green modelo de inteligencia multiples relacionado con teoria de holland

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PERCEPTIONS OF USEFULNESS: USING THE HOLLAND CODE THEORY,MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES THEORY, AND ROLE MODEL IDENTIFICATIONTO DETERMINE A CAREER NICHE IN THE FASHION INDUSTRY FOR FIRST-

QUARTER FASHION STUDENTS

A dissertation submitted to the

Kent State University College and Graduate School

of Education, Health, and Human Services

in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

by

Crystal D. Green

May, 2010


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© Copyright by Crystal D. Green 2010

All Rights Reserved


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A dissertation written by

Crystal D. Green

B.L.S., Bowling Green State University of Ohio, 1991

M.A., The University of Akron of Ohio, 1998

Ed.S., Kent State University of Ohio, 2001

Ph.D., Kent State University of Ohio, 2010

Approved by

________________________________ , Co-director, Doctoral Dissertation Committee

Alexa L. Sandmann, Ed.D.

________________________________ , Co-director, Doctoral Dissertation CommitteeSteven Turner, Ph.D.

________________________________ , Member, Doctoral Dissertation Committee

Catherine Leslie, Ph.D.

Accepted by

________________________________ , Director, School of Teaching and CurriculumAlexa L. Sandmann, Ed.D Studies

________________________________ , Dean, College and Graduate School of

Daniel Mahoney Education, Health and Human Services


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GREEN, D. CRYSTAL, PhD., May 2010 TEACHING, LEADERSHIPAND CURRICULUM STUDIES

PERCEPTIONS OF USEFULNESS: USING THE HOLLAND CODETHEORY, MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES THEORY, AND ROLE MODEL

IDENTIFICATION TO DETERMINE A CAREER NICHE IN THE FASHION

INDUSTRY FOR FIRST-QUARTER FASHION STUDENTS (217 pp.)

Co-Directors of Dissertation: Alexa Sandmann, Ed.D

Steven Turner, Ph.D

This action research study investigated the perceptions that student participants

had on the development of a career exploration model and a career exploration project.

The Holland code theory was the primary assessment used for this research study, in

addition to the Multiple Intelligences theory and the identification of a role model for the

purpose of identifying a career niche in the fashion industry. Twelve student participants

took part in this research study as they researched and collaborated in groups and

individually to understand the various careers in the fashion industry and how some of

those careers can provide a congruent working environment based on their Holland codes

and their personality, skills, and interests.

The student participants were first quarter-fashion students at The Art Institute of

Charlotte in North Carolina and they presented their findings in class, for both the career

exploration project the career exploration model which included an optional individual

consultation. The presentation for the career exploration model was titled a Dream Job

and student participants also had an opportunity to select their favorite book or magazine

and favorite television program as a means of connecting or confirming their career

niche. A semantic differential survey was used to assist in determining participants’


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perception of usefulness for this career exploration model. Overall student participants

found the career exploration model useful, all student participants (100%) were able to

select careers which reflected their Holland code, all student participants (100%) were

able to make a connection with their MI strength(s), all student participants (100%)

selected dream jobs which reflected their personalities, skills, and interests, 75% of the

student participants were able to make a connection with their role model, finally there

was a measurable awareness of various positions in the fashion industry after the career

exploration project and based on the post-career test results, student participants

identified an average of 14.4 more fashion careers indicating a 332% increase.


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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First, I give thanks to God. There were a few occasions when I did not think I

would complete this research project, but through Him ALL things are possible.

Next, my deepest and sincerest gratitude goes to all who supported me through

this long journey. To my committee members, thank you for your constant support,

especially to co-advisor Dr. Sandmann for your guidance, encouragement and the endless

hours that you devoted to this project, reading and re-reading my dissertation. To co-

advisor Dr. Turner, thank you for simplifying all the complicated intricacies of the

dissertation process, and to Dr. Leslie, thank you for your guidance in the area of fashion

academia.

Special thanks to Dr. Savickas, my career advising professor, and Dr. Shearer my

MI professor; without the two of you, I would not have developed this career exploration

model. To my students who participated in this study, thank you for your candor and

dedication. I would also like to thank my peer reviewer and friend Dr. Tricia Hillard for

your constant support and encouragement.

To my mother Carolyn Green and sister Carla Garrett, thank you so much for

standing by me all these years through my educational journey. And thank you dear

friend Kevin Smith who has always been there when I needed you and to future

“Dr.” Tameka Ellington who has gone through this wonderful journey with me. I hope

we walk across the stage together dear friend.


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This dissertation is dedicated to the loving memory of my grandmother Thelma

Calhoun and my father Cornell Green who both instilled in me the importance of

obtaining a higher education and also to Dr. John Holland who developed the primary

theory used in this research study and finally to Dr. Elizabeth Rhodes, who hired me at

The School of Fashion Design and Merchandising at Kent State University. Her tireless

effort and commitment to excellence will always live on.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................. iv

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. ix

CHAPTER

I INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................1 Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................2

Purpose of the Study ...............................................................................................3

Research Questions .................................................................................................4

Defined Terms ........................................................................................................5

Career Exploration Suggestions..............................................................................8

II REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...................................................................................15

Career Advisors in Fashion...................................................................................15

Retailing ...........................................................................................................15

Career Exploration ...........................................................................................17 Future Direction of the Fashion Industry ...............................................................20

Fibers and Fabrics ............................................................................................20

Design ..............................................................................................................21

Production ........................................................................................................22

Retailing ...........................................................................................................22

Holland‟s Theory ..................................................................................................26

Holland‟s Theory Studies .....................................................................................29 Gardner‟s Theory of Multiple Intelligences .........................................................39

Multiple Intelligences Career Studies ...................................................................41

Other Significant Studies in Multiple Intelligences ..............................................46 Holland Theory and Gardner‟s MI Theory Compared .........................................51

Role Model Studies ...............................................................................................54

III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .............................................................................62

Introduction ...........................................................................................................62

Research Questions ...............................................................................................62

Methodology .........................................................................................................63 Validity and Reliability…… .............................................................................…64

Background/Pilots .................................................................................................70

Site ........................................................................................................................71 Setting ...................................................................................................................72


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The Course .......................................................................................................72 Timeline of Study ............................................................................................72

Sample ..................................................................................................................84

Data Collection and Procedures ............................................................................87

Data Analysis ........................................................................................................96

Ensuring Trustworthiness .....................................................................................99

Limitations ..........................................................................................................100

Significance of the Study ....................................................................................104 Summary .............................................................................................................105

IV ANALYSIS OF DATA AND RESULTS ..............................................................106

Introduction .........................................................................................................106 Participants..........................................................................................................108

Career Pretest ......................................................................................................112

Holland Group Presentations ..............................................................................114

Holland Code Analysis .......................................................................................117

Individual Consultations .....................................................................................120

Dream Job Presentations .....................................................................................122 Career Posttest ....................................................................................................138

