesruddergyaw• Mustbalancewithrudder
Trim• Torelievethepressure• Ifholdingbackpressure–trimbackwards• Ifholdingforwardpressure–trimforwards
effects of Controls
Lift• Asairflowsoverthewing,increasedspeedabovethewingresultsinreducedpressure=Lift
• Liftcanbealteredbychangingtheshapeofthewing,theangleofattack,andtheairspeed
CirCuit trainingBasiC ConCepts
2. Airmanship• Lookout• SituationalAwareness,trainingareaboundaries,clearofcloud• “Ihavecontrol/youhavecontrol”
ObjectivesToestablishandmaintainstraightandlevelflight,ataconstantairspeed,constantaltitude,inaconstantdirection,andinbalance.
Toregainstraightandlevelflight.
Tomaintainstraightandlevelflightatselectedairspeedsorpowersettings.
3. Aeroplane Management• Smooththrottlemovements• Mixturerich• Carbheat
5. Air Exercise• Horizon• Powersetting• Attitudeforlevel
Establishing Straight and LevelPower setforstraightandlevel
Attitude elevator setnose attitude aileron wingslevel relativetohorizon rudder inbalance noyaw–standontheball
Trim torelievepressure–handsoff
Maintaining Straight and LevelLookout ahead
Attitude fourfingers
Instruments toconfirm–notset Altimeter,DI,TC,RPMcheckedeverytime Otherinstrumentsandgauges,lessfrequently
Regaining Straight and Level1. Airspeedandpowersettingcorrect2. Attitudecorrectforstraightandlevel3. Wingslevelandbalanceballcentred4. Resetpower5. PAT
Straight and Level at Different Airspeeds• Anychangesinpowermustbebalancedwithrudder• Whilemovingrudderwingsmustbekeptlevel
4. Human Factors• Blindspots• Newlearningconsistentlyreinforcedinlaterlessons
1. Principles of Flight• Thehorizonisthelinewheretheseameetsthesky• Allflyingreferencestheaeroplane’snosewiththehorizon
The Four Forces• Lift,Weight,Thrust,Drag• EquilibriumwhenLift=WeightandThrust=Drag
• Forcesdon’tactthroughthesamepointgmomentarmsgcouple
• LiftandWeightcouplebalancedbytailplaneforce
• ChangesinThrustgpitchchanges
Lift• Airoverthetopacceleratescomparedtoairpassingunderthewing
• L=CL½ V2S• L=AngleofattackxAirspeed
• Angleofattackalteredwithelevator
Performance• Power+Attitude=Performance
straight and Level
Power + Attitude = Performance
Power 2200 1800 2500
Airspeed 80–90knots 60knots 110knots
Attitude Normal High Low
CirCuit trainingBasiC ConCepts
2. Airmanship• Situationalawareness–whatwas,is,andwillbe• VFRMetminima• Minimumandmaximumheights• Lookout–restrictions• I’MSAFE
ObjectivesToentertheclimbandthedescentfromstraightandlevelflight.
Tomaintainaclimbandadescentataconstantspeed,constantrate,inaconstantdirectionandinbalance.
Toleveloffatspecificaltitudes.
3. Aeroplane Management• Smooththrottlemovements• Mixturerich• CarbheatHOTfordescent• Temperaturesandpressures
5. Air ExerciseClimbing
Entry
Power mixtrich,fullpower,balanceAttitude climbattitude,wingslevel,balanceTrim tomaintainattitude
Airspeed= RoC= Airspeedcontrolledwithattitude
Maintaining Lookout Attitude Instruments
Change–check–hold–trim
Exit
Attitude selectandholdS+Lattitude,adjustas speedincreases,balancePower waitforaeroplanetoaccelerate,thenset cruisepower,balanceTrim toholdS+Lattitude
4. Human Factors• Trappedgasesinears• Diving• Emptyskymyopia• Noise
1. Principles of FlightClimbing• Aeroplaneisinequilibriumwhenclimbing• Liftisnotincreased• T must be greater than D• Rateofclimb(climbperformance)dependsonexcesspoweravailable
Climb PerformancePower Morepowerbetter climbperformanceAltitude LimitstheperformanceWeight hweight–irateofclimbFlap hdrag–irateofclimbWind Affectsclimbangleand distanceinclimb
Descending• Aeroplaneisinequilibriumwhendescending• Flyingspeedmaintainedbyloweringnoseattitude• FCWbalancesD
Descent PerformancePower ControlsrateofdescentL/D ratio Efficiencyofwing,steepnessofglideWeight hweighthFCW–hspeeddownslopeFlap NeedshFCWtobalanceD– hrateofdescentWind Affectsdescentangleandrange
Climb Configurations
Performance Power Attitude
BestRoC Full kts
BestAoC kts
Cruise kts
Recommended kts
Descent Configurations
Performance Power AttitudeGlide Idle kts
Powered kts
Cruise kts
Descending
Entry
Power mixtrich,carbheatHOT,closethrottle,balanceAttitude holdS+Lattitudeuntilglidespeed,thenset glideattitudeTrim tomaintainattitude
Airspeed= RoD= Airspeedcontrolledwithattitude
Maintaining Lookout Attitude Instruments
Change–check–hold–trim
Exit
Attitude carbheatCOLD,increasepower,balancePower waitforaeroplanetoaccelerate,thenset cruisepower,balanceTrim toholdS+Lattitude
Climbing and Descending
CirCuit trainingBasiC ConCeptsMedium, Climbing and Descending turns
2. Airmanship• 20°per2secondscantechnique• LookoutandListenout• SA–360°turns,position,altitude,weather• VFRminima,5–2–1
ObjectivesTochangedirectionthrough360degreesataconstantrate–using30degreesangleofbank–whilemaintainingaconstantaltitudeandkeepingtheaeroplaneinbalance.
Tocompleteamediumturnwhileclimbingandwhiledescending.
3. Aeroplane Management• Smoothandpositivethrottlemovements• Carbheat
5. Air ExerciseAdverse Yaw• Demonstrationonly
EntryMedium Level Turn• FromS+L• Lookout• Rollwithaileronto30°AoB• Balancewithrudder• Backpressuretosetattitude–hslightly
Climbing Turn• Establishinclimb• Lookout• Rollwithaileronto15°AoB• Balancewithrudder• Relaxbackpressuretomaintainattitude–i
Descending Turn• Establishinglide• Lookout• Rollwithaileronto30°AoB• Balancewithrudder• Relaxbackpressuretomaintainattitude–i
In Turn• ‘Check’theaileronsandmaintainbalance• Lookout• Attitude• Instruments• Angleofbankcontrolledwithaileron• Altitudecontrolledwithbackpressure
Exit• Lookforreferencepoint• Anticipaterolloutbyhalftheangleofbank• Rollwingslevel• Balancewithrudder
• Relaxbackpressure• ResetS+Lattitude• CheckPAT
4. Human Factors• 360°turnstominimisedisorientation
• Turningsensation
1. Principles of Flight• Inordertoturnneedtocreateaforcetowardsthecentreoftheturn–banktheaeroplane• HCLprovidestheforce• VCLreduced\moreLrequiredgincreaseangleofattackslightly
Adverse Yaw• hLonupgoingwing,alsomeanshDiyawawayfromturn
• Ruddertobalanceyawasaileronsdeflected–neutral
Overbanking• Outerwingtravelsfurther, moreL,triestokeeprolling
• Holdoffbankwithaileron
Performance• Whenclimbingandturning,angleofbankmustbereducedMaximumof20°,use15°
CirCuit trainingBasiC ConCepts
2. Airmanship• 20°/2secondscan• HASELLchecks• Aeroplanepositionintrainingarea• Warningsymptomsofapproachingstall
H Height Notlessthan2500feetabovegroundlevel
A Airframe Configuration–cleanorflap
S Security Noloosearticles,harnessessecure
E EngineTs&Ps Temperaturesandpressuresnormal,mixturerich,fuelsufficientandonfullest
L Locality Notoverapopulatedareaandclearofknowntrafficareas,includingairfields
L Lookout One180-degree,ortwo90-degree,clearingturnstoensureothertrafficwillnotresultinconflict
ObjectivesToslowtheaeroplaneandmaintainstraightandlevelatlowairspeed(1.2VS).
Tomaintainstraightandlevelatlowairspeedinvariousconfigurations.
Tomaintainaconstantaltitudewhileturningatlowairspeed.
Toreturntonormaloperatingairspeeds.
3. Aeroplane Management• Smoothbutpositivethrottleandcontrolmovements• Carbheat• Engineoperatingtemperatures• Useofflap–powerrequirements
5. Air ExercisePower + Attitude = Performance
Slowing to S + L at Low Airspeed• Power reducetodecelerate• Attitude increasesasaeroplaneslows–maintainlevel• Trim torelievebackpressure• Adjustpowertomaintainheight• Airspeed=
Maintaining S + L at Low Airspeed• Lookout• Attitude• Instruments
Turning at Low Airspeed• Tomaintainlevel,Liftmusth,Dragwillh,morepowerrequired• Adverseyawcounteredwithrudder• Aileronswillneedtobedeflectedmoreforsamerollrate• Balancewithrudder
Returning to Cruise• Power increasetofullpower,balancewithrudder• Attitude lowernosetolevelattitude• Trim torelievepressure• Reducetocruisepower,balancewithrudder
• Lookout• Attitude• Instruments
4. Human Factors• Highlevelofconcentration• Unfamiliarhighnoseattitudes
1. Principles of FlightPower + Attitude = Performance• L=AngleofAttackxAirspeed• Asairspeeddecreasesangleofattackmustincreasetomaintainlevel
• Highnoseattitude+littleextrapowerrequired
• Flytheaeroplaneataslowspeed,butabovethestall–nextlesson
• Lesscontroleffectiveness–largerinputsrequired
• Slipstreameffectsless–maintainbalance• Mediumlevelturns–needadditionalpower
slow Flight
CirCuit trainingBasiC ConCepts
2. Airmanship• Nopax• Awarenessofaircraftconfiguration,positionandothertraffic
• HASELLchecks• HELLchecks• Recognisesymptoms
ObjectivesTocontroltheaeroplanetothepointofstall,recognisethesymptomsoftheapproachingstall,experiencethestallitself,andrecoverwithminimumheightloss.
