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PERCEPTIONS OF USEFULNESS: USING THE HOLLAND CODE THEORY,MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES THEORY, AND ROLE MODEL IDENTIFICATIONTO DETERMINE A CAREER NICHE IN THE FASHION INDUSTRY FOR FIRST-
QUARTER FASHION STUDENTS
A dissertation submitted to the
Kent State University College and Graduate School
of Education, Health, and Human Services
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
by
Crystal D. Green
May, 2010
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ii
© Copyright by Crystal D. Green 2010
All Rights Reserved
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iii
A dissertation written by
Crystal D. Green
B.L.S., Bowling Green State University of Ohio, 1991
M.A., The University of Akron of Ohio, 1998
Ed.S., Kent State University of Ohio, 2001
Ph.D., Kent State University of Ohio, 2010
Approved by
________________________________ , Co-director, Doctoral Dissertation Committee
Alexa L. Sandmann, Ed.D.
________________________________ , Co-director, Doctoral Dissertation CommitteeSteven Turner, Ph.D.
________________________________ , Member, Doctoral Dissertation Committee
Catherine Leslie, Ph.D.
Accepted by
________________________________ , Director, School of Teaching and CurriculumAlexa L. Sandmann, Ed.D Studies
________________________________ , Dean, College and Graduate School of
Daniel Mahoney Education, Health and Human Services
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GREEN, D. CRYSTAL, PhD., May 2010 TEACHING, LEADERSHIPAND CURRICULUM STUDIES
PERCEPTIONS OF USEFULNESS: USING THE HOLLAND CODETHEORY, MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES THEORY, AND ROLE MODEL
IDENTIFICATION TO DETERMINE A CAREER NICHE IN THE FASHION
INDUSTRY FOR FIRST-QUARTER FASHION STUDENTS (217 pp.)
Co-Directors of Dissertation: Alexa Sandmann, Ed.D
Steven Turner, Ph.D
This action research study investigated the perceptions that student participants
had on the development of a career exploration model and a career exploration project.
The Holland code theory was the primary assessment used for this research study, in
addition to the Multiple Intelligences theory and the identification of a role model for the
purpose of identifying a career niche in the fashion industry. Twelve student participants
took part in this research study as they researched and collaborated in groups and
individually to understand the various careers in the fashion industry and how some of
those careers can provide a congruent working environment based on their Holland codes
and their personality, skills, and interests.
The student participants were first quarter-fashion students at The Art Institute of
Charlotte in North Carolina and they presented their findings in class, for both the career
exploration project the career exploration model which included an optional individual
consultation. The presentation for the career exploration model was titled a Dream Job
and student participants also had an opportunity to select their favorite book or magazine
and favorite television program as a means of connecting or confirming their career
niche. A semantic differential survey was used to assist in determining participants’
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perception of usefulness for this career exploration model. Overall student participants
found the career exploration model useful, all student participants (100%) were able to
select careers which reflected their Holland code, all student participants (100%) were
able to make a connection with their MI strength(s), all student participants (100%)
selected dream jobs which reflected their personalities, skills, and interests, 75% of the
student participants were able to make a connection with their role model, finally there
was a measurable awareness of various positions in the fashion industry after the career
exploration project and based on the post-career test results, student participants
identified an average of 14.4 more fashion careers indicating a 332% increase.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First, I give thanks to God. There were a few occasions when I did not think I
would complete this research project, but through Him ALL things are possible.
Next, my deepest and sincerest gratitude goes to all who supported me through
this long journey. To my committee members, thank you for your constant support,
especially to co-advisor Dr. Sandmann for your guidance, encouragement and the endless
hours that you devoted to this project, reading and re-reading my dissertation. To co-
advisor Dr. Turner, thank you for simplifying all the complicated intricacies of the
dissertation process, and to Dr. Leslie, thank you for your guidance in the area of fashion
academia.
Special thanks to Dr. Savickas, my career advising professor, and Dr. Shearer my
MI professor; without the two of you, I would not have developed this career exploration
model. To my students who participated in this study, thank you for your candor and
dedication. I would also like to thank my peer reviewer and friend Dr. Tricia Hillard for
your constant support and encouragement.
To my mother Carolyn Green and sister Carla Garrett, thank you so much for
standing by me all these years through my educational journey. And thank you dear
friend Kevin Smith who has always been there when I needed you and to future
“Dr.” Tameka Ellington who has gone through this wonderful journey with me. I hope
we walk across the stage together dear friend.
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This dissertation is dedicated to the loving memory of my grandmother Thelma
Calhoun and my father Cornell Green who both instilled in me the importance of
obtaining a higher education and also to Dr. John Holland who developed the primary
theory used in this research study and finally to Dr. Elizabeth Rhodes, who hired me at
The School of Fashion Design and Merchandising at Kent State University. Her tireless
effort and commitment to excellence will always live on.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................. iv
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. ix
CHAPTER
I INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................1 Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................2
Purpose of the Study ...............................................................................................3
Research Questions .................................................................................................4
Defined Terms ........................................................................................................5
Career Exploration Suggestions..............................................................................8
II REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...................................................................................15
Career Advisors in Fashion...................................................................................15
Retailing ...........................................................................................................15
Career Exploration ...........................................................................................17 Future Direction of the Fashion Industry ...............................................................20
Fibers and Fabrics ............................................................................................20
Design ..............................................................................................................21
Production ........................................................................................................22
Retailing ...........................................................................................................22
Holland‟s Theory ..................................................................................................26
Holland‟s Theory Studies .....................................................................................29 Gardner‟s Theory of Multiple Intelligences .........................................................39
Multiple Intelligences Career Studies ...................................................................41
Other Significant Studies in Multiple Intelligences ..............................................46 Holland Theory and Gardner‟s MI Theory Compared .........................................51
Role Model Studies ...............................................................................................54
III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .............................................................................62
Introduction ...........................................................................................................62
Research Questions ...............................................................................................62
Methodology .........................................................................................................63 Validity and Reliability…… .............................................................................…64
Background/Pilots .................................................................................................70
Site ........................................................................................................................71 Setting ...................................................................................................................72
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The Course .......................................................................................................72 Timeline of Study ............................................................................................72
Sample ..................................................................................................................84
Data Collection and Procedures ............................................................................87
Data Analysis ........................................................................................................96
Ensuring Trustworthiness .....................................................................................99
Limitations ..........................................................................................................100
Significance of the Study ....................................................................................104 Summary .............................................................................................................105
IV ANALYSIS OF DATA AND RESULTS ..............................................................106
Introduction .........................................................................................................106 Participants..........................................................................................................108
Career Pretest ......................................................................................................112
Holland Group Presentations ..............................................................................114
Holland Code Analysis .......................................................................................117