Individual Comparisons of the Career Pre- and Posttest ....................................140

Semantic Differential Survey..............................................................................142

Summary .............................................................................................................149

V DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .....................................................151

Research Questions .............................................................................................151

Question 1 ......................................................................................................151

Question 2 ......................................................................................................153

Question 3 ......................................................................................................154

Question 4 ......................................................................................................156 Question 5 ......................................................................................................157

Question 6 ......................................................................................................158

Question 7 ......................................................................................................159 Contributions Towards a Career Exploration Model ..........................................160

Contributions Towards Career Exploration ........................................................164

Implications for Practice .....................................................................................165 Future Research ..................................................................................................166

Reflections ..........................................................................................................167

APPENDICES .................................................................................................................169

APPENDIX A KENT STATE CONSENT FORM .........................................................170

APPENDIX B ART INSTITUTE OF CHARLOTTE CONSENT FORM .....................172


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APPENDIX C LESSON PLANS AND COURSE OUTLINE........................................174

APPENDIX D HOLLAND CODE ASSESSMENT .......................................................177

APPENDIX E HOLLAND CODE FASHION CAREER CHART ................................181

APPENDIX F HOLLAND CODE CAREER EXPLORATION GROUPPRESENTATION ...................................................................................................186

APPENDIX G FASHION INDUSTRY SURVEY DREAM JOB PRESENTATION ...188

APPENDIX H MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE QUIZ (ASSESSMENT) ........................191

APPENDIX I FASHION INDUSTRY SURVEY DREAM JOB WORKSHEET ..........197

APPENDIX J SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SURVEY................................................200

APPENDIX K PERMISSION TO USE THE HOLLAND CODE QUIZ .......................203

APPENDIX L PERMISSION TO USE THE MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES QUIZ ...205

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................207


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LIST OF TABLES

Page

1 Holland‟s Typologies and Multiple Intelligences Strengths Comparison Chart .......51

2 Anderson's Validity Criteria Table ...........................................................................65

3 Course Activities ........................................................................................................83

4 Student Participants ...................................................................................................86

5 Data Analysis Chart ...................................................................................................95

6 Example of Data Analysis Comparison Chart - Student Participantswith Holland Code Results ........................................................................................98

7 Alias Identification of Student Participants .............................................................108

8 Tracking Student Participants Participation.............................................................112

9 Pretest Career Table .................................................................................................113

10 Student Participants with Holland Code Results .....................................................118

11 Cass‟ Dream Job Presentation Chart........................................................................122

12 Amanda‟s Dream Job Presentation Chart ................................................................123

13 Nena‟s Dream Job Presentation Chart .....................................................................125

14 Melissa‟s Dream Job Presentation Chart .................................................................126

15 Reese‟s Dream Job Presentation Chart ....................................................................128

16 Veronica‟s Dream Job Presentation Chart ...............................................................130

17 Janet‟s Dream Job Presentation Chart .....................................................................131

18 Marie‟s Dream Job Presentation Chart ....................................................................133

19 Student Participants Dream Job Chart ......................................................................134


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20 Career Posttest Results .............................................................................................138

21 Student Participant Pre and Post Career Chart Comparison ....................................140

22 Semantic Differential Survey Results ………………. ...............………………….143


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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Entering most fashion degree programs, newly enrolled students are eager and

excited about the possibility of developing a career in the fashion industry upon

graduation; however, the reality is that while they may be exposed to certain occupations

through an introductory fashion course (Steiner, 2004) and obtain various internship

experiences, without guidance and exposure to the most appropriate career opportunities

for their skills and interests, students can easily miss out on the specific career

opportunity which is best suited for them. Therefore most fashion graduates attain typical

fashion positions such as retail manager, corporate buyer or designer (Gorek, 2007;

Granger, 2007; Hartsog, 2007). Other fashion graduates accept positions outside of the

fashion industry simply because they lack the insight that might prove to be beneficial in

preparing them for a career that directly reflects their talents and interests within the

fashion industry (Frazier & Cheek, 2005; Hines & Lee, 2005).

Granger (2007), author of Fashion, The Industry and Its Careers indicated: Many

students enroll in an introductory fashion course knowing that they love the world

of fashion, yet wondering what careers exist in this world. They often recognize

the careers of designers and buyers but what career tracks are available and where

are those jobs found? Many students cannot imagine that they can spend a

lifetime working in an area (fashion) they enjoy and in which they can apply their

individual talents and skills. (p. xxiii-xxiv)


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Unbeknownst to most fashion students, there is a plethora of opportunities outside

of retail management, fashion design, and buying that may better reflect their personality,

talents, skills, and interests. These opportunities are under-promoted. Not only are most

students unaware of their existence, but some career exploration professionals are as well.

Statement of the Problem

The Art Institute of Charlotte is committed to securing employment for graduates

within six months of graduation, as are all Art Institutes nationally. The mission

statement reflects this commitment, describing it as an institution of higher learning that

is committed to preparing students to be well trained for a career. Placement rate statistics

reflect positions within the student‟s field of study. However, during the beginning of the

2007 – 2008 academic school year, the career advisors identified a challenge in securing

job placement for fashion students in both degree programs the Associates in Fashion

Marketing and the Bachelors in Fashion Marketing and Management. Specifically they

noted that fashion students, as well as the advisors themselves, were limited in

knowledge about the variety of positions that are best suited for those graduating.

Important to note is that the career advising team does not currently use an assessment

instrument to help students gain a better understanding of their interests, skills and

specifically, their career niche. The advisors asked fashion faculty members to assist

them with ideas to stimulate possible employment opportunities. One suggestion was that

job placement should be focused more on discovering a student‟s career niche rather than

filling open positions in the fashion industry. Instead of searching job postings and


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contacting potential employers with whom students are interested in working, students

should be exposed to career exploration as a process of identifying a career niche that

reflects the students‟ skills, talents and interest. This is a process that can be challenging

for a number of reasons especially in the fashion industry, because there are so many

occupations with which students and career advisors are unfamiliar. Additionally there is

not a definitive solution to career exploration.

Purpose of the Study

The primary purpose of this study was to propose a career exploration model for

first-quarter fashion students at The Art Institute of Charlotte that reflected their skills

and interest. Specifically, this career exploration model was to assist fashion students in

identifying their career niche. Then fashion students were able to determine to what

extent the proposed career exploration model is useful; in other words, their perception of

usefulness was determined. Two theory-based assessments were used in this study. The

Holland code theory, developed by Psychologist John Holland, used six typologies

represented by Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional

(RIASEC) (Boyd & Cramer, 1995; Gottfredson & Holland, 1996). The other theory that

was used in this study complements the Holland theory. The Multiple Intelligences (MI)

theory focuses on strengths or intelligences that can be promoted as learning styles, such

as verbal/linguistic, math/logic, musical/rhythmic, visual/spatial, body/kinesthetic,

interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic (Franklin, 2006; Strasser & Seplocha, 2005).