Tocontroltheaeroplanetothepointofstall,recognisethesymptomsoftheapproachingstall,andrecoveratstallonsetwithminimumaltitudeloss.
3. Aeroplane Management• Smoothbutpositivethrottleandcontrolmovements• Preflight–nolooseobjects• Carbheatuse
5. Air ExerciseEntry• HASELLchecksandreferencepoint(high)• CarbheatHOT• Closethrottle• Keepstraightwithrudder• Maintainaltitudewithhbackpressure• Through kts(orstallwarningsounds),carbheatCOLD
Symptoms• Lowandiairspeed• Highnoseattitude• Lesseffectivecontrols–higherstickforces• Stallwarning–iffitted
• Buffet(turbulentairfromwingstrikingtailplane)• Controlcolumnwillbefullyback–nofurthercontrolmovement
At the Stall• Aeroplanesinksandnosepitchesdown
RecoveryTo Unstall• Checkforwardwithcontrolcolumntoreduceangleofattack
• Donotuseailerons• Aeroplanewilldescend• RecovertoS+LwithPAT
To Minimise Height Loss – max of 100’• Power + Attitude = Performance• Unstall,asabove,checkforward• Applyfullpower–balancewithrudder• Raisenosetothehorizon(stopssinkandallowsacceleration)• Accelerateto kts,thenadjustattitudetomaintainspeed• RegainstartingaltitudeandS+L
Recovery at Onset• Normalsituation–whennottraining• Recoveratstallwarning/buffet• Heightloss–50’maximum
4. Human Factors• Morepracticeandexposurethebetter• Plentyoftimebetweenstallstoorientate• Sickbags
1. Principles of Flight• L=AngleofAttackxAirspeed• Smoothairflowoverthewingbreaksdownandbecomesturbulent• Breaksawayfromuppersurface,aeroplanesinks,nosepitchesdown
At the Stall• WhenthewingstallsthereisaiinLandlargehinD
• Aeroplanesinks,CofPmovesrearwardsgpitchdown
H Height
A Airframe
S Security
E EngineTs&Ps
L Locality
L Lookout
Basic stalling
CirCuit training
2. Airmanship• ATC/Traffic • Checklists • RightofWayrules
U Undercarriage Downandlocked
B Brakes Brakepressurechecked,parkbrakeoff
M Mixture Mixturerich
F Fuel Fuelonfullesttank,fuelpumpon,pressurechecked
H Harnesses&Hatches Seatbeltsecureanddoors\canopyclosed
ObjectivesTotakeoffandfollowpublishedproceduresthatconformtotheaerodrometrafficcircuit,avoidingconflictwithotheraircraft.
Tocarryoutanapproachandlandingusingthemostsuitablerunway.
3. Aeroplane Management
S Suction Suctiongaugeoperatinginthegreenrange
A Amps/Alternator Alternatorfunctioningcorrectly
D Di DIsynchronisedtocompassandfunctioningcorrectly
I Ice Carbicecheckedforandcarbheatappliedifrequired
E Engine Temperaturesandpressuresareingreenrange
5. Air Exercise1 Takeoff
• Referencepointandlineupchecks
• Holdonbrakes• Keepstraight
2 Climb Out• Separation • Aftertakeoffchecks • Turnat500’agl
3 Crosswind• Trackingandlookout
4 Downwind• Downwindradiocall
• Checks• Spacing
5 Base Turn• Lookout• Referencepoint• CarbheatHOT
• Powerreducedto
• Turn
• Airspeed • Flap–firststage
6 Base Leg• Track • Flap–
furtherstage(s)• Attitudecontrolsairspeed
7 Final• Anticipateturn–500’
• Aimpoint
• Attitudecontrolsairspeed
• PowercontrolsRoD
• ShortfinalcarbheatCOLD
8 Landing• Landingassured,closethrottle
• At50’noseprogressivelyraisedforroundout/flare
• Lookdownendofrunway
• Progressivelyincreasebackpressuretocontrolsink
• Touchdownonmainwheels
• Letnosewheelsettle
• Keepstraight• After-landingchecks–clearofrunway
4. Human Factors• Landingcues• Workload/priorities
1. ConsiderationsTakeoff
Slipstream Strikestailandyawsaeroplane
Torque Triestorotateaeroplaneandyawsaeroplane
Keeping straight Withrudderasrequired–lookahead
Crosswind Triestoweathercockaeroplane,keepstraight
Headwind Reducestakeoffroll–alwaystakeoffintowind
Tailwind Increasestakeoffroll
Climb angle Headwindincreasesclimbangle
Takeoff into wind Tominimisegroundrollanddistanceto50’
Power Fullpowerformaximumperformance
Flap Usuallynotused
Runway length Calculatedlengthrequiredfortakeoff
Landing
Wind Intowindtoreducegroundrollanddistancefrom50’
Flap hLandD,lowerspeedandlowernoseattitude
Power ControlsRoD,moreairflowoverelevatorandrudder
Brakes Ongroundonly
Runway length Calculatedlengthrequiredforlanding
Circuit introduction
CirCuit training
2. Airmanship• Aviate–Navigate–Communicate• ATCclearances• VFRminimainCTZ
ObjectivesTocontinuecircuittraining.
Tousethetouchandgoandgoaroundprocedures.
Tousethetermsandproceduresemployedwhenadeviationfromthenormalcircuitisrequired.
3. Aeroplane Management• SADIEchecks
5. Air ExerciseTouch and Go• Oncenosewheelonrunway,raiseflapandapplyfullpower.
• Keepstraight• Takeoff
Go Around• Carryoutanytimeasafelandingcannotbemade• Aviate – Navigate – Communicate• Normalprocedure,notemergency• CarbheatCOLD• Fullpower–bewareofpitchchange• Nosetolevelattitude
• Reducefromfullflap• Asspeedincreasesnoseonthehorizon• Safeheight,safeairspeed,+veRoC–raiseflap• Tracktotherightoftherunway• Continueclimbouttonormalcrosswindturningpoint• AdviseATC“goingaround”
4. Human Factors• Orientationcues
Circuit Considerations
S Suction
A Amps/Alternator
D Di
I Ice
E Engine1. ConsiderationsTouch and Go• Onrunwayswithenoughlengthcanland,retractflapandtakeoffwithoutstopping
• Savestime,candomorecircuits
Go Around / Overshoot• Ifforanyreasonthelandingneedstobeabandoned
• Fullpower,raiseflap,climbahead
Orbit• 360°mediumlevelturn• Usedtoadjustspacingortohold• Commonlydonedownwind
Extend Downwind• Forseparation• Extendthedownwindleg,andturnbasewheninstructed
Repositioning• Usuallydonedownwind,butcanbedoneonanyleg
• Changeofdirectionusedwhenthereisachangeofrunway
Low Level Circuit• 500’,forquickercircuittopracticelandings• Shouldonlybedonewithinstructoronboard
• Doesnotgiveyouautomaticright-of-way
Wind Gradient• Windstrengthdecreasesclosertothegroundbecauseoffriction
• Affectsflare–possiblefloating
Windshear• Suddenchangeinwindspeedand/ordirection
• Windneedstobe10ktsormore• Ifencountersuddendropinairspeedand/oraltitude–GoAround
Wake Turbulence• Disturbedaircausedbywingproducinglift• Aircraftproducesspiralsfromwingtips• Avoidbykeepingsafedistancefromaircraftahead,especiallythosebigger
• Ifencounter–GoAround
Dumb-Bell Turn• Changecircuitdirectionchangeby180°turnonclimbout
Glide Approach• Seeseparatebriefing
CirCuit training
2. Airmanship• Pre-takeoffsafetybrief• Aviate–Navigate–Communicate• “Simulating”• Touchchecks
• AdviseATC/traffic• Troublechecks• Shutdownchecks
ObjectiveToadopttherecommendedprocedureintheeventofanenginefailureatlowlevel(below1000ftagl).
3. Aeroplane Management• Systemsmanagement• Looseobjectsincabin• Smooththrottlemovements• Listenfor‘normal’sounds
5. Air ExerciseAborted TakeoffAviate• Closethrottle
Navigate• Keepstraight,brakeasrequired
Communicate• TellATC/traffic
Engine Failure After TakeoffAviate• Flytheaeroplane–lowernose,closethrottle• CarbheatHOT
Navigate• Chooselandingsitefromanythinginthewindscreen• Flapasrequiredtomakeit
Communicate• MAYDAY• Landintowindandkeepcabinintact
Trouble Checks
F FuelSelectorON,fuelpumpON,changetanks(touch)
M MixtureRICH,carbheatHOT,primerLOCKED
I IgnitionBOTH
Shutdown Checks
F Fuel OFF
M MixtureOFF
I IgnitionOFF
M MasterOFF
4. Human Factors• Learnchecklistsandusemnemonics• Plentyofpracticeavailable• Avoidmindsets–practise,currencyandpre-planning
engine Failure after takeoff
1. Considerations
Cause Prevention
Carbice • Beawareoftempandhumidity• CarbheatHOT• Preflightrun-up
Airblockage • CarbhearHOT–alternateair• Preflightinspection
Fuelcontamination • Waterorsolidparticlesinthefuel• Preflightfuelcheckandsample
Fuelstarvation • Wrongtankselection(orOFF)orfuelpumpproblems• Preflightrun-up
Fuelexhaustion • Runoutoffuel• Preflightplanningandinspection
Spark • Preflightinspectionandrun-up
Aborted Takeoff• Earlyinthetakeoffroll,withrunwayavailable,closethrottle,brakingasrequired,keepstraight
Engine Failure After TakeoffAviate• Lowernose,closethrottle
Navigate• Chooselandingsite,flapdecisions
Communicate• TellATC/traffic
Go Around• Fullpower,keepstraightwithrudder,raisethenoseattitudetothehorizon,climbstraightahead,retractinganyflap,continuingclimbout
Takeoff Safety Brief• IntentionsintheeventofanEFATO
CirCuit training
2. Airmanship• Goodsystemsknowledge • SADIEchecks • Higherapproachspeed
ObjectiveTocarryoutaflaplessapproachandlanding.
