MAASAIMARACONSERVANCIESCULTURAL&NATURALRESOURCE
CONSERVATIONACTIONPLAN
Photo:DanielHernández-Salazar©2015
OscarIvánMaldonado(ProcessFacilitatorandEditor),IreneAmoke,SeanAnderson,ChaniaFrost,HelenGibbons,DicksonKaelo,Daniel
Sopia,StewartThompson(Contributors)
November2015
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MaasaiMaraConservanciesCulturalandNaturalResourceConservationActionPlanEditor:OscarIvánMaldonado,Consultant([email protected])
Withcontributionsfrom:IreneAmoke,SeanAnderson,ChaniaFrost,HelenGibbons,DicksonKaelo,DanielSopiaandStewartThompson
Cartography:IreneAmoke(CNR-CAPScopeArea)Othermaps:ElephantVoices&SaveTheElephants,andMMWCA
PlanningCoreTeam:HelenGibbons,MMWCAMuniraAnyonge,TNCAllanEarnshaw,MMWCADanielSopiaMMWCAEvansMwangiPREPAREDEdwinTambaraAWFRobertNdeteiWWFApolloKariukiKWSDicksonKaeloKWCAOscarMaldonadoIndependentConsultant
Coverphoto:WildebeestintheGreaterMara.DanielHernández-Salazar©2015/MMWCA
ThisConservationActionPlanwasmadepossiblewiththesupportof:TheNatureConservancy
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a. Tableofcontents
a. Tableofcontents...................................................................................................................3
b. ListofDiagrams,Graphs,MapsandTables............................................................................5
c. ListofAppendixes..................................................................................................................5
d. Acronymsandabbreviationsusedinthisplan.......................................................................6
e. Foreword...............................................................................................................................7
f. Acknowledgements...............................................................................................................9
g. ExecutiveSummary.............................................................................................................10
1. Introduction........................................................................................................................12
1.1. Rationale.....................................................................................................................................12
1.2. Methodology..............................................................................................................................13
1.3. Theplanningprocess..................................................................................................................14
1.4. TheScopeofthePlan.................................................................................................................15
1.5. VisionforthePlan’sScope.........................................................................................................16
2. ConservationTargets...........................................................................................................17
2.1. ConservationTargetDescription................................................................................................17
2.1.1. Elephant(Loxodontaafricana)...................................................................................................17
2.1.2. Africanlion(Pantheraleo)..........................................................................................................19
2.1.3. Wildebeest(Connochaetestaurinus).........................................................................................21
2.1.4. Grasslands,ForestsandWoodlands...........................................................................................23
2.1.5. Water….......................................................................................................................................24
2.1.6. MaasaiCulture...........................................................................................................................24
2.1.7. WorldClassTourismDestination...............................................................................................25
2.2. ConservationTargetViabilityAnalysis.......................................................................................26
2.3. ResearchNeeds..........................................................................................................................29
3. DirectthreatstoConservationTargets.................................................................................29
3.1. Threatdescription......................................................................................................................29
3.1.1. Fencing.......................................................................................................................................29
3.1.2. Agriculture..................................................................................................................................30
3.1.3. Poaching.....................................................................................................................................30
3.1.4. HumanWildlifeConflict..............................................................................................................30
3.1.5. UnplannedSettlementsandUrbanisation.................................................................................31
3.1.6. Uncontrolled/UnsustainableGrazing.........................................................................................31
3.1.7. Charcoal(Logging/burning)........................................................................................................31
3.1.8. LossofMaasaiCulture................................................................................................................32
3.1.9. Infrastructure.............................................................................................................................32
3.1.10.Sandextractionandpollution....................................................................................................33
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3.1.11.ClimateChangeeffectsasnewthreat........................................................................................33
3.2. Threatanalysisandrating..........................................................................................................34
3.3. TheContext:CausesandeffectsofThreatstoConservationTargets........................................38