These two theories were selected because they share overlapping interests or similarities


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in representation that could aid in the career exploration process. Fashion students were

also asked to identify a role model as part of their career-niche process.

The perception of usefulness of the Holland code theory combined with the MI

theory and the identification of a role model served as the primary quantitative

components for this career exploration model for first-quarter fashion students at the Art

Institute of Charlotte and this was the primary purpose for this research study.

The secondary purpose of this study was to measures awareness of various

positions in the fashion industry after the career exploration process. This was

accomplished primarily through a career exploration project and presentation and the use

of the Holland Code Fashion Career Chart that was constructed by the researcher for the

purpose of this research study and reviewed by Peer Professionals.

Research Questions

1. To what extent does the Holland code assess student participants‟

perceptions of their career niche in the fashion industry?

2. To what extent do the student participants perceive they are better prepared

for their career in the fashion industry by participating in the Dream Job

presentation?

3. To what extent do student participants perceive that they can make a

connection between the Holland code theory and the Multiple Intelligences

theory in identifying their career niche?


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4. To what extent can student participants make a connection between their role

model and their career niche?

5. To what extent can student participants make a connection between their

favorite book or magazine and their career niche?

6. To what extent can student participants make a connection between their

favorite television program and their career niche?

7. To what extent has career exploration assisted student participants to become

more exposed to new occupations in the fashion industry?

For the purpose of this study the pertinent terms are defined below.

Defined Terms

Career niche – the specific interest or passion that relates to a person‟s vocational

choice or career preference.

Career advising – process that provides professional assistance to clients in

determining their possible career niche. Process may include the use of self-directed

assessments, interviewing, and personal consultations (Whiston & Rahardja, 2005).

Career exploration (fashion) – the process of actively engaging students in

activities that can be collaborative or independent but resolved for the purpose of

exposing students to various careers in the fashion industry that they were unaware of

(Hines & Lee, 2005; Paulins, 2005).

Family and Consumer Sciences – name representing the department or school that

can or once housed fashion departments, other schools or departments including Family


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Ecology, Home Economics, Human Resources and Family Sciences, and Applied Art

(Laughlin & Kean, 1995).

Fashion – a style that is accepted and used by a group of people and results from

social emulation and acceptance (Stone, 2007).

Fashion industry – comprised of the manufacturers that produce end products

used for the production of apparel and accessories for women, men, and children (Stone,

2003).

Fashion marketing and/or management students – is an all-inclusive term which

is not limited to marketing and management students but also includes all students who

demonstrate an interest in fashion and desire a career/vocation in the industry.

Favorite book or magazine – a favorite book or magazine identified as a career-

counseling tool to “make a connection” or “confirmation” of the selected career niche

(Savickas, 1989).

Favorite television program – a favorite television program identified as a career-

counseling tool to “make a connection” or “confirmation” of the selected career niche

(Savickas, 1989).

Holland assessment – a self-directed and self-administered assessment that asks a

series of questions reflecting one‟s personality and interests; assessments are available

on-line at various websites without charge. Results produce a three-letter code

representing the typology environment in which the assessor is most suited to work. At

some Websites, possible career occupations may be suggested based on the three-letter

code results (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996; Miller, 2003).


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Holland code – a three-letter code used primarily for occupational purposes to

represent a combination of any of the six typologies developed by psychologist John

Holland. The Dictionary of Holland Occupational Codes contains occupational codes for

more than 12,800 occupations and is used for every industry and by the U.S. Department

of Labor, Commerce, and Education (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996).

Holland theory – developed by psychologist John Holland, this theory describes

how work environments differ. Holland uses the term typology to describe the differences

between such environments; people are different and the term typology also applies to

their differences. According to the theory, for people to work in an environment where

they are fulfilled or for congruency to occur, matching typologies representing the

environments and the person would need to exist. The typologies are addressed by the

acronym (RIASEC), (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996; Gottfredson & Duffy, 2008).

Introduction fashion course – the first course in which fashion students are

enrolled that exposes them to an overview of the fashion industry and various careers in

the fashion industry (Steiner, 2004).

Multiple Intelligences theory – theory developed by Howard Gardner (1983) that

identifies a person‟s intelligences or strengths by means of an assessment. This theory is

often used as a learning style and is seldom linked to careers; however, for the purpose of

this study it was used as a complementary assessment for career guidance.

Role model identification – in terms of career-counseling or guidance, the

selection process of a person who one admires or a person who possesses qualities that

one admires and would also like to possess (Quimby & DeSantis, 2006; Savickas, 1989).


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Typologies – a visual representation of both the working environment and the

person who is congruent to that working environment based on a hexagram designed by

the theory it represents. Psychologist John Holland‟s typologies are addressed by the

acronym RIASEC (Gottfredson & Duffy, 2008; Gottfredson & Holland, 1996).

Career Exploration Suggestions

Suggestions from researchers in fashion academia, the fashion industry, career

advising for general career fields, as well as career advising for the arts, fashion, and

Family and Consumer Sciences have been reviewed. They provided some practical

solutions for assisting with career exploration and identifying a client‟s career niche;

therefore, some of the following suggestions were implemented in this study.

Career advisors often take multiple approaches when guiding clients to their

career niche and in that process, the use of multiple assessments is a preferred approach

(Lulgjural & Cooley, 2006). These researchers urge career advisors in the arts to provide

students with a variety of assessments, preferably interactive assessments that “allow

individuals to share ideas and reflect on their thoughts” (p. 38). For the purpose of this

study, two assessments were used. The Holland code assessment and the Multiple

Intelligences assessments are the two assessments selected for this research study because

they share overlapping interests and are therefore helpful for student participants to make

a connection between the two assessments and also with their career niche. In addition to

the Holland code and Multiple Intelligences assessments, career professionals have

directed youth to identify a role model to further assist them in the development of their


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career paths (McFarland, Smith, West, & Rhodes, 2000; Quimby & DeSantis, 2006). The

concept of role model identification provides students with an opportunity to share the

importance of how someone has impacted their life (McFarland, et al, 2000; Quimby &

DeSantis, 2006; Rivera, Chen, Flore, Blumburg, & Ponterotto, 2007). For some, it is

exposure to a successful professional (Quimby & DeSantis, 2007). For others it may be a

family member or a close friend who have influenced their life (McFarland et al., 2000;

Rivera et al., 2007). Results of role model identification as it relates to careers usually

produces two results: (a) the student will select a similar career path as their role model

(Quimby & DeSantis, 2006); or (b) they will transfer the traits or characteristics from the

role model into their careers (McFarland, et al, 2000; Quimby & DeSantis, 2006; Rivera

et al., 2007).

Professionals in Family and Consumer Sciences suggest providing a connection

between internships and the classroom; specifically, the classroom environment should

involve a course where students use the knowledge they have acquired in school and

directly apply it to the work environment (Smith, 1998). To that end, this study took

place in an introductory course, Fashion Industry Survey, where students were exposed to

various professionals in the fashion industry, as well as various internship opportunities

through the industry professionals.