3. Aeroplane Management• Smallpowerchangestoadjustapproachpath
5. Air Exercise• Willsimulatelatedownwind• Carryoutagoaroundandpositiondownwind
Downwind• Downwindchecksandradiocall• Assessrunwaylength• Confirmappropriateapproachspeed• Choosepowersettingforapproach• Extenddownwindleg
Base• Lowerpower• Highernoseattitude• Trim• Anticipateturnontofinal
The Approach• Attitudetomaintainhigherapproachspeed• SmallpowerchangestoadjustRoD• Highernoseattitude–lessforwardvisibility• Attitude+Power=Performance
Landing• Lessround-out• Slighthold-off• Donotover-flare–waitfortouchdown• Cautionfloating–mayrequiregoaround
4. Human Factors• Lowernoseattitudecausesillusionandacceleration
Flapless Landings
1. Considerations• Inallcases,whenfacedwiththeunexpected• Aviate – Navigate – Communicate
Flap System• Flapsystemoperatedby • Electricalsystemdiagrammatics
• Flapoperatingsystemdiagrammatics
Detection• Tohelpdetectionofthisfailurebeforegettingairborne
• Thoroughpreflightinspection• Soundsystemsknowledge
• RegularSADIEchecks• Probablywon’tdetectituntilbaseleg• Oncedetected–goaround
Causes• Mechanicallinkagefailure(manualorelectricflap)• Electricflapmotorfailure• Electricalcurrentfailure• Overspeed–shouldneverhappen• AlwayslimitspeedtobelowVFEbeforedeployingflap
Diagnosis• Onceinlevelflight,canthendiagnoseproblem• Checkelectricsforindications–MasterON,CBset,Batteryoutput• Visualcheckforindicationfailure
Procedure• Stallspeedh approachspeedhigher(5kts)• Longerlandingdistance–P-chartshavenodetail
• Lesspowerrequired• Descentangleshallower• Lessvisibilityoverthenose
CirCuit training
2. Airmanship• MakingthecalculationsimprovesSA• Maxcrosswindisarecommendation,butmaybeotherlimits
ObjectivesTocorrectlypositiontheaeroplanecontrolswhiletaxiing.
Tocompensatefordriftthroughoutthecircuit.
Totakeoffandlandincrosswindconditions.
3. Aeroplane Management• Controlpositionongroundwrtwind• Mayneedtousebrakes
5. Air ExerciseTakeoff• Line-up,adjustreferencepointfordrift• Aileronsfullyintowind,elevatorneutral• Duringtakeoffrollreduceailerontoneutralbyrotatepoint
• Liftoffatslightlyhigherspeedthannormal• Afterlift-offmakeagentlebalancedturnintowind
CircuitClimb-out• Wingslevel,inbalance• Adjustheadingtotrackextendedcentreline
Crosswind• Referenceheadingallowsfordrift• Expectsomeheadwindortailwind
Downwind• Allowforwindondownwindturn• Trackparalleltorunway• Assessrunwayanddecideonspeedsandflapsettingtouse• Checkdownwindspacing
Base• Allowfordriftandheadwindortailwind• Extendallthelandingflap• Anticipateturnontofinal
Final• Trackextendedcentreline• Powercontrolsrateofdescent
Landing• Combinationofkickstraightandwingdownmethods
Kick-straight• Crabintowind• Justbeforetouchdown,kickstraight,ailerontokeeponcentreline
Wing-down• Fromshortfinal• Winghelddown,ruddertokeepalignedwithcentreline–Sideslip• Landonintowindwheelfirst
Combination• Crabintowindonfinal• Duringround-outswitchtowingdownmethod,• Ailerontostayalignedwithcentreline,ruddertostaystraight• Intowindwheeltouchesdownfirst
4. Human Factors• AssessingrunwaysuitabilityimprovedADM
Crosswind Circuit
1. ConsiderationsOn the Ground• Aeroplanehastendencytoweathercockintowind
• Positioncontrolstocompensateforwind
On Takeoff• Allowfordrifttotrackalongtherunwaycentreline
In the Circuit• Allowfordriftandheadwind/tailwindoneachleg
• Baselegwillbeaffectedthemost
On Landing• Ascrosswindincreasesamountofflapuseddecreases–toimprovedirectionalcontrol
• Moreairspeedneededifgustyconditions• Needtoconsideroverallsuitabilityofrunwayoncrosswindconditions
Maximum Demonstrated Crosswind• InFlightManual• Limitedbyabilityofruddertocontrolaeroplane• Forthisaeroplaneis kts
Calculating Crosswind Component• NeedW/VfromTAForMETAR• ConvertthedirectiontoMagnetic–applyvariation
Vector Diagram• Needpencil,paper,rulerandprotractor
Flight Manual Graph
Nav Computer
Windsock
Tower
Formula• AngulardifferencebetweenwindandRWY
Plot on watch face• Percentageofdistancearoundwatchfacexwindstrength=X/Wcomponent
• 30°=halfwindstrength,60°=fullwindstrength
CirCuit training
2. Airmanship• Aeroplanesafetyindoubt–goaround• Notautomaticright-of-way
• Nopax• Adjustmentsforslope
ObjectiveTocompletealandingwithoutenginepowerfromthelatedownwindand500-footarea.
3. Aeroplane Management• CarbheatHOT• Noenginewarms
5. Air Exercise• Confirmspacing,configurelatedownwind• Reducepower,maintainheight,carburettorheatearlyandtrim
• 1000-footareaclosethrottlestartbaseturn• Reference1/3aimpointtoabout500ftagl
“Can the 1/3 aim point be easily reached?”
Yes MakemanoeuvrestoreducetheL/Dratio,wherenecessary,insequenceandcombinedtobringthetouchdownpointclosertothethreshold.
No Delaytheapplicationofflapuntiltheanswerisapositiveyes.
4. Human Factors• Highrateofdescent–opticalillusions
glide approach
1. ConsiderationsHeadwind on FinalIfaimpointmovesupwindscreen(undershooting):• Increaseairspeed–betterpenetrationofheadwind
Windshear on Final• Onlymethodavailabletodealwithwindshearistoincreaseairspeed
Moving the Aim PointAssumingthe1/3aimpointcanbereached,movetouchdownpointtowardsyoubychangingL/Dratiousing:
Flap• Increasesdrag
Airspeed• Reducingairspeedcouldleadtostall• Increasingairspeedcanleadtofloatatroundout
S-Turns• Increasesdistance• DecreasesL/Dratio
Sideslip• Aileronandrudderinoppositedirections• Notveryeffectiveinmodernaeroplanes,betterifcombinedwithflap• Someaeroplaneshaveprohibitiononsideslippingwithflap• Caution–maintainairspeed
CirCuit training
2. Airmanship• Vol4,VNC,joiningchecklists• Right-of-wayrules• LOOKOUT,don’trelyonlistenout
ObjectivesTovacateandjointhecircuitinaccordancewithapplicableprocedures.
Tojoinanuncontrolledcircuitinaccordancewiththestandardoverheadjoinprocedure.
3. Aeroplane Management• Speedbelow120kts• landinglighton
5. Air ExerciseVacating• Fromhomebase• From(un)controlledaerodrome
Uncontrolled Aerodrome Joining – Standard JoinStandard Overhead Join• Radiocalltocircuittraffic5–10NMfromaerodrome
• position• altitude• intentions
Approach• Crossoverheadat1500ftaal(ifnootherrestrictions)• Positionaeroplanesoaerodromecanbeseenoutofstudent’swindow
• Lookforothertraffic,windsocks,andgroundsignals/markings
Runway in Use• Lookatwindsocks,andothertrafficestablishedtoestablishcircuitdirection
• Ifcan’ttellcircuitdirectionorbitleftuntilcantell• Watchoutforhelicopterorglidercircuitsgoinginoppositedirections
• Whencircuitdirectionestablished,• allturnsinthatdirection• Identifytrafficandnon-trafficsides
• Positiononnon-trafficside,makeradiocall• Othersalreadyincircuithaverightofway
Descend to Circuit Height• Lowrateofdescent• Crossupwindendofrunwayatcircuitheight• Trackcrosswind–givewaytoaircraftalreadyondownwindleg
• Prelandingchecksbeforedownwind• Downwindcallondownwindleg• Restofcircuitasnormal
Controlled Aerodrome Joining• IAWATCclearanceorinstructions
4. Human Factors• Orientateusingwindsocksandaerodromechart• Relativemovementofsmallobjects• Systematicapproachbest
Vacating and Joining at aerodromes
1. ConsiderationsUncontrolled AerodromesVacating• Climbstraightaheadto1500ft• Viacrosswindordownwind• Climboverhead• Allcanbedonefromcontrolledaerodrome–withclearance
Standard Overhead Join• Used
• Tokeepclearofthecircuituntilsafetojoin• Toobserveothertraffic,includingNORDO• Toidentifycircuitdirection• Todetermineconditionsontheaerodrome–wind,surface,etc• Whenunfamiliarwiththeaerodrome
• CheckAerodromeChartinVol4inpreparation• Terminateflightplanonceontheground
Controlled AerodromesVacating• Sameasuncontrolled,butclearanceisneeded• Couldturnoppositetocircuitdirection–goodlookout
Joining• Canrequestoverheadjoin• Normallyjoindownwind,base,orfinal• Couldalso“Crossoverheadandjoindownwind”• Canrequestjoiningormaybegivenjoininginstructions• Muststillgivewaytothosealreadyincircuit
CirCuit training
2. Airmanship• Anticipatecircuitdirection• Vol4andjoiningchecklists• Right-of-wayrules• Lookout• Terminateflightplanafterlanding
ObjectivesTojoinatacontrolledoruncontrolledaerodromeintheeventofaradiofailure.