Individual Consultations .....................................................................................120
Dream Job Presentations .....................................................................................122 Career Posttest ....................................................................................................138
Individual Comparisons of the Career Pre- and Posttest ....................................140
Semantic Differential Survey..............................................................................142
Summary .............................................................................................................149
V DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .....................................................151
Research Questions .............................................................................................151
Question 1 ......................................................................................................151
Question 2 ......................................................................................................153
Question 3 ......................................................................................................154
Question 4 ......................................................................................................156 Question 5 ......................................................................................................157
Question 6 ......................................................................................................158
Question 7 ......................................................................................................159 Contributions Towards a Career Exploration Model ..........................................160
Contributions Towards Career Exploration ........................................................164
Implications for Practice .....................................................................................165 Future Research ..................................................................................................166
Reflections ..........................................................................................................167
APPENDICES .................................................................................................................169
APPENDIX A KENT STATE CONSENT FORM .........................................................170
APPENDIX B ART INSTITUTE OF CHARLOTTE CONSENT FORM .....................172
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viii
APPENDIX C LESSON PLANS AND COURSE OUTLINE........................................174
APPENDIX D HOLLAND CODE ASSESSMENT .......................................................177
APPENDIX E HOLLAND CODE FASHION CAREER CHART ................................181
APPENDIX F HOLLAND CODE CAREER EXPLORATION GROUPPRESENTATION ...................................................................................................186
APPENDIX G FASHION INDUSTRY SURVEY DREAM JOB PRESENTATION ...188
APPENDIX H MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE QUIZ (ASSESSMENT) ........................191
APPENDIX I FASHION INDUSTRY SURVEY DREAM JOB WORKSHEET ..........197
APPENDIX J SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SURVEY................................................200
APPENDIX K PERMISSION TO USE THE HOLLAND CODE QUIZ .......................203
APPENDIX L PERMISSION TO USE THE MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES QUIZ ...205
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................207
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LIST OF TABLES
Page
1 Holland‟s Typologies and Multiple Intelligences Strengths Comparison Chart .......51
2 Anderson's Validity Criteria Table ...........................................................................65
3 Course Activities ........................................................................................................83
4 Student Participants ...................................................................................................86
5 Data Analysis Chart ...................................................................................................95
6 Example of Data Analysis Comparison Chart - Student Participantswith Holland Code Results ........................................................................................98
7 Alias Identification of Student Participants .............................................................108
8 Tracking Student Participants Participation.............................................................112
9 Pretest Career Table .................................................................................................113
10 Student Participants with Holland Code Results .....................................................118
11 Cass‟ Dream Job Presentation Chart........................................................................122
12 Amanda‟s Dream Job Presentation Chart ................................................................123
13 Nena‟s Dream Job Presentation Chart .....................................................................125
14 Melissa‟s Dream Job Presentation Chart .................................................................126
15 Reese‟s Dream Job Presentation Chart ....................................................................128
16 Veronica‟s Dream Job Presentation Chart ...............................................................130
17 Janet‟s Dream Job Presentation Chart .....................................................................131
18 Marie‟s Dream Job Presentation Chart ....................................................................133
19 Student Participants Dream Job Chart ......................................................................134
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20 Career Posttest Results .............................................................................................138
21 Student Participant Pre and Post Career Chart Comparison ....................................140
22 Semantic Differential Survey Results ………………. ...............………………….143
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Entering most fashion degree programs, newly enrolled students are eager and
excited about the possibility of developing a career in the fashion industry upon
graduation; however, the reality is that while they may be exposed to certain occupations
through an introductory fashion course (Steiner, 2004) and obtain various internship
experiences, without guidance and exposure to the most appropriate career opportunities
for their skills and interests, students can easily miss out on the specific career
opportunity which is best suited for them. Therefore most fashion graduates attain typical
fashion positions such as retail manager, corporate buyer or designer (Gorek, 2007;
Granger, 2007; Hartsog, 2007). Other fashion graduates accept positions outside of the
fashion industry simply because they lack the insight that might prove to be beneficial in
preparing them for a career that directly reflects their talents and interests within the
fashion industry (Frazier & Cheek, 2005; Hines & Lee, 2005).
Granger (2007), author of Fashion, The Industry and Its Careers indicated: Many
students enroll in an introductory fashion course knowing that they love the world
of fashion, yet wondering what careers exist in this world. They often recognize
the careers of designers and buyers but what career tracks are available and where
are those jobs found? Many students cannot imagine that they can spend a
lifetime working in an area (fashion) they enjoy and in which they can apply their
individual talents and skills. (p. xxiii-xxiv)
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Unbeknownst to most fashion students, there is a plethora of opportunities outside
of retail management, fashion design, and buying that may better reflect their personality,
talents, skills, and interests. These opportunities are under-promoted. Not only are most
students unaware of their existence, but some career exploration professionals are as well.
Statement of the Problem
The Art Institute of Charlotte is committed to securing employment for graduates
within six months of graduation, as are all Art Institutes nationally. The mission
statement reflects this commitment, describing it as an institution of higher learning that
is committed to preparing students to be well trained for a career. Placement rate statistics
reflect positions within the student‟s field of study. However, during the beginning of the
2007 – 2008 academic school year, the career advisors identified a challenge in securing
job placement for fashion students in both degree programs the Associates in Fashion
Marketing and the Bachelors in Fashion Marketing and Management. Specifically they
noted that fashion students, as well as the advisors themselves, were limited in
knowledge about the variety of positions that are best suited for those graduating.
Important to note is that the career advising team does not currently use an assessment
instrument to help students gain a better understanding of their interests, skills and
specifically, their career niche. The advisors asked fashion faculty members to assist
them with ideas to stimulate possible employment opportunities. One suggestion was that
job placement should be focused more on discovering a student‟s career niche rather than
filling open positions in the fashion industry. Instead of searching job postings and
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3
contacting potential employers with whom students are interested in working, students
should be exposed to career exploration as a process of identifying a career niche that
reflects the students‟ skills, talents and interest. This is a process that can be challenging
for a number of reasons especially in the fashion industry, because there are so many
occupations with which students and career advisors are unfamiliar. Additionally there is
not a definitive solution to career exploration.
Purpose of the Study
The primary purpose of this study was to propose a career exploration model for
first-quarter fashion students at The Art Institute of Charlotte that reflected their skills
and interest. Specifically, this career exploration model was to assist fashion students in
identifying their career niche. Then fashion students were able to determine to what
extent the proposed career exploration model is useful; in other words, their perception of
usefulness was determined. Two theory-based assessments were used in this study. The
Holland code theory, developed by Psychologist John Holland, used six typologies
represented by Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional
(RIASEC) (Boyd & Cramer, 1995; Gottfredson & Holland, 1996). The other theory that
was used in this study complements the Holland theory. The Multiple Intelligences (MI)
theory focuses on strengths or intelligences that can be promoted as learning styles, such
as verbal/linguistic, math/logic, musical/rhythmic, visual/spatial, body/kinesthetic,
interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic (Franklin, 2006; Strasser & Seplocha, 2005).