A Communications Coordinator for Future Homemakers of America promoted

the idea of career preparation through a national program developed by Future

Homemakers of America called Career Connection. The program essentially has three

goals: (a) to help young people explore and prepare for a career, (b) introduce young


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people to the process of career development, and (c) assist young people in understanding

and preparing for connections between their careers, their families, and their communities

(Hopkins, 1998). This study explored students‟ attitudes of the usefulness of various

career options in the fashion industry by developing a detailed plan through which

students had an opportunity to draw connections that could exist with their career, as well

as their families and perhaps the community as well.

Researchers outside the field of fashion or Family and Consumer Sciences state

that career exploration in general can be challenging, specifically when considering that

exploration in and of itself can be limiting. Mitchell, Levin, and Krumboltz (1999) noted

that“ by itself [exploration] is of little value unless it leads to constructive action;

furthermore, the researchers states that “efforts need to concentrate on enabling clients to

take the necessary actions” (p. 120). In other words, part of the exploration process in

identifying a client‟s career niche is fundamentally motivational. In that a client needs to

react to the discovery of his/her new found career. Advisors primarily assist clients in

exploring and discovering their career niche, but the responsibility for fulfilling that

career is ultimately up to the client.

This study explored students‟ perception of usefulness in terms of having an

opportunity to actively plan the steps they should take to secure the position best suited

for them. Personality and inventory quantitative assessments have typically been used to

assist career advisors in identifying possible career models for their clients; qualitative

assessments have also proven to be helpful. A nontraditional way to career exploration is

to use a qualitative assessment. This option can provide an objective way to explore


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careers according to McMahon, Patton, and Watson (2003). Further, others argue that

qualitative assessment offers a holistic interpretation that provides clients the opportunity

to take a more active role in their career goals (Goldman, 1990). The additional use of

qualitative assessments over quantitative assessments is supported by Savickas (1992),

partially due to the establishment of a relationship between individuals whose common

goal becomes that of an interpretation of experiences, not just a result from an

assessment. He stated, when referring to advisors, that they should “listen for life themes

and stories act more as biographers who interpret lives in progress rather than as actuaries

who count interest and abilities” (p. 338). By using qualitative assessments, career

advising take a constructivist approach to resolving their clients‟ career concerns by

making meaning from their values and traits. Those who use qualitative assessments

support the possibility of providing meaning to the interpretation of results. In

quantitative assessments, this meaning-making interpretation based on the clients‟ values

and traits is absent.

Career advisors at both ends of the spectrum can support their views on

quantitative and qualitative assessments; however, some advisors suggest that an

integration of the two approaches may be useful (Borgen, 1999; Church, 2001). These

advisors suggest “that new models of career exploration be integrative and understand the

complexities of individuals‟ lives and the importance of personal and work -related

issues” (Whiston & Rahardja, 2005). Whiston and Rahardja go on to say that

“assessments (either quantitative or qualitative) be embedded within the career


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exploration process in a seamless integration that helps individuals address work and

personal issues in productive ways” (p.379).

One way that this seamless integration can be achieved is by using a tool that

provides qualitative data to an already existing quantitative assessment tool such as the

Holland code and MI. Researchers Quimby and DeSantis (2006) examined the influence

of role models as compared to self efficacy when using the Holland code-specifically the

typologies of RIASEC-and concluded that “role model influence added to the prediction

of career choice over and above the contribution of self-efficacy” (p. 303) with the only

exception being the investigative component (Quimby & DeSantis, 2006). The

researchers therefore supported the concept that role model identification used as a

qualitative assessment combined with the Holland code quantitative assessment can

produce a seamless integration and effective counseling tool.

To create a seamless integration of qualitative and quantitative data that better

assisted students in identifying their career niche in the fashion industry, student

participants used two assessments (Holland code and Multiple Intelligences assessments)

in the quantitative aspect of this study and participated in an open dialogue with the

researcher for the qualitative aspect of this study, based on their identification of a role

model. Additionally participants were asked to create a plan to assist them in their pursuit

of a career niche in hopes of securing a dream job that best suits their personality, skills,

interests and strengths. This seamless integration of quantitative and qualitative methods

can be actively intertwined for educators within the methodology of action research.

Action research provides educators the opportunity to design a change within the


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structure of an educational setting that addresses a specific problem, implement the

change, and assess its effectiveness (Hatch, 2002 & Mills, 2003). For this research study,

action research has been selected as the methodology.

It should be noted that under some circumstances, after career advisors have

exhausted all resources and have exposed students to the specific careers they believe

they are best suited for, there may be doubt, or students could be no closer to making a

career decision. Bansberg and Sklare (1986) summarized this occurrence when they

stated “even though the counselor may have done his/her best to assist by providing them

with career information, interest inventories, and ability assessments, etc, they still are

not closer to a career decision” (p.1).

This situation occurred in prior exploratory studies, when after the research was

completed, students were not completely convinced that the career niche they determined

was actually their career niche. To address this concern, there is a form of exploration

titled career-style (Savickas, 1989) which consists of stimulus questions to elicit life

goals and style information. These questions provoke a psychological connection which

assists students in making a connection to their career niche. The questions consist of (a)

identifying their favorite book or magazine; and (b) identifying their favorite television

program. For the purpose of this study, this form of career – style exploration is not

considered an assessment method but rather a means for students to make a connection

with their career niche. The primary goal of this study was to determine the perception of

usefulness in using this nontraditional career exploration method.


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The secondary purpose of this study was to measure awareness of various

positions in the fashion industry after the career exploration process. This was

accomplished through the Holland code career exploration project and presentation and

the use of a Holland Code Fashion Career Chart that was constructed based on the

Holland codes and developed by the researcher for the purpose of this study. The chart

was also reviewed by Peer Professionals.

Finally, my motivation for conducting this research study was to enlighten

incoming fashion students to the endless possibilities that remain before them in the

world of fashion. As Granger (2007), Gorek (2007), and Hartsog (2007) have made us

aware, students are underexposed to these occupations, and yet they are graduating

without entering an occupation for which they are best suited. Furthermore, it takes more

than exposure to fashion occupations to provide them with the employment opportunities

in fashion for which they have been educated (Frazier & Cheek, 2005; Hines & Lee,

2005; Paulins, 2005; Savickas, 1989). Students need to be assisted to identify their unique

career niche that reflects their skills, talents, and interests. They need to work in an

environment that is congruent with their personality (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996).

They need to know that there are multiple options available to them along their journey in

selecting a career niche. They need to realize that in the world of fashion, there is more

than retail manager, buyer, and designer (Gorek, 2007; Granger, 2007; Hartsog, 2007).