3. Aeroplane Management• Below120ktsbeforejoining• Landinglightson
5. Air Exercise• BefamiliarwithcommsfailureproceduresinAIP• Transmitblind• Squawk7600• Turnonalllights• Useacellularphonetocommunicateifavailable• Aviate–Navigate• Remainclearofcontrolledairspacewhilediagnosingandplanning
Uncontrolled Aerodromes• StandardOverheadJoin• Trasmit‘blind’• Keenlookoutforothertraffic• RefertoVol4andVNC• Completechecklist
Controlled Aerodromes• LightSignalsusedbytower• Vol4,VNC• Checklists• CarryoutStandardOverheadJoin• Reportfaulttotowerafterlanding
Colour and Type of Signal To Aircraft in Flight To Aircraft on the Aerodrome
Steadygreen Clearedtoland Clearedfortakeoff
Steadyred Givewaytootheraircraftandcontinuecircling Stop
Seriesofgreenflashes Returnforlanding Clearedtotaxi
Seriesofredflashes Aerodromeunsafe–donotland Taxiclearoflandingareainuse
Seriesofwhiteflashes LandatthisaerodromeandproceedtoapronReturntostartingpointonaerodrome
Seriesofalternateredandgreenflashes
Danger–beonthealert Danger–beonthealert
RedpyrotechnicNotwithstandinganypreviousinstructionsdonotlandforthetimebeing
1 Circlingmeanscontinuetrackingintheaerodrometrafficcircuit.Donotorbitinposition.2 Clearancetolandandtaxiwillbegiveninduecourse.
4. Human Factors• Usementalpicturetohelporientation
radio Failure
1. Considerations• Ifcontrolled,returnordivert?• ClearancerequiredtoenterControlZone• Followanyclearancealreadyaccepted• Ifclearedtoenter,butnojoininginstructions–joinoverhead• Howisitdetected?
Causes• Wrongfrequencyselected• On/Offandvolumeswitchturneddown• Altitudetoolowand/orrangetoogreat,• Alternatorfailure• Commboxswitches• Avionicsormasterswitchaccidentallyoff• Radiolooseinitscradle• Avionicsmasteroff• Faultyheadsetconnections• Poppedcircuitbreaker
• Checksimplesolutionsfirst
CirCuit training
2. Airmanship• Checks,includingtouchchecks• Nopax/sololimitations• “Simulating”tobeginwith
• Goaround–landingslater• Legallimitations
ObjectiveTobeabletoselectanappropriatelandingsiteandcarryoutthepatternforaforcedlandingwithoutpower.
3. Aeroplane Management• TsandPsstable• Enginewarming1000’• Flytheaeroplane
5. Air ExerciseFromacruisingaltitude...
Immediate actions• CarbheatHOT,closethrottle• Convertspeedtoheight• Setglideattitudeandtrim• Confirmwindandchooselandingsite• Maketheplan• MAYDAYcall
Trouble Checks
F FuelSelectorON,fuelpumpON,changetanks(touch)
M MixtureRICH,carbheatHOT,primerLOCKED
I IgnitionLEFT,RIGHTorBOTH.Ts&Ps
P Partialpowercheck
Make the plan1. Choose reference points• Landingaimpoint–1/3wayintofield• 1000’aglarea–90°fromthresholdarea,butcloser• 1500’aglarea–500’backfrom1000’aglarea
2. Convert heights to altitudes3. Positioning• Assesstheaeroplane’spositionanditsabilitytomakeitintothe1500’area
4. Ask regularly• “AmIconfidentofmakingittothe1500’area”
5. After 1500’ area reached• Spacingdownwind
6. Approach starts at 1000’ area • Constantassessmentofapproachbyreferenceto1/3aimpoint• Canadjustbaseturn–butnot1000’area• Offsetdrift• Ask“CanIreachthe1/3aimpoint?”• Positionat500’socantouchdownat1/3aimpointwithoutflap• Useflaptobring1/3aimpointbacktowardsthreshold
7. Landing phase covered in next lesson
4. Human Factors• Don’tturnyourbackonpaddock• Practisewillmakeiteasier• Concentrateonpattern• Re-evaluatedecisionstoavoidmindsets
Forced Landing Without power pattern
1. ConsiderationsConfiguration• BestL/Dratio,idlepower,propwindmilling, kts• Effectonrange
Wind IndicatorsWorkoutdirectionfrom:
• Smoke• Dust• Cropmovements• Tree/Leafmovement• Windlanes• Wavesandripples• Windshadow• Cloudshadow• Drift• Localknowledge
Situational Awareness• Alwayskeepaneyeoutforforcedlandingoptions• Knowwhatthesurfacewindis,andthebetterlandingareas
Landing Site7S’s,C&E
• Size• Shape• Slope• Surface• Surround• Stock• Sun• Communication• Elevation
CirCuit training
2. Airmanship• Simulatedbyclosingthrottle• Troublechecks• Passengerbriefing• Studenttoinitiategoaround• Landingphasewillbepracticedlater
ObjectivesTocarryouttherecommendedprocedureintheeventofatotalorpartialenginefailure,incorporatingtheappropriatechecklists.
Topracticeaeronauticaldecisionmaking(ADM)totroubleshootandrectifyapartialpowersituation.
3. Aeroplane Management• TsandPsstable• Enginewarmingevery1000’
5. Air Exercise1 Immediate Actions
• CarbheatHOT,closethrottle• Convertspeedtoheight• Setglideattitudeandtrim• Confirmwindandchooselandingsite• Maketheplanandactivate
2 Trouble Checks
F M I P
Assess approach
3 Mayday Call• 7700• PlusELTactivation
Assess approach
Passenger Brief• Nearesthabitation• Removesharpobjects• Braceposition
Assess approach
Engine Warm
4 Achieve 1500’ Area• Assesstheapproachandspacing
Prelanding Checks• InsteadofDownwindChecks• F–M–I–M(Masterafterfullflap)
5 Achieve 1000’ Area• Startbaseturn
6 Approach• CanImakethe1/3aimpoint?
7 Go Around• WouldIhavemadeit?
Landing• PICresponsibility• CallATC• Donotattempttotakeoffagain4. Human Factors
• Patternmoreimportantthanperfectchecks• Practisewillmakeiteasier
Forced Landing Without power Considerations
1. ConsiderationsBest L/D Ratio – Airspeed• Atexactly knots–approx4°AofA• Raisingorloweringthenosereducesthedistancecovered
• Neverraisethenoseto‘stretch’theglide
Height• Moreheightmeansmoredistance,andmoretimetoplan
Wind
Partial PowerIfsomepowerisavailable:
• Closethrottleorgosomewherebetter?• Whatifitfailsenroute?• Whatistheterrainlikeenroute?
• Whatcausedthefailure?Willitcausemoreproblems?
• Howmuchaltitudedoyouhave?
aDVanCeD ManoeuVres
3. Airmanship• Minimumaltitude• SADIEchecks• VFRminima• Sickbags
ObjectivesTochangedirectionthrough360degreesataconstantrate,using45degreesangleofbank,maintainingaconstantaltitudeandinbalance.
Tobecomefamiliarwiththesensationsofhighbankanglesandhighratesofturn.
Toturnatsteepanglesofbankwhilegliding.
4. Aeroplane Management• 100rpmincrease
6. Air ExerciseEntry• FromS+L• Chooseprominentreferencepoint• Lookout• Rollwithaileron,balancewithrudder
• Through30°AoBincreasepowerandbackpressure• At45°AoB,checkwithailerons,reduceruddertomaintainbalance
In Turn• Lookout• Attitude• Instruments• Angleofbankcontrolledwithaileron• Altitudecontrolledwithbackpressure• Lookout• IfaltitudechangingcheckAoBfirst,thenbackpressure
Exit• Lookforreferencepoint• Anticipaterolloutbyhalftheangleofbank(20°)• Rollwingslevel• Balancewithrudder• Relaxbackpressure• ResetS+Lattitude• Through kts,reducepower• CheckPAT
Steep Gliding Turn• CarbheatHOT• Closethrottle• Rollto45°AoB• Maintainheightuntilglidespeedreached• Lowerthenosetomaintainglidespeed• Trim
5. Human Factors• 360°turns• Lookoutrestrictions
• EffectofG• Maybeuncomfortable
1. Principles of Flight• 45°AoB• Avoidance/coordination–practice360°turn
• Alsocoversteepglidingturns
L= LF
1= 1 or 1 G
W 1
• Increasedapparentweightincreasesstallspeed
• Increaseddrag: 100%at45°AoB 300%at60°AoB• Reducesairspeedgpowersandwich• Needtoincreasepower
Steep Gliding Turn• Cannotincreasepower, increaseairspeedbyloweringnose
Adverse Yaw• Amountofrudderrequiredtoovercomedependsonrateofroll
• Lowairspeedsrequiremoreailerondeflectionmoreadverseyaw
Angle of Bank
Load Factor
% h in stall speed
New stall speed
0 1 50
45 1.4 20 60
60 2 40 70
75 4 100 100
steep turns
2. ConsiderationsOut of Balance• WhencorrectingwithrudderkeepcorrectAoBandadjustattitude
Spiral Dive• Causedbyoverbanking• Aeroplanedescends,tendencytohbackpressure,gturntighteningandhRoD• Recoverbyclosingthrottle,rollingwingslevel,easeoutofdive
Steep Gliding Turn• Notrecommended,butifhaveto:flap,idlepower,max45°AoB,attitudetomaintainspeed
aDVanCeD ManoeuVres
2. Airmanship• Nopax• Awarenessofaircraftconfiguration,symptoms,traffic
• HASELLchecks• HELLchecks
ObjectivesToexperiencetheeffectofpowerand/orflapontheaeroplane’sspeedandnoseattitudeatthestall.
Torecognisethesymptomsofthestall.
Tostalltheaeroplaneandbeabletorecoverfromthestallbytakingappropriateaction.