These two theories were selected because they share overlapping interests or similarities
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4
in representation that could aid in the career exploration process. Fashion students were
also asked to identify a role model as part of their career-niche process.
The perception of usefulness of the Holland code theory combined with the MI
theory and the identification of a role model served as the primary quantitative
components for this career exploration model for first-quarter fashion students at the Art
Institute of Charlotte and this was the primary purpose for this research study.
The secondary purpose of this study was to measures awareness of various
positions in the fashion industry after the career exploration process. This was
accomplished primarily through a career exploration project and presentation and the use
of the Holland Code Fashion Career Chart that was constructed by the researcher for the
purpose of this research study and reviewed by Peer Professionals.
Research Questions
1. To what extent does the Holland code assess student participants‟
perceptions of their career niche in the fashion industry?
2. To what extent do the student participants perceive they are better prepared
for their career in the fashion industry by participating in the Dream Job
presentation?
3. To what extent do student participants perceive that they can make a
connection between the Holland code theory and the Multiple Intelligences
theory in identifying their career niche?
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4. To what extent can student participants make a connection between their role
model and their career niche?
5. To what extent can student participants make a connection between their
favorite book or magazine and their career niche?
6. To what extent can student participants make a connection between their
favorite television program and their career niche?
7. To what extent has career exploration assisted student participants to become
more exposed to new occupations in the fashion industry?
For the purpose of this study the pertinent terms are defined below.
Defined Terms
Career niche – the specific interest or passion that relates to a person‟s vocational
choice or career preference.
Career advising – process that provides professional assistance to clients in
determining their possible career niche. Process may include the use of self-directed
assessments, interviewing, and personal consultations (Whiston & Rahardja, 2005).
Career exploration (fashion) – the process of actively engaging students in
activities that can be collaborative or independent but resolved for the purpose of
exposing students to various careers in the fashion industry that they were unaware of
(Hines & Lee, 2005; Paulins, 2005).
Family and Consumer Sciences – name representing the department or school that
can or once housed fashion departments, other schools or departments including Family
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Ecology, Home Economics, Human Resources and Family Sciences, and Applied Art
(Laughlin & Kean, 1995).
Fashion – a style that is accepted and used by a group of people and results from
social emulation and acceptance (Stone, 2007).
Fashion industry – comprised of the manufacturers that produce end products
used for the production of apparel and accessories for women, men, and children (Stone,
2003).
Fashion marketing and/or management students – is an all-inclusive term which
is not limited to marketing and management students but also includes all students who
demonstrate an interest in fashion and desire a career/vocation in the industry.
Favorite book or magazine – a favorite book or magazine identified as a career-
counseling tool to “make a connection” or “confirmation” of the selected career niche
(Savickas, 1989).
Favorite television program – a favorite television program identified as a career-
counseling tool to “make a connection” or “confirmation” of the selected career niche
(Savickas, 1989).
Holland assessment – a self-directed and self-administered assessment that asks a
series of questions reflecting one‟s personality and interests; assessments are available
on-line at various websites without charge. Results produce a three-letter code
representing the typology environment in which the assessor is most suited to work. At
some Websites, possible career occupations may be suggested based on the three-letter
code results (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996; Miller, 2003).
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Holland code – a three-letter code used primarily for occupational purposes to
represent a combination of any of the six typologies developed by psychologist John
Holland. The Dictionary of Holland Occupational Codes contains occupational codes for
more than 12,800 occupations and is used for every industry and by the U.S. Department
of Labor, Commerce, and Education (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996).
Holland theory – developed by psychologist John Holland, this theory describes
how work environments differ. Holland uses the term typology to describe the differences
between such environments; people are different and the term typology also applies to
their differences. According to the theory, for people to work in an environment where
they are fulfilled or for congruency to occur, matching typologies representing the
environments and the person would need to exist. The typologies are addressed by the
acronym (RIASEC), (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996; Gottfredson & Duffy, 2008).
Introduction fashion course – the first course in which fashion students are
enrolled that exposes them to an overview of the fashion industry and various careers in
the fashion industry (Steiner, 2004).
Multiple Intelligences theory – theory developed by Howard Gardner (1983) that
identifies a person‟s intelligences or strengths by means of an assessment. This theory is
often used as a learning style and is seldom linked to careers; however, for the purpose of
this study it was used as a complementary assessment for career guidance.
Role model identification – in terms of career-counseling or guidance, the
selection process of a person who one admires or a person who possesses qualities that
one admires and would also like to possess (Quimby & DeSantis, 2006; Savickas, 1989).
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Typologies – a visual representation of both the working environment and the
person who is congruent to that working environment based on a hexagram designed by
the theory it represents. Psychologist John Holland‟s typologies are addressed by the
acronym RIASEC (Gottfredson & Duffy, 2008; Gottfredson & Holland, 1996).
Career Exploration Suggestions
Suggestions from researchers in fashion academia, the fashion industry, career
advising for general career fields, as well as career advising for the arts, fashion, and
Family and Consumer Sciences have been reviewed. They provided some practical
solutions for assisting with career exploration and identifying a client‟s career niche;
therefore, some of the following suggestions were implemented in this study.
Career advisors often take multiple approaches when guiding clients to their
career niche and in that process, the use of multiple assessments is a preferred approach
(Lulgjural & Cooley, 2006). These researchers urge career advisors in the arts to provide
students with a variety of assessments, preferably interactive assessments that “allow
individuals to share ideas and reflect on their thoughts” (p. 38). For the purpose of this
study, two assessments were used. The Holland code assessment and the Multiple
Intelligences assessments are the two assessments selected for this research study because
they share overlapping interests and are therefore helpful for student participants to make
a connection between the two assessments and also with their career niche. In addition to
the Holland code and Multiple Intelligences assessments, career professionals have
directed youth to identify a role model to further assist them in the development of their
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career paths (McFarland, Smith, West, & Rhodes, 2000; Quimby & DeSantis, 2006). The
concept of role model identification provides students with an opportunity to share the
importance of how someone has impacted their life (McFarland, et al, 2000; Quimby &
DeSantis, 2006; Rivera, Chen, Flore, Blumburg, & Ponterotto, 2007). For some, it is
exposure to a successful professional (Quimby & DeSantis, 2007). For others it may be a
family member or a close friend who have influenced their life (McFarland et al., 2000;
Rivera et al., 2007). Results of role model identification as it relates to careers usually
produces two results: (a) the student will select a similar career path as their role model
(Quimby & DeSantis, 2006); or (b) they will transfer the traits or characteristics from the
role model into their careers (McFarland, et al, 2000; Quimby & DeSantis, 2006; Rivera
et al., 2007).
Professionals in Family and Consumer Sciences suggest providing a connection
between internships and the classroom; specifically, the classroom environment should
involve a course where students use the knowledge they have acquired in school and
directly apply it to the work environment (Smith, 1998). To that end, this study took
place in an introductory course, Fashion Industry Survey, where students were exposed to
various professionals in the fashion industry, as well as various internship opportunities
through the industry professionals.