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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This literature review focused on four areas, career exploration from a fashion

industry perspective, the Holland code perspective, the Multiple Intelligences

perspective, and the identification of a role model. By reviewing multiple theoretical

perspectives, I intended to provide a foundation that supported the importance of this

career exploration model and career exploration project for first-quarter fashion students

at The Art Institute of Charlotte. This study is specifically important for these students

because they lacked the exposure to fashion positions that best reflected their skills,

talents, interests, and personality or a career niche. Typically, under-promoted fashion

merchandising and/or management, students accept the same retail or buying positions

after graduation (Gorek, 2007; Granger, 2007; Hartsog, 2007). When career exploration

is taken into consideration (Frazier & Cheek, 2005; Hines & Hyun-Hwa-Lee, 2005) and

combined with career assessment such as the Holland code theory, MI theory and the

identification of a role model, students are provided with an opportunity to better identify

their career niche.

Career Advisors in Fashion

Retailing

Retailing is a popular career option for fashion merchandising students, but

because of its popularity, it is important to consider ways in which future opportunities

for our students can be enhanced by this occupation that is the core or mainstay of the


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industry (Avery, 1989; Fair, Hamilton, & Norum, 1990). Avery (1989) suggests

considering developing skills that are transferable to make the student more marketable.

Avery also suggests considering the possibility of competing for upper- management

positions that were once dominated by men but are now becoming filled by more and

more women (1989).

Fair, Hamilton, and Norum (1990) suggest some changes to assist in the future

careers of merchandising professionals. The authors suggest that the first change should

come in the form of the curriculum, specifically, changes that would make students

“future key players in the marketplace” (p 33). The curriculum goal should be to optimize

students‟ performance both professionally and personally. Another change the authors

suggest is to prepare merchandising students for careers other than retailing. Fair et al.

(1990) specifically mention other channels of preparation in the retail area such as

technological and operational innovations in the apparel industry and the importance of

having specific product knowledge in these areas.

The final change that Fair et al. (1990) suggest for career preparation is for

educators to take a global approach to instruction. Students should be made aware of the

numerous governmental regulations impacting the fashion industry, both domestically

and internationally. They should be exposed to the social, political, economic, and

technological advantages and disadvantages that exist globally and could impact their

career choices. Finally, by providing students with a strong global perspective, the world

is now available to them to broaden their career opportunities (Fair et al, 1990.). The Fair

et al. study on retailing is significant because the authors honor the importance of making


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changes in the curriculum, in the workplace, and in the mindset of educators to take

merchandising students to the next level and better prepare them for careers in addition to

retailing.

Career Exploration

As career exploration began to evolve, it entered the classroom, providing

students with an opportunity to become exposed to careers in the fashion industry

(Frazier & Cheek, 2005; Hines & Lee, 2005; Paulins, 2005). Frazier and Cheek (2005)

reported the results of a career exploration project in an introductory fashion-

merchandising course in which student teams conducted research in order to develop a

matrix that addressed the four fashion segments of the fashion business that reflected

career occupations. These segments include primary (fiber/textile); secondary

(design/production); retail (buying/merchandising); and auxiliary (advertising/publicity)

occupations. Students were provided five fashion career texts and exposed to several

guest speakers and industry professionals to assist them with the process. Using critical-

thinking skills and technology, students were asked to produce four spreadsheets, one for

each of the fashion segments, highlighting their research findings, and specifically

reviewing a natural progression in the occupation, salary, education, and experience

(Frazier & Cheek, 2005). This study is significant because students were provided with

an opportunity to become exposed to each of the four segments of the fashion industry.

They conducted research on specific occupations within each segment, met industry

professionals, worked collaboratively, and used critical-thinking skills at the beginning of


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their educational program, when it could be considered most beneficial. The significance

of this study was incorporated into this research study.

Active learning is a concept used in an introductory merchandising class to

promote career exploration (Hines & Lee, 2005). The students‟ primary assignment was

to write a research paper on career opportunities by using career publications and

interviewing an industry professional. During the interviewing process, students gathered

specific information from professionals, such as their academic preparation, experience,

salary, career training, and advancement opportunities, in addition to discussing matters

about dealing with work-related stress and time commitment. Once research papers were

written, each student evaluated one another‟s paper in a peer -review process prior to

submitting their final paper (Hines & Lee, 2005). This study is significant because it

exposed introductory merchandising students to the importance of exploring fashion

careers, active learning, working with industry professionals, and the peer-review

process.

In another attempt to enhance career exploration, a total of 424 surveys were

collected by 106 sophomore apparel-merchandising students who participated in a study

over three academic quarters (Paulins, 2005). Student participants were asked to obtain

four surveys from retail employees in all levels of the fashion industry. The goal of the

study was to expose students to pertinent information available in the literature and to

provide students with an opportunity to collect data from fashion employees across a

broad range of store types, retailer product offerings and employee positions so they


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could examine employee-reported perceptions of satisfaction levels (Paulins, 2005, p.

217).

Additionally, Paulins (2005) stated this project provided students with an

opportunity to discuss any biases they perhaps might have toward working in a mass-

market retail rather than working in a high-end retail environment, while exposing them

to the construct of corporate excellence. Three research questions were posed: (a) Does

the store type represented by the company where the survey respondent works make a

difference in reported measures of corporate performance? (b) Does the product sold by

the company where the survey respondent works make a difference in reported measures

of corporate performance? and (c) Does the position of the survey respondent in the

company make a difference in reported measures of corporate performance? Results were

measured using the EXCEL seven-point scale developed by Sharma et al. (1990).

EXCEL is designed to measure a subject‟s perceptions using a scale that reflects

statements from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Analysis of variance was used to

determine differences in employee perceptions.

Results for the first question indicated that the store where the respondents work

did make a difference in corporate performance; specifically, this perception was noted

for employees of department stores, restaurants, and big-box retailers. In the second

question, no significant differences were indicated with the products that were sold for

each of the stores. However, for the final question the perceptions of corporate excellence

shifted as the progression to higher level corporate positions shifted; those who occupied

higher leadership positions, “were more positive about company execution of criteria that


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contribute toward corporate excellence than were their frontline counterparts sale

associates, and stock workers” (Paulins, 2005, p.221). This study is significant because it

provided students with an opportunity to conduct career exploration outside the

classroom in actual retail environments. Additionally, students became exposed to

research methods and beneficial networking opportunities they could continue to use to

build career exploration.

Future Direction of the Fashion Industry

In an effort to prepare tomorrow‟s leaders for the fashion industry, researchers

Kim and Johnson (2007) suggested that first we call on experts in the industry to forecast

the future for the apparel industry, specifically in the United States for the next 10 to 20

years, and second, that we determine if our current senior fashion students are in a

position to accurately assess predictions made by those professional experts to determine

their extent of readiness for their careers. Industry experts looked at the apparel industry

in four separate segments to make their forecasting predictions: fibers and fabrics, design,

production, and retailing.