3. Aeroplane Management• Smoothbutpositivethrottleandcontrolmovements• Carbheat• Ts&Ps
5. Air ExerciseEntry• HASELLchecksandreferencepoint(high)• CarbheatHOT• Closethrottle/reducepowerasapplicable• Keepstraightwithrudder• Maintainaltitudewithhbackpressure• Through kts(whitearc)selectflap,adjustattitude• Through kts(stallwarningsounds),carbheatCOLD
Symptoms• Observeeffectsofpower,flap,andpowerandflap• Lowandiairspeed• Highnoseattitude
• Lesseffectivecontrols• Stallwarning–iffitted• Buffet
At the Stall• Aeroplanesinksandnosepitchesdown
RecoveryTo Unstall• Checkforwardwithcontrolcolumntoreduceangleofattack
• Donotuseailerons
To Minimise Height Loss – max of 100’• Power + Attitude = Performance• Unstall,asabove,checkforward• Applyfullpower–balancewithrudder• Raisenosetothehorizon(stopssinkandallowsacceleration)• Reducefromfullflap,1setting
• Atsafealtitude,safeairspeed,and+veRoC,raiseallflap,adjustattitude
• RegainstartingaltitudeandS+L
Recovery at Onset• Normalsituation–whennottraining• Recoveratstallwarning/buffet• Heightloss–50’maximum
4. Human Factors• Morepracticeandexposurethebetter• Plentyoftimebetweenstallstoorientate• Unusualattitudepossible,butplentyofheightforrecovery
1. Principles of Flight• Aeroplanestallsatcriticalangle,andspeedwillvarywithconfiguration
• Manufacturersliststallspeedsforsimplicity• L=AngleofAttackxAirspeed• AnythingthathLrequiredmeansanhairspeedatthestall
• airspeedwillbehigheratthecriticalangle• AnythingthatiLrequiredmeansaiairspeedatthestall
Factors Affecting Stall Speed
Weight hWrequireshL hstallingspeed Samenoseattitude
Ice/Damage Changesflowandincreasesweight,requireshL hstallingspeed
Samenoseattitude
Loading hApparentweightrequireshL hstallingspeed Samenoseattitude
Power hPowerrequiresiLduehairspeedoverwingistallingspeed
Highernoseattitude
Slats/Slots/Flap FlaphLandistallingspeed Lowernoseattitude
Aileron Down-goingwingwillhavehAoA,beyondstalliLandhDfurthergcontinuedroll,notstoppingit
advanced stalling
aDVanCeD ManoeuVres
3. Airmanship• VAis kts• Smoothcontrolmovements• Minimumaltitude
ObjectiveTocarryoutabalanced,maximumrate,levelturnusingfullpower.
4. Aeroplane Management• RPMlimit• CofGlimits
6. Air ExerciseEntry• Choosereferencealtitudeandprominentreferencepoint• CheckspeedrelativetoVA
• Applyfullpower,rollinsmoothly,balancewithrudder–willneedmorerudderthanusual
• Through30°AoBincreasebackpressuretomaintainaltitude• Stopatthestallwarning(lightbuffet)• Checkaileronsandrudder• MaintainbackpressureandAoB
Maintaining• LAI• Attitudedifferencesduesidebysideseating• Maintainfirstnoteofstallwarningwithbackpressure• AltitudemaintainedwithAoB• Withstallwarningsoundingifaltitudeisbeinggainedorlost,alterAoB
Exit• Anticipaterolloutby30°• Smoothlyrollwingslevelwithaileron,balancewithrudder,andrelaxthebackpressuretore-selectthelevelattitude
• Delaypowerreduction• Through kts,reducepowertocruiserpm
5. Human Factors• 360°turntominimisedisorientation• PhysicalGlimitsduringturn,generally 2G
1. Principles of Flight• Tochangedirectionatthehighestpossiblerate–maximumdegreesinminimumtime
Maximum Lift• L AoAandAirspeed • MaxCLatstartofstallwarning
oredgeofbuffet
Airspeed• MaxrateturnslimitedbyVA
• VAisthespeedatwhichyoucanmakeabruptandextremecontrolmovementsandnotoverstresstheaeroplane’sstructures
• FoundinFlightManual• Affectedbyweight
Rate of Turn and Radius of Turn• Rateofturn=rateofchangeofdirection–°/min
• Radiusofturn=sizeofthearcmadebytheaeroplane
• Slowspeed–highrateofturn
• Highspeed–lowrateofturn• TurningatmaxraterequiresmaxCPFandmaxlift
• Rateofturn velocity powerislimitingfactorinamaxrateturn
Angle of Bank• Betweenleveland90
Limiting Angle of Bank• hinAoBrequireshinAoAtohlift,associatedhdraggdecreaseinairspeed
• Poweravailablelimited airspeedwillreduceasAoBh
• Stallingspeedhasthe loadfactor• MaximumAoBlimitedbytheamountofpoweravailableusually60°AoB
2. ConsiderationsEntry above VA
• Smoothrollin,delaypoweruntildeceleratedtoVA
Entry below VA
• Leadwithpoweroratsametimeasrollin
Maximum rate turns
Structural Limit• Forthisaeroplaneis G
aDVanCeD ManoeuVres
2. Airmanship• Practiceinsafearea• HASELLandHELLchecks• Stallwithpowerandflap• SA–attitude,airspeed,configuration,flightphase,symptoms
ObjectivesTorevisestallingwithpowerandflap.
Tocarryoutastallfromstraightandlevelflight(andtheturn)recoveringfromawingdropwithminimumaltitudeloss.
3. Aeroplane Management• Carbheat• Airspeedandrpmlimits
5. Air ExerciseEntry• HASELLchecks• Prominentreferencepoint• CarbheatHOT• Setpowerto rpm• Keepstraightwithrudder,andmaintainaltitudewithbackpressure• Below kts(whitearc),selectflap• Through kts(stallwarning)–carbheatCOLD• Atthestall,altitudeislost,nosepitchesdown,andonewingmaydrop
Recovery
To unstall Keep ailerons neutral
Atthesametime Simultaneously• decreasethebackpressure/checkforwardand• applysufficientappropriateruddertopreventfurtheryaw
Tominimisethealtitudeloss
Smoothlybutpositivelyapplyfullpower.
Atthesametime:• levelthewingswithaileron,• centralisetherudder,and• raisenosesmoothlytohorizon–toarrestthesinkandminimisealtitudeloss
• Holdnoseatlevelattitude,reduceflapsettingimmediately• Atsafeheight,safeairspeedandpositiveRoC–raiseremainingflap(counterthepitchchange)• Regainstartingaltitudeandreferencepoint
4. Human Factors• Overlearncorrecttechnique1. Principles of Flight
• Causeofstall–aeroplaneexceedingcriticalangleofattack
Aileron Use at Stall
Turning AoB maintained with aileron.
OutofBalance • Yawatornearstallgtendencytoroll,whichhAoAondown-goingwing• Also,iftryingtomaintainwingslevelwithaileron,down-goingaileronwillhthemeanAoAonthatwing
IceorDamage • Smoothairflowoveraffectedwingdisturbed,maybreakawaysoonerthanoverotherwing
WeightImbalance • Ifallpassengers/fuelononesideoftheaeroplane,aileronneededtomaintainwingslevel
Turbulence • Mayresultinaileronbeingusedtomaintainwingslevel,ormaycauseonewingtoexceedthecriticalangle
Rigging • Wingsfittedatdifferentanglesofincidence,orflapsriggedincorrectly–onewingwouldreachthecriticalanglebeforetheother
Power • Slipstreammodifiestheangleofattackoneachwing aeroplanemaydropawingmorereadilywhenpartialpowerused
Flaps • Flapmayextendatslightlydifferentangles• Also,withflapextendedaeroplanelesslaterallystable(CoPoneachwingmovesintowardwingroot).htendencyforaeroplanetobedisturbedinroll
• Also,greaterneedtouseailerontomaintainwingslevelinthisconfiguration
• Wingthatstallsfirsthasaiinliftgroll• RollhtheAoAondown-goingwingandmaydelaystallofup-goingwing
• hAoApastcriticalanglegiliftbutsubstantialhdrag• hdragyawsaeroplanetowardthedown-goingwing,mayfurtherdelaystallofup-goingwingasresultofhairspeed–yawcausesroll,whichcausesyaw=autorotation
• UsingailerontostoprollghAoAondown-goingwingLiftiwithhAoA(pastthecriticalangle),whiledraghrapidlywithanysmallhAoA
• Rudderusedtopreventyawandlowernose
Wing-Drop stalling
aDVanCeD ManoeuVres
2. Landing Considerations
ElevationorPA
• Aerodromeelevationisusedwhencalculatinglandingdistanceandeffectsofpressurealtitudeignored
• AerodromeheightAMSLwillaffectLDRandPAmaybeusedformoreaccuratecalculations
Weight • Affectsinertiaand stoppingdistance
RunwaySurface
• Landingrollisionafirmdrysurfacecomparedwithagrassorwetsurfacedueimprovedbrakingaction
Slope • Up-slopeiLDR,anddown-slopehLDR
hWc • Whenwindatanangletorunway,theHWCneedstobecalculated
Wind • Ifstrongorgustywinds,alwayspossibilityofwindshearontheapproach
• ApproachandVTTspeedsareincreasedtocounterthepossibleeffectsofwindshear
Calculation• InformationfromFlightManualandAC91-3• Calculatedlandingdistancefrom50ftassumescorrectspeedat50ftandstatedflapsettingisused
• LDRincludesdistancetotouchdownfrom50ftoverthethresholdandthegroundrolltoafullstop
• Crossingthethresholdhigherthan50ft,usinglessthanfullflap,orcrossingthethresholdatahigherairspeed,willincreasethelandingdistance
ObjectivesToensurebycalculationthatthereisadequaterunwaylengthfortakeoffandlandinginaccordancewiththeaeroplane’sperformancedata.
Toapplysounddecisionmakingprinciplesbeforeadoptingtherecommendedprocedurefortakeofforapproachforarunwayofminimallength.