A Communications Coordinator for Future Homemakers of America promoted
the idea of career preparation through a national program developed by Future
Homemakers of America called Career Connection. The program essentially has three
goals: (a) to help young people explore and prepare for a career, (b) introduce young
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people to the process of career development, and (c) assist young people in understanding
and preparing for connections between their careers, their families, and their communities
(Hopkins, 1998). This study explored students‟ attitudes of the usefulness of various
career options in the fashion industry by developing a detailed plan through which
students had an opportunity to draw connections that could exist with their career, as well
as their families and perhaps the community as well.
Researchers outside the field of fashion or Family and Consumer Sciences state
that career exploration in general can be challenging, specifically when considering that
exploration in and of itself can be limiting. Mitchell, Levin, and Krumboltz (1999) noted
that“ by itself [exploration] is of little value unless it leads to constructive action;
furthermore, the researchers states that “efforts need to concentrate on enabling clients to
take the necessary actions” (p. 120). In other words, part of the exploration process in
identifying a client‟s career niche is fundamentally motivational. In that a client needs to
react to the discovery of his/her new found career. Advisors primarily assist clients in
exploring and discovering their career niche, but the responsibility for fulfilling that
career is ultimately up to the client.
This study explored students‟ perception of usefulness in terms of having an
opportunity to actively plan the steps they should take to secure the position best suited
for them. Personality and inventory quantitative assessments have typically been used to
assist career advisors in identifying possible career models for their clients; qualitative
assessments have also proven to be helpful. A nontraditional way to career exploration is
to use a qualitative assessment. This option can provide an objective way to explore
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careers according to McMahon, Patton, and Watson (2003). Further, others argue that
qualitative assessment offers a holistic interpretation that provides clients the opportunity
to take a more active role in their career goals (Goldman, 1990). The additional use of
qualitative assessments over quantitative assessments is supported by Savickas (1992),
partially due to the establishment of a relationship between individuals whose common
goal becomes that of an interpretation of experiences, not just a result from an
assessment. He stated, when referring to advisors, that they should “listen for life themes
and stories act more as biographers who interpret lives in progress rather than as actuaries
who count interest and abilities” (p. 338). By using qualitative assessments, career
advising take a constructivist approach to resolving their clients‟ career concerns by
making meaning from their values and traits. Those who use qualitative assessments
support the possibility of providing meaning to the interpretation of results. In
quantitative assessments, this meaning-making interpretation based on the clients‟ values
and traits is absent.
Career advisors at both ends of the spectrum can support their views on
quantitative and qualitative assessments; however, some advisors suggest that an
integration of the two approaches may be useful (Borgen, 1999; Church, 2001). These
advisors suggest “that new models of career exploration be integrative and understand the
complexities of individuals‟ lives and the importance of personal and work -related
issues” (Whiston & Rahardja, 2005). Whiston and Rahardja go on to say that
“assessments (either quantitative or qualitative) be embedded within the career
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exploration process in a seamless integration that helps individuals address work and
personal issues in productive ways” (p.379).
One way that this seamless integration can be achieved is by using a tool that
provides qualitative data to an already existing quantitative assessment tool such as the
Holland code and MI. Researchers Quimby and DeSantis (2006) examined the influence
of role models as compared to self efficacy when using the Holland code-specifically the
typologies of RIASEC-and concluded that “role model influence added to the prediction
of career choice over and above the contribution of self-efficacy” (p. 303) with the only
exception being the investigative component (Quimby & DeSantis, 2006). The
researchers therefore supported the concept that role model identification used as a
qualitative assessment combined with the Holland code quantitative assessment can
produce a seamless integration and effective counseling tool.
To create a seamless integration of qualitative and quantitative data that better
assisted students in identifying their career niche in the fashion industry, student
participants used two assessments (Holland code and Multiple Intelligences assessments)
in the quantitative aspect of this study and participated in an open dialogue with the
researcher for the qualitative aspect of this study, based on their identification of a role
model. Additionally participants were asked to create a plan to assist them in their pursuit
of a career niche in hopes of securing a dream job that best suits their personality, skills,
interests and strengths. This seamless integration of quantitative and qualitative methods
can be actively intertwined for educators within the methodology of action research.
Action research provides educators the opportunity to design a change within the
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13
structure of an educational setting that addresses a specific problem, implement the
change, and assess its effectiveness (Hatch, 2002 & Mills, 2003). For this research study,
action research has been selected as the methodology.
It should be noted that under some circumstances, after career advisors have
exhausted all resources and have exposed students to the specific careers they believe
they are best suited for, there may be doubt, or students could be no closer to making a
career decision. Bansberg and Sklare (1986) summarized this occurrence when they
stated “even though the counselor may have done his/her best to assist by providing them
with career information, interest inventories, and ability assessments, etc, they still are
not closer to a career decision” (p.1).
This situation occurred in prior exploratory studies, when after the research was
completed, students were not completely convinced that the career niche they determined
was actually their career niche. To address this concern, there is a form of exploration
titled career-style (Savickas, 1989) which consists of stimulus questions to elicit life
goals and style information. These questions provoke a psychological connection which
assists students in making a connection to their career niche. The questions consist of (a)
identifying their favorite book or magazine; and (b) identifying their favorite television
program. For the purpose of this study, this form of career – style exploration is not
considered an assessment method but rather a means for students to make a connection
with their career niche. The primary goal of this study was to determine the perception of
usefulness in using this nontraditional career exploration method.
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The secondary purpose of this study was to measure awareness of various
positions in the fashion industry after the career exploration process. This was
accomplished through the Holland code career exploration project and presentation and
the use of a Holland Code Fashion Career Chart that was constructed based on the
Holland codes and developed by the researcher for the purpose of this study. The chart
was also reviewed by Peer Professionals.
Finally, my motivation for conducting this research study was to enlighten
incoming fashion students to the endless possibilities that remain before them in the
world of fashion. As Granger (2007), Gorek (2007), and Hartsog (2007) have made us
aware, students are underexposed to these occupations, and yet they are graduating
without entering an occupation for which they are best suited. Furthermore, it takes more
than exposure to fashion occupations to provide them with the employment opportunities
in fashion for which they have been educated (Frazier & Cheek, 2005; Hines & Lee,
2005; Paulins, 2005; Savickas, 1989). Students need to be assisted to identify their unique
career niche that reflects their skills, talents, and interests. They need to work in an
environment that is congruent with their personality (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996).
They need to know that there are multiple options available to them along their journey in
selecting a career niche. They need to realize that in the world of fashion, there is more
than retail manager, buyer, and designer (Gorek, 2007; Granger, 2007; Hartsog, 2007).