Fibers and Fabrics

According to the panel of apparel industry experts, technology has been and will

continue to be a driving force in the fashion industry; however, some of the current

concerns address issues about quality of life, including quality of health,

protection/safety, and preserving the environment. Therefore when addressing health

concerns, specialized fibers such as synthetic antibacterial fibers with antimicrobial


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characteristics that retard the growth of fungi, yeast, mold, and bacteria have been

developed (Kim & Johnson, 2007). Nonhalogen flame-retardant plastics have been made

into fibers. Environmentally-friendly fibers are being produced from sugar plants and

corn, and eventually it is predicted, in hopes of keeping up with the environmentally-

friendly evolution, that dextrose will be able to be extracted from virtually any cellulosic

plant, not just sugar or corn (Kim & Johnson, 2007). In terms of technology,

improvements have been made with genetically-engineered cotton fibers to make it

waterproof, as well as wrinkle-, stain- and abrasion-resistant. It is assumed that polyester

and olefin will dominate the market, along with high performance polyethylene. Finally,

“Smart Fabrics” will have the ability to adjust to any consumers‟ desired body

temperature (Kim & Johnson, 2007).

Design

Using nylon as a primary fabric, seamless garments, multifunctional seamless

garments, and practicality in comfort are just some of the trends that the panel of experts

forecast for the next 10 to 20 years. The use of nylon focuses on the prediction of a

growing culture that centers on an active lifestyle, and multifunctional seamless garments

complement the design. Additionally, apparel industry experts forecast that there will be

a neutralization of gender, unisex clothing trends that will include men wearing bright

colors and accessories as a form of self-expression. Finally, there will be a departure from

cultural homogeneity in clothing; experts believe that cultural boundaries will be blurred,

and there will be homogeneity in style (Kim & Johnson, 2007).


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Production

Technology, according to the experts, will also impact the future of production.

One trend involves mechanization. This trend has lead to the adoption of Quick

Response. Quick Response is a management system for apparel manufacturers to

efficiently connect to retailers and suppliers. The technology for this system includes

electronic-data interchange, universal product codes, point-of-sale data, computer-aided

design (CAD), forecasting, and flexible manufacturing. Experts agree that if the “trend

toward mechanization continues, a complete human-free automation of apparel

production may be on the near horizon” (Kim & Johnson, 2007, p. 288). Mass

customization is a production option which provides consumers an opportunity to co-

design a product with a designer. In other words it allows for consumers‟ input to design

end products specifically tailored to their desires. Body-scanning technology and

software templates are part of the mass customization process that ensures the

consumer‟s product matches what they requested (Kim & Johnson, 2007).

Retailing

The mission of retail is to keep customers happy; therefore, in the future, experts

need to determine how the demographics will be shaped in the next 10 to 20 years (Kim

& Johnson, 2007). The panel of experts agreed on the growth of the “grey market,” an

increasingly larger group of older consumers, who because of advances with technology

and medical care, will live longer and healthier lives. Other expected changes in

demographics that are already being experienced and are expected to continue is a greater


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divide in socioeconomic class that will produce a larger gap between the rich and poor.

Also the poor and more women will enter the work force (Kim & Johnson, 2007).

Experts also agreed that there will be a desire for easier access to stores and more

convenience to stores for purchasing products. Consumers are always mobile, hurried and

they want to spend less time doing the routine, everyday things (Kim & Johnson, 2007).

After the experts made their predictions, 30 junior and senior design students at a

Southeastern university and 48 senior retail merchandising students at a Midwestern

university participated in the study. Participants were asked to forecast the four areas

noted above for the next 10 to 20 years, the first two questions answered by the design

students and Questions 3 and 4 answered by the merchandising students. All participants

completed a questionnaire and an essay, limited to two pages for each question.

Question 1 addressed fibers and fabrics. Twenty-two of the 30 design participants

predicted that the industry would continue to specialize in the development of fibers and

fabrics, 12 participants forecasted the continued development of wrinkle-free fabrics, and

11 participants forecasted the continued development of stain-resistant fabrics. Others

mentioned specialized finishes (22); high technology and special functions with

fibers/fabrics (14); comfort and care (8); and environmentally-friendly fibers (8).

The design students recognized the importance that quality of life issues would

impact fabric and fibers in the future; however, less emphasis was noted on the quality of

health issues such as specialized fibers and fabrics that would retard germ growth using

antimicrobial and antibacterial agents as noted by the experts.


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Question 2 addressed design. The most frequently described theme was

“functional” or “practical”: 12 participants agreed that in 10 to 20 years, design will be

more functional. The retro look (9) was the next theme, followed by “comfortable” and

“revealing,” which both had seven advocates. “Individual” and “simple” both had six

advocates. One student believed there would be a major shift in design by stating “I

believe that the next movement will be the anti-high fashion movement…I can‟t afford

the expensive stuff but I want to make it original (Kim & Johnson, 2007, p 295).” Other

participants noted classic (4), and unisex (3) trends (Kim & Johnson, 2007).

Experts and students agreed on a unisex appeal to certain clothing options in the

future and also to offering garments that are simple, practical, and functional. However,

where they differ is some students believe that another retro look would likely return.

And experts predict that nylon will be the primary fabric that designers will gravitate to

because of its versatility in design.

Question 3 addressed production. Merchandising students realized that overall

advancement in technology would advance the apparel industry the most in 10 to 20

years. Specifically, 19 participants noted that “technological development would allow

for the total automation of production” (p. 297). Additionally, participants noted the

importance of computers and robots. Some participants envisioned that technological

advance in the United States may bring apparel production back (7); however, most

participants envisioned production of apparel outside of the United States (21).

In comparison between students and experts, students recognized that production

efforts will be improved via technology; however, they were not able to specifically state


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what forms of technology would be beneficial. The experts recognized that continued

technological advances through quick response, computer-aided design (CAD) and mass

customization will continue to advance production of the fashion industry.

Finally, nearly half (22) of the participants were successful in forecasting the

consumers‟ role with mass customization (Kim & Johnson, 2007). Question 4 addressed

retail: participants were divided by this question, some believing that in 10 to 20 years the

concept of the physical store would be almost obsolete and most consumers would opt for

the convenience of the Internet for practically all of their shopping (29); others indicated

that consumers would want a choice of the physical store or the Internet (21). Some

participants suggested enhancing the experience by providing e-fitting rooms on websites

that would allow customers to import their mirror image and try on garments

electronically (11). Other participants noted an increase in personal shoppers (7), an

elimination of conventional mail-order catalogs (6); and an increase in specialty-store

retailers, specifically plus-size markets (3). Student and expert opinion on retail in the

future diverged because they came from two different perspectives.

Where experts focused more on the “grey market” and consumers living longer,

the experts noted it would be a convenience for consumers to have easier access to

purchase products. They also noted a greater divide in socioeconomic classes. Students

considered the possibility that brick and mortar options could likely become obsolete, and

that some consumers would shop via Internet using e-fitting rooms that mirrored their

image. Although convenience seems to be a commonality between students and experts,

the two have drawn their conclusion using different reasonings.