Tooperatetheaeroplaneinaccordancewiththemanufacturer’srecommendedshort-fieldtechniquesinordertoobtainthebestpossibleperformance. 6. Air Exercise
Takeoff• Holdbrakeson(nosewheelstraight),elevatorneutral,applyfullpower.Staticrpm,TsandPschecked
• Cleanbrakerelease,taketheweightoffnosewheel–checkfornormalacceleration
• HoldnosewheelongrounduntilVr
• AtVrsmoothlyrotateandliftoff.LowernoseandacceleratetoVTOSS
• ReachingVTOSSadjustattitudeandhold,keepstraightonreferencepoint
• AtsafeheightacceleratetobestRoC(VY)ornormalrecommendedclimbspeed.Checkbalance
• Beforeraisingflap,- safeheight,- safeairspeed,and- apositiverateofclimb
• Whentheseconditionshavebeenmet,raiseflapandcounterthepitchchange.Allowaccelerationtocontinue,anduponreachingtheclimbspeedrequired(bestrateornormal),trimtomaintaintheappropriateattitude
Landing• Downwind,confirmapproachandthresholdspeedsandchooseaimpoint
• Slightlydelayturnontobasetoensuresomepowermustbeusedthroughoutapproach
• Monitorapproachpathbyreferencetotheaimingpointandadjustpowertomaintainasteadyrateofdescent–powercontrolsRoD
• Establishedonfinal,selectfullflapanddecreaseairspeedbyadjustingattitude
• AchievenominatedVTTby200ftagl• Itisimportanttocarrysomepowerintotheflare• Iftheaeroplaneisnotproperlyconfiguredby200ftagl–goaround!
• Theround-outandthehold-offarecombinedintotheflare• Aimtoreducetherateofsinktozeroatthesametimeasthemainwheelstouchthegroundandthethrottleisclosed
• Lowerthenosewheel,brakeimmediately,keepweightoffthenosewheelwithelevatorbackpressure
• Raiseflaponcompletionofthelandingroll
3. Airmanship• Additionaldecisionmakingrequiredinrelationtostrong/gustywindandEFATO–immediatelyandpositivelylowerthenose
4. Aeroplane Management• Fullpowerbeforebrakerelease–checkstaticrpm• Ifstaticrpmnotachievedcouldbedue
- Icing- Instrumenterror- Propellerdamage
• Getproblemchecked
5. Human Factors• Visionaffectedbyhighnoseattitude• Duringapproachperceptionmaybeinfluencedbyvisualcuesofsurroundingterrain,afalsehorizon,orrunwaylengthandwidth
• Cross-referenceinstrumentsregularly
1. Takeoff Considerations
Temperature • Changesdensity.htemperaturegiindensity.Correctionneeded• OATgaugeorMETAR
Density • Asdensityi,IASi asthedensityi,TASwillneedtobehtoachievesameIASforanygivenrotateIAS
• htakeoffroll,buteffectsofdensityonengineperformancefarmorecritical
PressureAltitude • Correctsairfieldelevationundertheexistingconditions,toanelevationwithinthestandard atmosphere
• Set1013hPaonsub-scaleandreadoffthepressurealtitude• OrQNHandelevationrequiredforcalculation
AeroplaneWeight • Directlyaffectstakeoffandclimbperformance
RunwaySurface • Takeoffrollisreducedonafirmorsealedsurfacecomparedtoasoftorgrasssurface
• Grasssurfaceisdefinedasshortdrygrass
Slope • Up-slopehtheTODR• Down-slopeiTODR
hWc • Whenthewindisatangletorunway,needtocalculateheadwindcomponent
Wind • Withstrongorgustywinds,alwayspossibilityofwindshearintheclimb-out
• VrandVTOSSincreasedtocounterthepossibleeffectsofwindshear
Calculation• InformationfromFlightManualandAC91-3• Takeoffperformancefiguresbasedonnewenginesandpropellers–howdoesthisaeroplanecompare?
• Isthesurfaceshortdrygrassoralongandwet?
• Howimportantisitthatatakeoffbeconductednow–undertheseconditions–andhowwilltheconditionsbeaffectedbyadelay?
• Calculatedtakeoffdistanceto50ftassumesfullpowerisappliedbeforebrakereleaseandthatstatedflapsettingisused
• TODRincludesgroundrollanddistancetravelledoverthegroundtoreach50ftatVTOSS
• Noroundingoftakeoffspeeds–flythemaccurately
short-Field takeoff and Landing
aDVanCeD ManoeuVres
ObjectivesTocompensatefortheeffectsofvisualillusions,inertia,andstresswhenoperatingtheaeroplaneclosetotheground.
5. Air ExerciseLow Flying Zone Boundaries• CompletetheHASELLLchecksandat1000ftaglflyaroundtheedgeoftheLFZ• Usingapowereddescent,entertheLFZ
Visual Illusions• Superimposehorizonovertheterrain• Lookateffectwindhasonturning,andhowtotrackoverthegroundwithacrosswind• Noteeffectsofflyingupwindanddownwindonthegroundspeed
Effects of Inertia• Maintainstraightandlevel–notethereactiontimeneededtoinitiateamanoeuvre• Mediumlevelturnsnotingthereactiontimesrequiredandtheradiusofturn
3-D Effect• Terrain/obstacles–wires,sun,shadow,mechanicalturbulence
Poor Visibility Configuration• Reducepowerto rpm,maintainstraightandlevelflight,lowertheflapto degrees• Asairspeeditoconfigurationspeed,hpower(about rpm)tomaintainstraightandlevel.Trim
• Notethereducedspeed
Visual Illusions
2. Airmanship• Poorvisibilityconfigurationused
3. Aeroplane Management• Carbheatuse• Fuelmanagement• Useofpowerduringturnswithflaplowered
4. Human Factors• Obstructionsdifficulttodetectatlowlevel• Flyingclosetothegroundisstressful,canleadtonarrowingfocus
• PoorVisConfigusedtogivemoretime• Avoidbadwx
1. ConsiderationsInertia• Inertiaandsensationofspeedseenclearlyatlowlevel • Atcruisespeedsneedlotsofanticipation
andairspacetoturnaeroplane
Visual Effects• Effectofwindcanleadtovisualillusions• Flyingintowind,groundspeedislowgloweringthenoseorhpower
• Downwind,groundspeedhighgnoseattitudebeingraised/poweri
• Acrossthewind,driftismostnoticeable.Trackonreferencepoint.Avoidcrossedcontrols
• ApparentsliporskidwhenturningDonotcorrectwithrudder.Cross-referencebalanceindicator
Poor Visibility Configuration• Airspeed kts,FlapsettingReduced Airspeed• Lessinertiaandlowergroundspeed=moretimetothinkandreacttoobstacles+reducingturnradius
Flap• hliftanddragandadverselyaffectstheL/Dratio• hliftgistallspeed• PoorerL/Dratiomeanshigherpowersettingneededtomaintainstraightandlevel
Low Flying Zone• Inspectlowflyingzoneandprepaeroplanebeforeentering• Staywithintheboundaries,donotdescendbelow ft• Iflow-leveloverwater,wearlifejackets• Onentering,broadcastEETinthezone–whenleaving,akeavacatingreport
Low Flying introduction
H Height >200ftagl
A Airframe Configstated
S Security Loosearticles&harnessessecure
E Engine Fullesttank,pumpON,mixtRICH,SADIE,carbheat
L Locality Boundariesidentified
L Lookout Windindications,obstructions,birds,forcedlandingsites
L Lights AllexternallightsON
Power• Carbheatcyclednotoncontinuously,Ts&Psshouldremainwithinnormalrange
• ProlongedusemayleadtohoilT• Alsoistallspeedandprovidesslipstream• Increasepowerinturns
aDVanCeD ManoeuVres
ObjectivesTocompensatefortheeffectsofinertia,visualillusionsandstresswhenoperatingtheaeroplaneincloseproximitytotheground.
Tocarryoutvariouslevelturnsinthepoorvisibilityconfigurationinresponsetodeterioratingweather.
5. Air ExerciseMedium Turn• Inpoorvisibilityconfiguration,doneedasmallincreaseinpowertomaintaintheairspeed
Steep Turn• Inpoorvisibilityconfigurationsteepturnslimitedto45°because1. dragandstallspeedincreaseexponentiallybeyond45°AoB,andaspowerislimited,maynotbeabletomaintaintheairspeed
2. TheG-loadlimitislowerwithflapextended• Nodecreaseinairspeedisacceptablesopowerisincreasedsubstantiallyattherollin• Monitorattitude,angleofbank,speed,andbalance• Ifaltitudeisbeinglost,reducetheangleofbank,increasepowerifnecessary• Anticipaterolloutandcoordinatepowerreduction
Obstacle Avoidance• Simulatetheworstcasescenario• Followingalinefeatureinpoorvisibilityanobstacleappearsahead• Driftdownwindat45°tolinefeaturetoturnbackintowind,completingtheturnwithfeaturebackontheleft
Coastal Reversal Turn• Needtoturnback,nohorizonouttosea,highgroundalongthecoast• Mustkeepthecoastinsightthroughouttheturnseawardandthentrackbackalongthecoast
• Winddirectionandstrengthdeterminesheadingneededtotrackawayfromthecoasttoprovideenoughspacetocompletetheturn
• Headwindortailwind–turn45°awayfromcoast.Compensateforcrosswindbyincreasingordecreasingthe45°–donotlosesightofthecoastline
• Angleofbankuseddependsonabilitytokeepcoastinsight• Continueawayfromshoreuntilenoughdistanceavailabletoturnback
• Startturnwith45°AoBandreduceifnotneeded
Constant Radius Turn• AdjustAoBtocompensatefordrifttomaintainconstantdistancefromobjectonsurface
• Identify4pointsequidistantforreferencetooverfly• Asturndownwind,groundspeedincreases,soincreaseAoB• Turningcrosswindagain,groundspeeddecreases,sodecreaseAoB• Turningintowind,groundspeeddecreases,sodecreaseAoB• Turningcrosswindagain,groundspeedincreases,soincreaseAoB
2. Airmanship• ReviseboundariesofLFAandminimumheight• Soloflightsmustbeauthorised,andonly1aircraftinLFA• MakecarefulinspectionofLFA,andHASELLLchecks• Broadcastonentryandexit
3. Aeroplane Management• Poorvisibilityconfiguration• Prolongeduseofthepoorvisibilityconfigurationmayaffectfuelreservesandengineoperatingtemperatures
• UseSADIEmorefrequently
4. Human Factors• Visualillusionscreatedbydrift• Maintainaregularcrosscheckofinstruments,especiallythebalanceindicator
1. ConsiderationsPerspective• Groundfeatureslookdifferent–planviewtoprofileview• Needtoestimatehorizon–cross-referenceinstruments
Sloping Terrain• Heightabovegroundestimatedvisually–altimetersecondaryreference• Gentlyrisingterrain–cross-referenceairspeedindicatorandaltimeter
Turbulence• Turbulencemorepronounced,updraughtsanddowndraughtsmoresignificant• Avoidflyingintheleeofhillsorthecentreofvalleys• Flyontheupwindsideofhillyterrain,orupdraughtsideofvalleys
Crossing Obstacles• Crosspowerlinesatthepylons• Crossridgesatanobliqueangle
Low Flying Consolidation
aDVanCeD ManoeuVres
ObjectiveTolearntheproceduretoadoptintheeventofanoff-aerodromelanding.