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This literature review focused on four areas, career exploration from a fashion
industry perspective, the Holland code perspective, the Multiple Intelligences
perspective, and the identification of a role model. By reviewing multiple theoretical
perspectives, I intended to provide a foundation that supported the importance of this
career exploration model and career exploration project for first-quarter fashion students
at The Art Institute of Charlotte. This study is specifically important for these students
because they lacked the exposure to fashion positions that best reflected their skills,
talents, interests, and personality or a career niche. Typically, under-promoted fashion
merchandising and/or management, students accept the same retail or buying positions
after graduation (Gorek, 2007; Granger, 2007; Hartsog, 2007). When career exploration
is taken into consideration (Frazier & Cheek, 2005; Hines & Hyun-Hwa-Lee, 2005) and
combined with career assessment such as the Holland code theory, MI theory and the
identification of a role model, students are provided with an opportunity to better identify
their career niche.
Career Advisors in Fashion
Retailing
Retailing is a popular career option for fashion merchandising students, but
because of its popularity, it is important to consider ways in which future opportunities
for our students can be enhanced by this occupation that is the core or mainstay of the
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industry (Avery, 1989; Fair, Hamilton, & Norum, 1990). Avery (1989) suggests
considering developing skills that are transferable to make the student more marketable.
Avery also suggests considering the possibility of competing for upper- management
positions that were once dominated by men but are now becoming filled by more and
more women (1989).
Fair, Hamilton, and Norum (1990) suggest some changes to assist in the future
careers of merchandising professionals. The authors suggest that the first change should
come in the form of the curriculum, specifically, changes that would make students
“future key players in the marketplace” (p 33). The curriculum goal should be to optimize
students‟ performance both professionally and personally. Another change the authors
suggest is to prepare merchandising students for careers other than retailing. Fair et al.
(1990) specifically mention other channels of preparation in the retail area such as
technological and operational innovations in the apparel industry and the importance of
having specific product knowledge in these areas.
The final change that Fair et al. (1990) suggest for career preparation is for
educators to take a global approach to instruction. Students should be made aware of the
numerous governmental regulations impacting the fashion industry, both domestically
and internationally. They should be exposed to the social, political, economic, and
technological advantages and disadvantages that exist globally and could impact their
career choices. Finally, by providing students with a strong global perspective, the world
is now available to them to broaden their career opportunities (Fair et al, 1990.). The Fair
et al. study on retailing is significant because the authors honor the importance of making
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changes in the curriculum, in the workplace, and in the mindset of educators to take
merchandising students to the next level and better prepare them for careers in addition to
retailing.
Career Exploration
As career exploration began to evolve, it entered the classroom, providing
students with an opportunity to become exposed to careers in the fashion industry
(Frazier & Cheek, 2005; Hines & Lee, 2005; Paulins, 2005). Frazier and Cheek (2005)
reported the results of a career exploration project in an introductory fashion-
merchandising course in which student teams conducted research in order to develop a
matrix that addressed the four fashion segments of the fashion business that reflected
career occupations. These segments include primary (fiber/textile); secondary
(design/production); retail (buying/merchandising); and auxiliary (advertising/publicity)
occupations. Students were provided five fashion career texts and exposed to several
guest speakers and industry professionals to assist them with the process. Using critical-
thinking skills and technology, students were asked to produce four spreadsheets, one for
each of the fashion segments, highlighting their research findings, and specifically
reviewing a natural progression in the occupation, salary, education, and experience
(Frazier & Cheek, 2005). This study is significant because students were provided with
an opportunity to become exposed to each of the four segments of the fashion industry.
They conducted research on specific occupations within each segment, met industry
professionals, worked collaboratively, and used critical-thinking skills at the beginning of
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their educational program, when it could be considered most beneficial. The significance
of this study was incorporated into this research study.
Active learning is a concept used in an introductory merchandising class to
promote career exploration (Hines & Lee, 2005). The students‟ primary assignment was
to write a research paper on career opportunities by using career publications and
interviewing an industry professional. During the interviewing process, students gathered
specific information from professionals, such as their academic preparation, experience,
salary, career training, and advancement opportunities, in addition to discussing matters
about dealing with work-related stress and time commitment. Once research papers were
written, each student evaluated one another‟s paper in a peer -review process prior to
submitting their final paper (Hines & Lee, 2005). This study is significant because it
exposed introductory merchandising students to the importance of exploring fashion
careers, active learning, working with industry professionals, and the peer-review
process.
In another attempt to enhance career exploration, a total of 424 surveys were
collected by 106 sophomore apparel-merchandising students who participated in a study
over three academic quarters (Paulins, 2005). Student participants were asked to obtain
four surveys from retail employees in all levels of the fashion industry. The goal of the
study was to expose students to pertinent information available in the literature and to
provide students with an opportunity to collect data from fashion employees across a
broad range of store types, retailer product offerings and employee positions so they
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could examine employee-reported perceptions of satisfaction levels (Paulins, 2005, p.
217).
Additionally, Paulins (2005) stated this project provided students with an
opportunity to discuss any biases they perhaps might have toward working in a mass-
market retail rather than working in a high-end retail environment, while exposing them
to the construct of corporate excellence. Three research questions were posed: (a) Does
the store type represented by the company where the survey respondent works make a
difference in reported measures of corporate performance? (b) Does the product sold by
the company where the survey respondent works make a difference in reported measures
of corporate performance? and (c) Does the position of the survey respondent in the
company make a difference in reported measures of corporate performance? Results were
measured using the EXCEL seven-point scale developed by Sharma et al. (1990).
EXCEL is designed to measure a subject‟s perceptions using a scale that reflects
statements from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Analysis of variance was used to
determine differences in employee perceptions.
Results for the first question indicated that the store where the respondents work
did make a difference in corporate performance; specifically, this perception was noted
for employees of department stores, restaurants, and big-box retailers. In the second
question, no significant differences were indicated with the products that were sold for
each of the stores. However, for the final question the perceptions of corporate excellence
shifted as the progression to higher level corporate positions shifted; those who occupied
higher leadership positions, “were more positive about company execution of criteria that
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contribute toward corporate excellence than were their frontline counterparts sale
associates, and stock workers” (Paulins, 2005, p.221). This study is significant because it
provided students with an opportunity to conduct career exploration outside the
classroom in actual retail environments. Additionally, students became exposed to
research methods and beneficial networking opportunities they could continue to use to
build career exploration.
Future Direction of the Fashion Industry
In an effort to prepare tomorrow‟s leaders for the fashion industry, researchers
Kim and Johnson (2007) suggested that first we call on experts in the industry to forecast
the future for the apparel industry, specifically in the United States for the next 10 to 20
years, and second, that we determine if our current senior fashion students are in a
position to accurately assess predictions made by those professional experts to determine
their extent of readiness for their careers. Industry experts looked at the apparel industry
in four separate segments to make their forecasting predictions: fibers and fabrics, design,
production, and retailing.