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One aspect that participants failed to mention, according to Kim and Johnson

(2007) was the significance of Quick Response and its impact on production. The

significance of this research study is the perspective that it provides to fashion academia

as far as the foresight of what we should be emphasizing to better prepare our students for

careers in the fashion industry.

Holland‟s Theory

John Holland‟s (1985) occupational theory is based on personality types and has

generated several research studies. He is a leading authority on self-directed (self-

administered/assessed) vocational assessments (Betz, Borgen, & Harmon, 1996; Boyd &

Cramer, 1995; Helwig & Myrin, 1997). Holland used a hexagon that reflects various

personality types based on common characteristics that are most prevalent among certain

vocational interest groups (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996). Holland‟s research was

developed through a vocational psychology model based on congruence theory:

fundamentally, this theory states that if people are matched based on their personality

with a vocational occupation, they would feel a sense of satisfaction. A similar

occupational theory was conducted by Osipow (1987). Holland then used his congruence

research to create the hexagon that visually illustrates a relationship between a person

who possesses a primary typology and the specific occupation that corresponds to that

typology; for example, a person who is Realistic would thrive in a Realistic environment,

such as a mechanic working in a auto repair shop, and a person who is Investigative,

would thrive in an Investigative environment, such as a scientist working in a laboratory.


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The distance between the primary and the secondary typology helps to further define the

specific characteristic of the individual and provides more insight into the specific work

environment that would be most congruent for them. Usually three typologies or codes

are identified for each individual; the codes can reflect both the individual and the

occupation that is most congruent for them to consider for employment (Gottfredson &

Holland, 1996). In an effort to obtain this information, a self-directed assessment can be

taken online at various Websites, some at no charge, or on paper. For example the

website used for this study can be found at

http://www.roguecc.edu/counseling/HollandCodes/test.asp.

The assessment usually includes approximately 100 questions regarding the

inquirer‟s preferences and skills. Then a three-letter code is provided, a combination of

typologies in the order that best reflect the assessment takers‟ personality and

compatibility to work environments (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996). Furthermore, if the

assessment taker is assessed at the website noted above, possible career occupations are

provided. However these career occupations are limited and do not focus on fashion

occupations. However, the typologies that are used to create the three-letter codes are

represented by RIASEC, and are described as the following (see Figure 1).


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Figure 1. RIASEC Typologies.

Realistic Those who possess mechanical, technical, and manual competencies and

have a preference for solving concrete, tangible problems (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996;

Mumme, 1997).

Investigative Those who are drawn to scientific and mathematical occupations;

additionally those who are in this category have a propensity to be drawn toward

positions that may also include trouble-shooting, problem-solving, or positions classified

as analytical or intellectual (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996; Mumme, 1997).

Artistic Those who are drawn to creative forms of the arts; additionally, those who

are in this category are reported to possess an intuitive ability that they usually draw upon

during work-related situations (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996; Mumme, 1997).

Social Those who enjoy assisting and informing others in a systematic

environment; they are primarily best suited for social or interpersonal occupations such as


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teaching and advising or simply working in an industry where helping or exercising their

humanitarian efforts is a goal (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996; Mumme, 1997).

Enterprising Those who are willing and interested in taking on a leadership role.

Holland described enterprising individuals as possessing a natural ability to manipulate

and influence others. Taking a political stance and asserting aggressive behavior is

typical with this group. Additionally finance or entrepreneurship would be beneficial for

this group (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996; Mumme, 1997).

Conventional Those who are drawn to clerical occupations, such as the

manipulation of data, or systematic details. Conforming to social and employment

demands would be a typical trait for those who are in this category. Typically

employment would be in the clerical field (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996; Mumme,

1997).

Holland‟s Theory Studies

John Holland‟s theory of linking personality types to vocational occupations has

piqued researchers‟ interest for the past five decades. This theory has been used in a

multitude of ways to explore occupational interest, compatibility, and congruence (Betz,

Borgen, & Harmon, 1996; Boyd & Cramer, 1995; Helwig & Myrin, 1997). However,

only one study has focused on the use of Holland‟s theory and fashion careers. That study

was a dissertation comparing 56 fashion merchandising students who had an interest in

the occupation of buyer (Leonard, 1982). The study did not provide statistical support for


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Holland's theory; it was limited by focusing on only one career buying, for all fashion

merchandising students.

Another dissertation in the field of Human Resources and Family Science

explored Holland‟s codes for interior designers to determine the most common primary,

secondary, and tertiary types and job satisfaction (Vigna, 1996). Surveys were mailed to a

random sample of a 1,000 members of the International Interior Design Association. Four

hundred thirty members responded and 375 surveys were eligible for use in the study.

Results indicated that the most common primary code for interior designers was

Enterprising; the most common secondary code was Social, and the most common

tertiary code was Artistic (Vigna, 1996). Job satisfaction was most closely linked to

interior designers who did possess the primary and/or secondary codes of Enterprising

and Social. Vigna (1996) also stated that differences in job satisfaction most likely

occurred with interior designers who were contract designers and residential designers.

This study is significant because it links a specific occupation with the three codes within

Holland‟s typologies to job satisfaction; additionally, interior design is an artistic field

and therefore supports this study. Further, in past exploratory studies, similar results in

assessment of codes have occurred.

Another Holland study spanned a 10-year period and three generations in one

family to determine the stability of codes in that decade and also to explore compatibility

between family members and significant others (Helwig & Myrin, 1997). This study was

significant not only because the researcher chose to explore how the influence of

interrelationships among family members impacted their Holland codes, but also because


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this is one of the few studies that revisited an original longitudinal study to determine if

there were any significant changes among family-member participants. Although Helwig

and Myrin (1997) reported that there was an influence on interrelationships among family

members when their Holland codes were compared, there was a difference among

generations when educational attainment and societal impact were considered.

First- generation family members were strongly Realistic, which Helwig and

Myrin (1997) contributed to their very rural existence and acceptance of a farming

lifestyle, while third-generation family members were influenced by a more urban

lifestyle. Most had obtained bachelor‟s degrees and the ideal of living and working on a

farm had become less appealing. These family members were assessed as Social, and the

researchers concluded that the Social Holland code had replaced the Realistic code as the

dominant family code, with an increase in the Investigative code, which researchers

contributed to the latest generation‟s pursuit and obtainment of a higher level of

education. This study is significant because it brings awareness of how the attainment of

higher education and societal influences could influence career choice, and ultimately

one‟s Holland code.