5. Air Exercise• Inlowflyingarea• Lowflyingareapre-entrychecksandradiocalls• Descendto500ft,adoptpoorvisibilityconfiguration• Decisiontolandsimulated
• Startsearchforsuitablesite• Declareemergency• Securepaxandcabin
Pattern1. Searchandapproachtocrosscentreatrightangles2. Observedrift–confirmwindassessment
• Establishleft/righthandcircuitat500ft–or100ftbelowcloudbase
• Positionsothatthesitecanbeseenandevaluated• Checkapproach/overshootwhileheightavailable• Considergradientcues
3. Radiocallifnotalreadycompleted• Paxbrief• Checks
4. Check:• approach• obstacles• wind• goaroundpoint• alignment• Chooselandmarks,ifavailable,particularlyoneatendofdownwind
5. Descendto200’• checkS’sandC• assesslengthofpaddockbytimingorbysuperimposingknownimage
• noteheadingorsetDItoNorth• aimpoint• overshootoptions
6. Climb7. Confirm:
• radiocall• paxbrief• checks• normalcircuitspacing
8. Establishshort-fieldapproach
Landing• Useshortfieldtechnique• Usemaximumbraking• Avoidobstacles• Keepcabinintact• Afterlanding,shutdownchecklist
2. Airmanship• Makeearlydecisions–timetoplan• Windawareness• Passengerbriefingandsecuritychecks• PANcallandsquawk7700.PossiblyMAYAYcall• SADIE checks• Minimumdescentaltitude
3. Aeroplane Management• Considerpoorvisibilityconfiguration• Fuel–avoidexhaustionbeforelandingachieved
4. Human Factors• Disorientationduelowlevel• Stress• Overlearntheprocedure
1. Considerations
Cause Avoidance
Weather • Avoidbysettingpersonalmeteorologicalminimawellabovethelegalminimum
• Haveacarefulconsiderationoftheweatherbeforeanyflightandalwayshaveanescapeplan
Lost • Avoidbymaintainingsituationalawarenessandcarefulpre-flightplanning
Fuel • Mayresultfrombecominglostortryingtogetaroundweather,ratherthandivertingearly
• Thissituationwillheightenanyexistingstresslevels• Avoidbycarefulpre-flightplanningandin-flightfuelmonitoring
Daylight • Thisorganisationrequiresallaeroplanestobeontheground,orinthecircuit,30minutesbeforeEveningCivilTwilight(ECT)
• Startearly,finishearly
• Ifthesesituationsarise,adoptpoorvisibilityconfigurationandcarryoutanoff-aerodromelanding
• Thiscantake15–20minutestocomplete–don’tleaveittoolate
precautionary Landing
aDVanCeD ManoeuVres
ObjectivesToestablishauseablehorizonreferencewhentheactualhorizonisnotavailable.
Tooperateinaconfinedarea.
Todevelopfurtherawarenessofspaceandinertiawhenconfinedbyterrain.
Tosafelycrossridges,saddles,passesorspurs.
5. Air ExerciseConditions• Cleanconfiguration• Poorvisibilityconfiguration• Calmconditions• Withwind• Noprecipitation• Someprecipitation• Leftturns• Rightturns• 180°turns• 360°turns
Operating in a Confined Area• Flyboundarieswithminimumangleofbank• Useallavailablespace• Controlspeedwithpower• Notewinddirectionandspeed• Positionfor360°and180°turns
Confined Area with no Horizon• Sameexerciseandconditionsasabove• Usesaddlecrossingtechnique
Crossing Ridges, Saddles, Passes or Spurs• Determinelift/sinkside• Approachat45°forbestescapeoptions• Lefttorightbestforvisibilityandescapes• Lookatdifferentsaddles• ApproachlevelandbelowVA
• Useparallaxtoassesssinkandrelativeheight• Haveescaperouteavailableatalltimes–otherthanduringperiodofcommitment
2. Airmanship• Thinkahead,decisionmakingcritical• Situationalawareness• Positionreports• SADIE• Minimumaltitude
3. Aeroplane Management• Cleanandpoorvisibilityconfiguration• VA,VS,operatingspeedrange• Carbheatasrequired• Engineleaning• Smoothcontrolmovements• Aeroplanepositionnearterrain
4. Human Factors• Disorientation• Visualillusions• Motionsickness
1. ConsiderationsSuperimposed Horizon• Horizoniswheretheseameetsthesky• Imaginaryorsuperimposedhorizonusedwhenrealhorizoncan’tbeseen
• Visualisewhereseameetssky
Operating in a confined space• Selectacleararea500mx500m• Selectanotherareathesamesize,wherethereisnohorizonavailable• Identifyimaginaryhorizon,asifterrainweretransparent,useittoreferencenoseattitude• Windcuesanddriftestimation• Useallavailablespacebyvaryingbankangle,powertomaintainsafespeed• Developawarenessofthesignificanceofwindvelocityrelativetotheterrain
Crossing Ridges, Saddles or Passes• Considertheapproach,theactualcrossing,andafterthecrossing• Ensureapproachanglestakewindandterrainintoaccount,allowescapeoptionsthatminimiseperiodofcommitment–45°isbest
• Attitudeforcrossing–level,speedundercontrol,noclimbordescent• Useparallaxtojudgeheightabovesaddle• Howmuchclearanceisrequired?• Typesofsaddlesandmerits• Escapeoptionsmustalwaysbeavailable
terrain and Weather awareness
aDVanCeD ManoeuVres
ObjectivesToconsistentlyidentifyauseablehorizonandtosuperimposeitonavariablebackground.
Toappropriatelypositionanaircraftinavalleyandtoconductlevel,climbinganddescendingturns.
Tosafelyapproach,cross,andpositionaftercrossingridges,saddles,passesorspurs.
Experiencerealorsimulatedcircumstancesofdisorientationandthestrategiesforreorientinginplaceandtime.
Topracticeemergencieswhereoptionsmaybelimited.
5. Air ExerciseSuperimposed Horizon• Flyconstantaltitudeandconstantwingtipdistancefromterrain• Smoothcoordinatedcontrolmovements• Awarenessof;areaandenvironment,inertiawhileturning,escapeoptions,rightofwayrules,lookout• Flyconstantheightabovedescendingvalleyfloor• Flyconstantheightaboveclimbingvalleyfloor
Operating in a Valley• Checkturns• Level,climbinganddescendingturns• Cruiseconfiguration,usingfullwidth• Poorvisibilityconfiguration,usingfullwidth• Positioninthevalleydependentonspaceavailable• Steepdescendingturnintovalley• Climbingturnoutofvalleyorforsaddlecrossing• Rightofway• Lookoutprinciples
Crossing Ridges, Saddles, Passes or Spurs• Allfactorsofapproach,crossing,aftercrossingandescapeoptionsthroughout• Wind>15kts• Saddlecrossing,takingalleffectsintoaccount• Showsounddecisionmaking
Route Finding• Simulateoruseactualopportunitytoexperience/practise
Emergencies• FLWOPandprecautionarylandingwherenorealhorizon• Applysounddecisionmaking• Adaptstandardpattern• Identifyandmitigatethreats
2. Airmanship• Anticipateenvironmentandrecognisethreats• Aeroplaneperformance• Situationalawareness
• Positionreports• SADIE• Alwayshaveescapeoptions
3. Aeroplane Management• Poorvisibilityconfiguration• VA,VS,operatingspeedrange• Useofpower• Carburettorheat• Engineleaning• Controlcoordination• Aeroplaneposition
4. Human Factors• Illusions–whiteout,brightout• Workload,stress,fatigue–effectonperformance• Hypoxia• Dehydration• Furtherreading
1. ConsiderationsSuperimposed Horizon• Horizoniswheretheseameetsthesky• Illusions–mostdangerousisslowlyrisingterraininbottomofvalley
• Experiencefactorsaffectingcontourflyingatconstantaltitude
Operating in a valley• Checkturns• Selectappropriatepositioninvalley• Useminimumangleofbank• Poorvisibilityconfiguration
• Climbinganddescendingturnsforentryandexitofvalleys
• Valleygradients• Sunandshade
Crossing Ridges, Saddles, Passes or Spurs• Considerallaspectsofcrossing,effectofwindandterrain,escapeoptions,parallax,saddletypes
• Increasedwind• Approachpathshouldbeplannedwellahead• Escapeoptions
Route Finding• Goodplanningandpreparation• Waterflow
• Valleyalignment• Sun’sposition
Emergencies• Nohorizongmoredifficulties• Variables:
- Height- Distancetolandingsite- Existenceoflandingsite- Wind/turbulence/precipitation- Light
• Confinedspace• Wind,lift/sink• Valleygradient• Illusionsandmindsets• EarlyMAYDAY• Habitation• Survivalkit–contentsanduse
Basic Mountain Flying
instruMent FLyingCompass use
ObjectiveToturnaccuratelyontoandmaintaincompassheadings,compensatingforknownerrorsinthemagneticcompass.