Fibers and Fabrics
According to the panel of apparel industry experts, technology has been and will
continue to be a driving force in the fashion industry; however, some of the current
concerns address issues about quality of life, including quality of health,
protection/safety, and preserving the environment. Therefore when addressing health
concerns, specialized fibers such as synthetic antibacterial fibers with antimicrobial
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characteristics that retard the growth of fungi, yeast, mold, and bacteria have been
developed (Kim & Johnson, 2007). Nonhalogen flame-retardant plastics have been made
into fibers. Environmentally-friendly fibers are being produced from sugar plants and
corn, and eventually it is predicted, in hopes of keeping up with the environmentally-
friendly evolution, that dextrose will be able to be extracted from virtually any cellulosic
plant, not just sugar or corn (Kim & Johnson, 2007). In terms of technology,
improvements have been made with genetically-engineered cotton fibers to make it
waterproof, as well as wrinkle-, stain- and abrasion-resistant. It is assumed that polyester
and olefin will dominate the market, along with high performance polyethylene. Finally,
“Smart Fabrics” will have the ability to adjust to any consumers‟ desired body
temperature (Kim & Johnson, 2007).
Design
Using nylon as a primary fabric, seamless garments, multifunctional seamless
garments, and practicality in comfort are just some of the trends that the panel of experts
forecast for the next 10 to 20 years. The use of nylon focuses on the prediction of a
growing culture that centers on an active lifestyle, and multifunctional seamless garments
complement the design. Additionally, apparel industry experts forecast that there will be
a neutralization of gender, unisex clothing trends that will include men wearing bright
colors and accessories as a form of self-expression. Finally, there will be a departure from
cultural homogeneity in clothing; experts believe that cultural boundaries will be blurred,
and there will be homogeneity in style (Kim & Johnson, 2007).
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Production
Technology, according to the experts, will also impact the future of production.
One trend involves mechanization. This trend has lead to the adoption of Quick
Response. Quick Response is a management system for apparel manufacturers to
efficiently connect to retailers and suppliers. The technology for this system includes
electronic-data interchange, universal product codes, point-of-sale data, computer-aided
design (CAD), forecasting, and flexible manufacturing. Experts agree that if the “trend
toward mechanization continues, a complete human-free automation of apparel
production may be on the near horizon” (Kim & Johnson, 2007, p. 288). Mass
customization is a production option which provides consumers an opportunity to co-
design a product with a designer. In other words it allows for consumers‟ input to design
end products specifically tailored to their desires. Body-scanning technology and
software templates are part of the mass customization process that ensures the
consumer‟s product matches what they requested (Kim & Johnson, 2007).
Retailing
The mission of retail is to keep customers happy; therefore, in the future, experts
need to determine how the demographics will be shaped in the next 10 to 20 years (Kim
& Johnson, 2007). The panel of experts agreed on the growth of the “grey market,” an
increasingly larger group of older consumers, who because of advances with technology
and medical care, will live longer and healthier lives. Other expected changes in
demographics that are already being experienced and are expected to continue is a greater
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divide in socioeconomic class that will produce a larger gap between the rich and poor.
Also the poor and more women will enter the work force (Kim & Johnson, 2007).
Experts also agreed that there will be a desire for easier access to stores and more
convenience to stores for purchasing products. Consumers are always mobile, hurried and
they want to spend less time doing the routine, everyday things (Kim & Johnson, 2007).
After the experts made their predictions, 30 junior and senior design students at a
Southeastern university and 48 senior retail merchandising students at a Midwestern
university participated in the study. Participants were asked to forecast the four areas
noted above for the next 10 to 20 years, the first two questions answered by the design
students and Questions 3 and 4 answered by the merchandising students. All participants
completed a questionnaire and an essay, limited to two pages for each question.
Question 1 addressed fibers and fabrics. Twenty-two of the 30 design participants
predicted that the industry would continue to specialize in the development of fibers and
fabrics, 12 participants forecasted the continued development of wrinkle-free fabrics, and
11 participants forecasted the continued development of stain-resistant fabrics. Others
mentioned specialized finishes (22); high technology and special functions with
fibers/fabrics (14); comfort and care (8); and environmentally-friendly fibers (8).
The design students recognized the importance that quality of life issues would
impact fabric and fibers in the future; however, less emphasis was noted on the quality of
health issues such as specialized fibers and fabrics that would retard germ growth using
antimicrobial and antibacterial agents as noted by the experts.
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Question 2 addressed design. The most frequently described theme was
“functional” or “practical”: 12 participants agreed that in 10 to 20 years, design will be
more functional. The retro look (9) was the next theme, followed by “comfortable” and
“revealing,” which both had seven advocates. “Individual” and “simple” both had six
advocates. One student believed there would be a major shift in design by stating “I
believe that the next movement will be the anti-high fashion movement…I can‟t afford
the expensive stuff but I want to make it original (Kim & Johnson, 2007, p 295).” Other
participants noted classic (4), and unisex (3) trends (Kim & Johnson, 2007).
Experts and students agreed on a unisex appeal to certain clothing options in the
future and also to offering garments that are simple, practical, and functional. However,
where they differ is some students believe that another retro look would likely return.
And experts predict that nylon will be the primary fabric that designers will gravitate to
because of its versatility in design.
Question 3 addressed production. Merchandising students realized that overall
advancement in technology would advance the apparel industry the most in 10 to 20
years. Specifically, 19 participants noted that “technological development would allow
for the total automation of production” (p. 297). Additionally, participants noted the
importance of computers and robots. Some participants envisioned that technological
advance in the United States may bring apparel production back (7); however, most
participants envisioned production of apparel outside of the United States (21).
In comparison between students and experts, students recognized that production
efforts will be improved via technology; however, they were not able to specifically state
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what forms of technology would be beneficial. The experts recognized that continued
technological advances through quick response, computer-aided design (CAD) and mass
customization will continue to advance production of the fashion industry.
Finally, nearly half (22) of the participants were successful in forecasting the
consumers‟ role with mass customization (Kim & Johnson, 2007). Question 4 addressed
retail: participants were divided by this question, some believing that in 10 to 20 years the
concept of the physical store would be almost obsolete and most consumers would opt for
the convenience of the Internet for practically all of their shopping (29); others indicated
that consumers would want a choice of the physical store or the Internet (21). Some
participants suggested enhancing the experience by providing e-fitting rooms on websites
that would allow customers to import their mirror image and try on garments
electronically (11). Other participants noted an increase in personal shoppers (7), an
elimination of conventional mail-order catalogs (6); and an increase in specialty-store
retailers, specifically plus-size markets (3). Student and expert opinion on retail in the
future diverged because they came from two different perspectives.
Where experts focused more on the “grey market” and consumers living longer,
the experts noted it would be a convenience for consumers to have easier access to
purchase products. They also noted a greater divide in socioeconomic classes. Students
considered the possibility that brick and mortar options could likely become obsolete, and
that some consumers would shop via Internet using e-fitting rooms that mirrored their
image. Although convenience seems to be a commonality between students and experts,
the two have drawn their conclusion using different reasonings.