Another Holland study conducted by Hogan and Holland (2003) explored the

links between job performance and personality by using a socioanalytic theory and meta-

analysis to evaluate the links. Using 43 studies on the Holland code, the researchers were

able to determine that most of the job titles directly corresponded to Holland‟s typologies

of the Realistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional. None of the studies reviewed

involved occupations connected with Investigative or Artistic codes. For example,


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according to the meta-analysis, industry occupations reviewed were scarce or virtually

nonexistent in relation to Investigative and Artistic occupations. By article representation,

the researchers found Realistic occupations represented 66.7%, Conventional 13.4%,

Enterprising 11.1%, Social 4.6%, Investigative 3.0%, and Artistic 1.2%. Therefore, they

concluded that the actual number of occupations held is representative of the number of

articles researched, meaning there were no limitations reflected on the Investigative and

Artistic occupations; the percentage of articles reflected the percentage of people in each

field (Hogan & Holland, 2003).

In most Holland research studies, a Self-Directed Study allows participants to

respond to certain questions in which they may or may not demonstrate an interest and to

determine their Holland code (Miller, 2003). However, in the study conducted by Miller

(2003) to determine congruence between parent and the child/student, only student

participants were assessed using the Self-Directed Study, while the parents‟ Holland code

was determined by their current or most recent occupations if they were retired by using

the Directory of Holland Occupational Codes, a reference text that lists occupational

codes for over 12,800 positions based on Holland‟s theory. Miller (2003) attested that

using the directory to determine the parents‟ codes is a recommendation that is not o nly

made by Holland himself, but also is more comprehensive than other indices for

determining Holland codes (Miller, 2003).

Of the 58 graduate students who participated in the study, 39 were female and 19

were male; 68% were Caucasian, 27% were African American, and 5% were other.

Results indicated a mean of 9.2 between fathers and sons and 11.5 between mothers and


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daughters, which Miller (2003) supported as a moderate degree of congruence between

parents, their offspring and personality types (Miller, 2003). This study is significant

because it is indicates that approximately 10% of the time children are likely to occupy

employment that is similar to that of their parent.

A study in reference to a client‟s selected vocational exploration strategies was

conducted by Boyd and Cramer (1995). This study examined the possibility of

client/treatment interaction effects in relation to career exploration intervention based on

the dominant Holland code or first letter in the three-letter code. One hundred and eighty-

eight subjects were used for this high-point study which indicates a strong or at least an

eight- point difference between their first and second codes. For example, a client‟s

primary code of S “Social” could reflect a score of 15 and their secondary scor e of E

“Enterprising” could reflect a score of six, which indicates a nine point difference or a

high point. The 188 subjects were 63 males and 125 females ranging from age 18 to 49.

Using a varimax rotation coupled with the Chronbach‟s alpha coefficient to

interpret results, four significant factors were determined: (a) framework of counseling,

which describes the length and the number of counseling sessions; ( b) career aspirations,

which was designed to postulate any difference that could possibly occur with career

aspirations; (c) decision-making style, which was designed to consider that each

dominant code would illustrate a unique style for determining a career; and (d) advisors

characteristics, which provides an understanding as to how career advisors‟ personalities

could affect their clients (Boyd & Cramer, 1995). The researchers then used a three-way

MANOVA on gender, age, and the participants‟ primary Holland code to test the


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hypothesis that there is, in fact, a relationship between Holland codes and career

exploration preferences. Holland codes were considered the dependent variable and the

four significant factors were considered independent variables. This effect supports the

hypotheses that “persons characterized by particular Holland codes do have different

preferences for career exploration styles” (Boyd & Cramer, p. 218). The most significant

difference based on the framework variables was found between subjects who were

assessed as Social and Realistic types; significantly, subjects whose career aspirations

were Enterprising and Artistic types indicated the largest difference. This study supported

the concept that there is in fact a relationship between the Holland code theory and the

connection to career aspirations with the support of career exploration similar to this

research study.

In a study conducted by Pike (2006) to determine vocational preferences and

college degree expectations among undergraduate students, 631 participants, 396 females

(62.8%) and 235 (37.2%) males, completed a College Student Expectations

Questionnaire (CSXQ). Additionally, four set of measures were used for this study, 1)

the participants‟ ACT interest inventory, 2) the participants‟ report of their intended

major, which was classified into a Holland typology, 3) the participants‟gender, and 4)

their expectations scores taken from the CSXQ. Five expectations scales were developed

for this study based on Intellectual Effort, Science and Mathematics, Artistic and Cultural

Experiences, Student Acquaintances, and Clubs and Organizations.

Data was analyzed using a two-way multivariate. The independent variables were

the Holland typologies and degree of congruence with the major that was selected by the


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participant. The dependent variables were the five expectations scales.The multivariate

test indicated that expectations are measureable by gender (Wilks‟ Lambda=0.93;

F=14.89; df =5, 943; p


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diverse student, and in general, make the acquaintance of others, in addition to aiding and

assisting other students. Pike (2006) concludes that this study supports implications that

students are likely to select degree majors that reflect their personality types which also

reflect findings in this current research study.

Researchers Glaser, Calhoun, Bates, and Bradshaw (2003) used Holland‟s theory

to make a comparison between adjudicated male adolescents at a regional youth detention

center and nonadjudicated male adolescents at a local high school who were participants

in an earlier study. The adjudicated adolescents were believed to possess less interest and

motivation for learning and to have some developmental delays that could impact career

aspirations based on their current status. Therefore these researchers wanted to determine

if there was a significant difference between the two groups or if the adjudicated males‟

assessments were comparatively flat or inflated. Glaser et al. also hypothesized that the

adjudicated youth would indicate elevated dominant codes for the Realistic and Artistic

categories.

There were 28 adjudicated male youths who participated in the Glaser et al.

(2003) study. Each completed the Holland Self-Directed Search through a career

exploration service offered at the detention center. Scores for each of the six codes were

compared between the adjudicated males and the high school males from the previous

study. Results from the study indicated that there was (a) a significant disparity between

adjudicated and nonadjudicated male youth; (b) a lack of differentiation was indicated

among the six codes types among the adjudicated youth; and (c) two codes in particular

were elevated, Realistic and Artistic.


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Glaser et al. (2003) were accurate in their hypotheses and further concluded that

the significant disparity between the two groups could primarily be contributed toward

the differences in environments, educational experiences, self-esteem, self-knowledge,

and interpersonal skills. The lack of differentiation in codes among the adjudicated youth

was attributed primarily to self-perception and the fact that after advising, a common

theme prevailed with the adjudicated youth in that they viewed their career options as

very limited based on their current status. Finally the two codes which were elevated

occurred due to a high value that was placed on “artistic expression” (Glaser et al., p.79)

which is typical for those assessed as Artistic, and “hands- on” (p. 79) occupations which

coincides with realistic occupations. This study is significant because it illustrates the

extent of how different environment and different educational experiences can shape and

alter the perception in the direction that ones‟ life can move in and ultimately what the

future may have in store.

The former study focused on adjudicated male youth; however, this study focused

on the difference in career choices based on Holland codes between males and females.

In a Holland conducted study by Murray and Hal

green modelo de inteligencia multiples relacionado con teoria de holland

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