5. Air Exercise• Demonstrationofaccelerationanddecelerationerrors• Demonstrationofturningerrors
Making a Turn• Alwaysturninshortestdirection• Checkpresentheadingagainstdesiredheading–useshortestarc• Decideonamountofoverturnorunderturn–ONUS• LookoutandrollinusingRate1turn–balance• Anticipaterollout• Selectreferencepoint• Levelwings–holdforcompasstosettle• Checkheadingandmakecorrectionifrequired
2. Airmanship• Compasscheckedduringtaxiforcorrectsenseandrunwayheading• Turncoordinatorcheckedforserviceability• Lookout
3. Aeroplane Management• Compasssystemcheckedforserviceabilitybeforeflight• Deviationcardisvalid• Keepmetalitemsasfarawayfromthecompassaspossible.• Suctiongaugeshouldbecheckedduringenginerun-up(4.5–5.2”)
4. Human Factors• Helpfultohavea3-Dpictureofcompassinyourhead• In-flightmentalcalculationsshouldbekepttoaminimum• Coverfailedinstrumentstoavoidconfusion
1. ConsiderationsVariation• DifferencebetweentrueNorthandmagneticNorth• Barmagnetwillalignitselfwithlinesofflux
Deviation• Aircraftmagnetacteduponbythingsotherthanthelinesofflux,ie,metalobjects,aircraft,etc
• Compensatedforbyacompassswing–donebyanengineer
Dip• Atmagneticequatorfluxlinesareparallelwithsurface
• Astheyapproachthepolestheydipdowntowardstheearth’ssurface
• Abarmagnettriestoalignwiththelinesoffluxdiptowardstheearth’ssurface
• Tocompensate,thebarmagnetissetonapivot,butsomeresidualdipremains
• Thepivotarrangementisfairlyunstable,socompasscardandmagnetsareimmersedinfluidthatdampsoutoscillations–alsoprovidinglubrication
Acceleration Errors
SAND• ApparentturnSouthwhenAccelerating,apparentturnNorthwhenDecelerating
Turning Errors
ONUS• TocompensatemustOverturnonNorthandUnderturnonSouth• UseRateoneturn,maximumerroronNorS=30°
instruMent FLyingintroduction
ObjectivesToexperiencethesensoryillusionsthatoccurwhendeprivedofvisualreferences.
Tomaintainstraightandlevelflightbysolereferencetotheaeroplane’sinstruments.
5. Air Exercise• Demonstrationoflimitationsofvestibularandmuscularsystem
Selective Radial Scan
Maintain straight and level• Setattitude,checkaltitude,headingandairspeedbeingmaintained• CheckinbalanceandVSIshowinglevel
Attain straight and level from a climb or descent• APTandPAT
Turns• AllturnsatRate1
2. Airmanship• Instrumentcheckwhiletaxiing• Can’tuseperipheralvision• Needtoconsciouslycounteractinertia• Change–check–hold–adjust–trim• Lookout“clearleft”….
3. Aeroplane Management• Pitotstaticsystemoperation• SetAIsymbolbeforeflight,don’tchange
4. Human FactorsBalance organs• Senseangularaccelerationandchangeofdirectionin3planes,andbodytilt• Can’tdetectchangewhenit’sverysloworconstant
Muscular pressure sensors• Affectedbygravity• Knowifstandingorsittingwitheyesclosed• Can’tdistinguishbetweencausesofincreasedG
Vision• Mostpowerfulsystem• Usuallyresolvesambiguousinformationfromothersenses• ButinIFconditionsvisualreferencesnotavailable• Leans• Trusttheinstruments
1. Considerations• Power+Attitude=Performance
Control Instruments• AttitudeIndicator• Tachometer
Performance Instruments• AirspeedIndicator• Altimeter• DirectionalIndicator• TurnCoordinator• BalanceIndicator• VerticalSpeedIndicator
Instrument Layout• BasicTplusTC,VSIandRPM
Instrument Lag• Allinstrumentshavelag(delayinindicatingcorrectinformation)• OnlyVSIlagissignificant,mustbecheckedagainstotherinformation
ASIAirspeed
Pitch
Pitot static
TCRate of turn
Bank+Balance
Electric
AIPitch+BankAirspeed
Vacuum
DIHeading
Bank
Vacuum
ALTAltitude
Pitch
Static
VSIRoC+RoD
Pitch
Static
RPMEngine revsPower+Pitch
Cable
instruMent FLyingLimited panel
ObjectivesTomaintainstraightandlevelflightbysolereferencetoalimitedflightinstrumentpanel.
Tocarryoutrateonelevelturnsontocompassheadings.
5. Air Exercise• Simulatevacuumsystemfailure• AIandDIunserviceable
Pitch ASI,ALT,VSI,RPM
Bank TC,Compass
Yaw Balance
Selective Radial Scan
• Airspeedwillrequireonlyasmallamountofattentionsolongasattitudeandpoweraresetcorrectly• Duringturnsthecompass’importancewillincreaseasapproachheading
2. Airmanship• Instrumentcheckduringtaxiveryimportant
• SADiE
3. Aeroplane Management• Electricalsystemfailuremayaffectotherinstruments• Staticsystemoftenhasbackupsystem• Pitotheadheated• Vacuumgaugecheckedregularly• RegularlycheckingDIisalignedtocompass
4. Human Factors• Developsystematicinstrumentscan• Trusttheinstruments• Willcoverfailedinstruments
1. ConsiderationsTurn Coordinator• Electricallydriven• Failureshownbywarningflag• EstimateangleofbankfromAI–15°• BalanceindicatorOK• CheckedduringtaxiandSADIEchecks
VSI and Altimeter• Relyonstaticpressure• IffailsneedtouseAIandRPM• Inspectstaticventduringpreflight
Airspeed Indicator• Requirespitotandstaticpressure• Mostcommonblockagebyiceoverpitothead• Willindicatewrongairspeed,orzero• IffailsneedtouseAIandRPM• Inspectpitotheadandstaticventsduringpreflight
Heading Indicator• DI,DG,HSI• Gyrostabilized,poweredbyengine-drivenvacuumpump• Iffailswillslowlyrundown,cardwillspin• Iffailswillneedtousemagneticcompass• CheckedduringtaxiandSADIEchecks
Attitude Indicator• Ah• Drivenbyengine-drivenpump• Mayhavefailureflag• Iffailswillhavetouseindirectinformationfromperformanceinstruments
• CheckedduringtaxiandSADIEchecks
instruMent FLyingunusual attitudes
ObjectiveTorecognise,andrecovertostraightandlevelfromanose-highornose-lowunusualattitude.
5. Air Exercise• SmoothcontrolmovementswheneverspeedaboveVA
Attitude Recognition Recovery
NoseHigh • Loworiairspeed• haltitude• hrateofclimb• iengineRPM
• Fullpowerandlevelwings• Pushforwardonc/cuntilairspeed/altimeterstops• check• Hold• Atnormalcruisespeedreducepower• Adjust• Trim
NoseLow • Highorhairspeed• ialtitude• hrateofdescent• hengineRPM
• ipowerandlevelwings• Easeoutofdive,checkairspeed• Whenaltimeterstops• check• Setcruisepower• Hold• Adjust• Trim
SpiralDive • Highorhairspeed• ialtitude• Highangleofbank• Highrateofdescent• HighorhG-loads• hengineRPM
• Closethrottleandlevelwings• Easeoutofdive,checkairspeed• Whenaltimeterstops• check• Setcruisepower• Hold• Adjust• Trim
• Whenstraightandlevelregained,returntooriginalreferencealtitudeandheading
2. Airmanship• Enoughheightforrecovery
• SRS–A/S,Alt,thentherest
• Limitingspeeds–VA,VNO,VNE,andrpmlimit
3. Aeroplane Management• Smoothpositivecontrolmovements
4. Human Factors• Humanorientationsystemhaslimitations• Instrumentfailurerare• Trusttheinstruments
1. Considerations• Unusualattitudecanbeenteredduehighworkload,fixation,leans• Trusttheinstruments• Recovertostraightandlevelfirst• Thenregainaltitudeandheading• Change–check–hold–adjust–trim• Mustidentifythepositionofthehorizon
Limited Panel1. Checkairspeed–stopfurtherincreaseordecrease2. Adjustpowertocompensate3. Rollwingslevel
Change Ifaltitudeh–ibackpressure(push) Ifaltitudei–hbackpressure(pull) Until100spointerstopsmoving
Check
Hold
Adjust
Trim(butyoushouldn’tneedto)
instruMent FLyingnight Flying
ObjectiveTooperatetheaircraftsafelybothonthegroundandintheairatnight.
5. Air Exercise
On the Ground• Taxyslowly• Noticerunwaylightinperipheralvision• Aircraftonapproach• Transfertoinstrumentsassoonasairborne• Whenestablishedinclimb,canusevisualreference
In the Circuit• Familcircuit• Locallandmarksandtownships• Downwindspacing
Approach and Landing• Approachperspectivewithrunwayedgelights• Don’tlookintothearealitbylandinglight• Speedwhenvacating
2. Airmanship• Preflightinthelight• Useofaeroplane’slights• Numberofotheraircraftinthecircuit
• Illusions• MinimumSafeAltitude
3. Aeroplane Management• MorefrequentSADIEchecks• Dewandfrost• Cockpitlayout• Trustinstruments
4. Human Factors• Instrumentflyingillusions• Nightvisionfactors–adaptation,health,oxygen,colourperception,depthperception,focus,focallength,blackhole,lightsandstars
1. Considerations• NightisbetweenECTandMCT• Legal:Aerodrome/aircraftlightingandminima(controlled/uncontrolled)
Prerequisites• 2hoursIF• PPL–2hrsdual,2hrssolo,5total
Night Vision• RodsandCones• Cones–colour• Rods–peripheralvisionandmovement• Usedfornightvision
Dark Adaptation• 30minutes• Avoidbrightlights
Illusions• Lookout• Speedperception• Lackofhorizon• IFillusions• Flickervertigo• Auto-kinesis• Starlightconfusion• Blackhole
Equipment• Torch,andsparebatteries• HighViz• Alllightsoperational• Personalequipment–torch,pen,mobilephone,watch,warmclothing,survivalkit,possiblyspareVHForGPS
Familiarity with Aeroplane• Knowlocationofcontrolsandswitches
Familiarity with Aerodrome• Vol4OperationalData• Aerodromelighting• ATClightsignals• Approachlighting
Weather• InadvertentIMC• Diurnalwindeffect• OvercastVsclearsky• Tempanddewpoint
Emergencies• Radiofailure• Runwaylightingfailure• LandingorNavlightfailure• Internallightfailure• Electricalfailure• Enginefailure