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One aspect that participants failed to mention, according to Kim and Johnson
(2007) was the significance of Quick Response and its impact on production. The
significance of this research study is the perspective that it provides to fashion academia
as far as the foresight of what we should be emphasizing to better prepare our students for
careers in the fashion industry.
Holland‟s Theory
John Holland‟s (1985) occupational theory is based on personality types and has
generated several research studies. He is a leading authority on self-directed (self-
administered/assessed) vocational assessments (Betz, Borgen, & Harmon, 1996; Boyd &
Cramer, 1995; Helwig & Myrin, 1997). Holland used a hexagon that reflects various
personality types based on common characteristics that are most prevalent among certain
vocational interest groups (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996). Holland‟s research was
developed through a vocational psychology model based on congruence theory:
fundamentally, this theory states that if people are matched based on their personality
with a vocational occupation, they would feel a sense of satisfaction. A similar
occupational theory was conducted by Osipow (1987). Holland then used his congruence
research to create the hexagon that visually illustrates a relationship between a person
who possesses a primary typology and the specific occupation that corresponds to that
typology; for example, a person who is Realistic would thrive in a Realistic environment,
such as a mechanic working in a auto repair shop, and a person who is Investigative,
would thrive in an Investigative environment, such as a scientist working in a laboratory.
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The distance between the primary and the secondary typology helps to further define the
specific characteristic of the individual and provides more insight into the specific work
environment that would be most congruent for them. Usually three typologies or codes
are identified for each individual; the codes can reflect both the individual and the
occupation that is most congruent for them to consider for employment (Gottfredson &
Holland, 1996). In an effort to obtain this information, a self-directed assessment can be
taken online at various Websites, some at no charge, or on paper. For example the
website used for this study can be found at
http://www.roguecc.edu/counseling/HollandCodes/test.asp.
The assessment usually includes approximately 100 questions regarding the
inquirer‟s preferences and skills. Then a three-letter code is provided, a combination of
typologies in the order that best reflect the assessment takers‟ personality and
compatibility to work environments (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996). Furthermore, if the
assessment taker is assessed at the website noted above, possible career occupations are
provided. However these career occupations are limited and do not focus on fashion
occupations. However, the typologies that are used to create the three-letter codes are
represented by RIASEC, and are described as the following (see Figure 1).
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Figure 1. RIASEC Typologies.
Realistic Those who possess mechanical, technical, and manual competencies and
have a preference for solving concrete, tangible problems (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996;
Mumme, 1997).
Investigative Those who are drawn to scientific and mathematical occupations;
additionally those who are in this category have a propensity to be drawn toward
positions that may also include trouble-shooting, problem-solving, or positions classified
as analytical or intellectual (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996; Mumme, 1997).
Artistic Those who are drawn to creative forms of the arts; additionally, those who
are in this category are reported to possess an intuitive ability that they usually draw upon
during work-related situations (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996; Mumme, 1997).
Social Those who enjoy assisting and informing others in a systematic
environment; they are primarily best suited for social or interpersonal occupations such as
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teaching and advising or simply working in an industry where helping or exercising their
humanitarian efforts is a goal (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996; Mumme, 1997).
Enterprising Those who are willing and interested in taking on a leadership role.
Holland described enterprising individuals as possessing a natural ability to manipulate
and influence others. Taking a political stance and asserting aggressive behavior is
typical with this group. Additionally finance or entrepreneurship would be beneficial for
this group (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996; Mumme, 1997).
Conventional Those who are drawn to clerical occupations, such as the
manipulation of data, or systematic details. Conforming to social and employment
demands would be a typical trait for those who are in this category. Typically
employment would be in the clerical field (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996; Mumme,
1997).
Holland‟s Theory Studies
John Holland‟s theory of linking personality types to vocational occupations has
piqued researchers‟ interest for the past five decades. This theory has been used in a
multitude of ways to explore occupational interest, compatibility, and congruence (Betz,
Borgen, & Harmon, 1996; Boyd & Cramer, 1995; Helwig & Myrin, 1997). However,
only one study has focused on the use of Holland‟s theory and fashion careers. That study
was a dissertation comparing 56 fashion merchandising students who had an interest in
the occupation of buyer (Leonard, 1982). The study did not provide statistical support for
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Holland's theory; it was limited by focusing on only one career buying, for all fashion
merchandising students.
Another dissertation in the field of Human Resources and Family Science
explored Holland‟s codes for interior designers to determine the most common primary,
secondary, and tertiary types and job satisfaction (Vigna, 1996). Surveys were mailed to a
random sample of a 1,000 members of the International Interior Design Association. Four
hundred thirty members responded and 375 surveys were eligible for use in the study.
Results indicated that the most common primary code for interior designers was
Enterprising; the most common secondary code was Social, and the most common
tertiary code was Artistic (Vigna, 1996). Job satisfaction was most closely linked to
interior designers who did possess the primary and/or secondary codes of Enterprising
and Social. Vigna (1996) also stated that differences in job satisfaction most likely
occurred with interior designers who were contract designers and residential designers.
This study is significant because it links a specific occupation with the three codes within
Holland‟s typologies to job satisfaction; additionally, interior design is an artistic field
and therefore supports this study. Further, in past exploratory studies, similar results in
assessment of codes have occurred.
Another Holland study spanned a 10-year period and three generations in one
family to determine the stability of codes in that decade and also to explore compatibility
between family members and significant others (Helwig & Myrin, 1997). This study was
significant not only because the researcher chose to explore how the influence of
interrelationships among family members impacted their Holland codes, but also because
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this is one of the few studies that revisited an original longitudinal study to determine if
there were any significant changes among family-member participants. Although Helwig
and Myrin (1997) reported that there was an influence on interrelationships among family
members when their Holland codes were compared, there was a difference among
generations when educational attainment and societal impact were considered.
First- generation family members were strongly Realistic, which Helwig and
Myrin (1997) contributed to their very rural existence and acceptance of a farming
lifestyle, while third-generation family members were influenced by a more urban
lifestyle. Most had obtained bachelor‟s degrees and the ideal of living and working on a
farm had become less appealing. These family members were assessed as Social, and the
researchers concluded that the Social Holland code had replaced the Realistic code as the
dominant family code, with an increase in the Investigative code, which researchers
contributed to the latest generation‟s pursuit and obtainment of a higher level of
education. This study is significant because it brings awareness of how the attainment of
higher education and societal influences could influence career choice, and ultimately
one‟s Holland code.
Another Holland study conducted by Hogan and Holland (2003) explored the
links between job performance and personality by using a socioanalytic theory and meta-
analysis to evaluate the links. Using 43 studies on the Holland code, the researchers were
able to determine that most of the job titles directly corresponded to Holland‟s typologies
of the Realistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional. None of the studies reviewed
involved occupations connected with Investigative or Artistic codes. For example,
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according to the meta-analysis, industry occupations reviewed were scarce or virtually
nonexistent in relation to Investigative and Artistic occupations. By article representation,
the researchers found Realistic occupations represented 66.7%, Conventional 13.4%,
Enterprising 11.1%, Social 4.6%, Investigative 3.0%, and Artistic 1.2%. Therefore, they
concluded that the actual number of occupations held is representative of the number of
articles researched, meaning there were no limitations reflected on the Investigative and
Artistic occupations; the percentage of articles reflected the percentage of people in each
field (Hogan & Holland, 2003).
In most Holland research studies, a Self-Directed Study allows participants to
respond to certain questions in which they may or may not demonstrate an interest and to
determine their Holland code (Miller, 2003). However, in the study conducted by Miller
(2003) to determine congruence between parent and the child/student, only student
participants were assessed using the Self-Directed Study, while the parents‟ Holland code
was determined by their current or most recent occupations if they were retired by using
the Directory of Holland Occupational Codes, a reference text that lists occupational
codes for over 12,800 positions based on Holland‟s theory. Miller (2003) attested that
using the directory to determine the parents‟ codes is a recommendation that is not o nly
made by Holland himself, but also is more comprehensive than other indices for
determining Holland codes (Miller, 2003).
Of the 58 graduate students who participated in the study, 39 were female and 19
were male; 68% were Caucasian, 27% were African American, and 5% were other.
Results indicated a mean of 9.2 between fathers and sons and 11.5 between mothers and
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daughters, which Miller (2003) supported as a moderate degree of congruence between
parents, their offspring and personality types (Miller, 2003). This study is significant
because it is indicates that approximately 10% of the time children are likely to occupy
employment that is similar to that of their parent.
A study in reference to a client‟s selected vocational exploration strategies was
conducted by Boyd and Cramer (1995). This study examined the possibility of
client/treatment interaction effects in relation to career exploration intervention based on
the dominant Holland code or first letter in the three-letter code. One hundred and eighty-
eight subjects were used for this high-point study which indicates a strong or at least an
eight- point difference between their first and second codes. For example, a client‟s
primary code of S “Social” could reflect a score of 15 and their secondary scor e of E
“Enterprising” could reflect a score of six, which indicates a nine point difference or a
high point. The 188 subjects were 63 males and 125 females ranging from age 18 to 49.
Using a varimax rotation coupled with the Chronbach‟s alpha coefficient to
interpret results, four significant factors were determined: (a) framework of counseling,
which describes the length and the number of counseling sessions; ( b) career aspirations,
which was designed to postulate any difference that could possibly occur with career
aspirations; (c) decision-making style, which was designed to consider that each
dominant code would illustrate a unique style for determining a career; and (d) advisors
characteristics, which provides an understanding as to how career advisors‟ personalities
could affect their clients (Boyd & Cramer, 1995). The researchers then used a three-way
MANOVA on gender, age, and the participants‟ primary Holland code to test the
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hypothesis that there is, in fact, a relationship between Holland codes and career
exploration preferences. Holland codes were considered the dependent variable and the
four significant factors were considered independent variables. This effect supports the
hypotheses that “persons characterized by particular Holland codes do have different
preferences for career exploration styles” (Boyd & Cramer, p. 218). The most significant
difference based on the framework variables was found between subjects who were
assessed as Social and Realistic types; significantly, subjects whose career aspirations
were Enterprising and Artistic types indicated the largest difference. This study supported
the concept that there is in fact a relationship between the Holland code theory and the
connection to career aspirations with the support of career exploration similar to this
research study.
In a study conducted by Pike (2006) to determine vocational preferences and
college degree expectations among undergraduate students, 631 participants, 396 females
(62.8%) and 235 (37.2%) males, completed a College Student Expectations
Questionnaire (CSXQ). Additionally, four set of measures were used for this study, 1)
the participants‟ ACT interest inventory, 2) the participants‟ report of their intended
major, which was classified into a Holland typology, 3) the participants‟gender, and 4)
their expectations scores taken from the CSXQ. Five expectations scales were developed
for this study based on Intellectual Effort, Science and Mathematics, Artistic and Cultural
Experiences, Student Acquaintances, and Clubs and Organizations.
Data was analyzed using a two-way multivariate. The independent variables were
the Holland typologies and degree of congruence with the major that was selected by the
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participant. The dependent variables were the five expectations scales.The multivariate
test indicated that expectations are measureable by gender (Wilks‟ Lambda=0.93;
F=14.89; df =5, 943; p
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diverse student, and in general, make the acquaintance of others, in addition to aiding and
assisting other students. Pike (2006) concludes that this study supports implications that
students are likely to select degree majors that reflect their personality types which also
reflect findings in this current research study.
Researchers Glaser, Calhoun, Bates, and Bradshaw (2003) used Holland‟s theory
to make a comparison between adjudicated male adolescents at a regional youth detention
center and nonadjudicated male adolescents at a local high school who were participants
in an earlier study. The adjudicated adolescents were believed to possess less interest and
motivation for learning and to have some developmental delays that could impact career
aspirations based on their current status. Therefore these researchers wanted to determine
if there was a significant difference between the two groups or if the adjudicated males‟
assessments were comparatively flat or inflated. Glaser et al. also hypothesized that the
adjudicated youth would indicate elevated dominant codes for the Realistic and Artistic
categories.
There were 28 adjudicated male youths who participated in the Glaser et al.
(2003) study. Each completed the Holland Self-Directed Search through a career
exploration service offered at the detention center. Scores for each of the six codes were
compared between the adjudicated males and the high school males from the previous
study. Results from the study indicated that there was (a) a significant disparity between
adjudicated and nonadjudicated male youth; (b) a lack of differentiation was indicated
among the six codes types among the adjudicated youth; and (c) two codes in particular
were elevated, Realistic and Artistic.
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Glaser et al. (2003) were accurate in their hypotheses and further concluded that
the significant disparity between the two groups could primarily be contributed toward
the differences in environments, educational experiences, self-esteem, self-knowledge,
and interpersonal skills. The lack of differentiation in codes among the adjudicated youth
was attributed primarily to self-perception and the fact that after advising, a common
theme prevailed with the adjudicated youth in that they viewed their career options as
very limited based on their current status. Finally the two codes which were elevated
occurred due to a high value that was placed on “artistic expression” (Glaser et al., p.79)
which is typical for those assessed as Artistic, and “hands- on” (p. 79) occupations which
coincides with realistic occupations. This study is significant because it illustrates the
extent of how different environment and different educational experiences can shape and
alter the perception in the direction that ones‟ life can move in and ultimately what the
future may have in store.
The former study focused on adjudicated male youth; however, this study focused
on the difference in career choices based on Holland codes between males and females.
In a Holland conducted study by Murray and Hal