4. Stakeholderanalysis............................................................................................................40
5. Theconservationstrategies.................................................................................................43
5.1. Strategy1:LandUsePlanningforaLong-TermFunctionalEcosystem.....................................43
5.1.1. Theoryofchange........................................................................................................................43
5.1.2. Objectives,generalactivitiesandactiontoimplementinthefirstyear....................................43
5.2. SustainableGrazingandBeefProduction..................................................................................47
5.2.1. TheoryfChange.........................................................................................................................47
5.2.2. Objectives,generalactivitiesandactiontoimplementinthefirstyear....................................47
5.3. PreservingtheMaasaiCulture...................................................................................................50
5.3.1. TheoryofChange.......................................................................................................................50
5.3.2. Objectives,generalactivitiesandactiontoimplementinthefirstyear....................................50
5.4. HarmoniousCoexistenceofPeopleandNature.........................................................................53
5.4.1. TheoryofChange.......................................................................................................................53
5.4.2. Objectives,generalactivitiesandactiontoimplementinthefirstyear....................................53
5.5. FinancialSustainability...............................................................................................................57
5.5.1. Theoryofchange........................................................................................................................57
5.5.2. Objectives,generalactivitiesandactiontoimplementinthefirstyear....................................57
5.6. Risksandpotentialnegativeimpactsassessment......................................................................60
6. MonitoringPlan...................................................................................................................61
7. Zoningproposal...................................................................................................................73
8. Bibliography........................................................................................................................74
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b. Listofdiagrams,graphs,mapsandtables
Diagram1:ScopeAreaConceptualModel.......................................................................................................39Graph1:OpenStandardsProjectCycle(Source:CMP2007)............................................................................14Map1:CNR-CAPGeographicalScope..............................................................................................................16Map2:ElephantmortalitybycausesanddistributionofcarcassesintheMaraecosystemfrom2010to2014.19Map3:SerengetiandLoitaWildebeestMigrations.Source:MMWCA(2015)..................................................22Table1.a:Resultsoftheviabilityanalysisforbiologicaltargets.......................................................................27Table1.b:Resultsoftheviabilityanalysisforculturalandsocialtargets..........................................................28Table2:Threatrating…...................................................................................................................................35
Table3:StakeholderAnalysis..........................................................................................................................41Table4:Risksandnegativeimpacts.................................................................................................................60Table5:ProposedDefinitionofZonesfortheCNR-CAP...................................................................................73
c. Listofappendixes
Appendix1:ResultChainDiagrams.................................................................................................................81Appendix1.1:ResultChainDiagram,StrategyLandUsePlanningforaLong-TermFunctionalEcosystem........81Appendix1.2:ResultChainDiagrams,StrategySustainableGrazingandBeefProduction................................82Appendix1.3:ResultChainDiagrams,StrategyPreservingtheMaasaiCulture................................................83Appendix1.4:ResultChainDiagrams,StrategyHarmoniousCoexistenceofPeopleandNature......................84Appendix1.5:ResultChainDiagrams,StrategyFinancialSustainability...........................................................85Appendix2:Listofparticipantsintheplanreviewworkshop..........................................................................86
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d. Acronymsandabbreviationsusedinthisplan
AWF:AfricaWildlifeFoundationCRS:CorporateSocialResponsibilityCWCCC:CountyWildlifeConservationandCompensationCommitteeGIS:GeographicalInformationSystemsGME:GreaterMaraEcosystemILRI:InternationalLivestockResearchInstituteIPCC:IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChangeIUCN:InternationalUnionforNatureKEA:KeyEcologicalAttributeKFS:KenyaForestServiceKenyaNationalBureauofStatisticsKWCA:KenyaWildlifeConservanciesAssociationKWS:KenyaWildlifeServiceKWT:KenyaWildlifeTrustMaMaSe:MauMaraSerengetiSustainableWaterInitiativeMEP:MaraElephantProjectMMNR:MasaiMaraNationalReserveMMWCA:MaasaiMaraWildlifeConservanciesAssociationMoU:MemorandumofUnderstandingNEMA:NationalEnvironmentalManagementAuthorityNGO:Non-GovernmentalOrganisationsOOMT:OlareOrokMotorogiTrustTBD:ToBeDetermined/DefinedTNC:TheNatureConservancyUNDP:UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgrammeWWF:WorldWideFundforNature
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e. Foreword
TheMaasaiMaraEcosystem—hometothegreatestmammalmigrationinAfricaandtheworld-renownedMaasaitribe—isthejewelofthecrownforwildlifeconservationandsafaritourisminKenya.Hostingmorethan95speciesofmammalsandover550speciesofbirds,theMaracontainsapproximately25%ofKenya’stotalwildlife(Ogutuetal.2015).TheGreaterMaasaiMaraEcosystem,playinghosttothisabundanceofwildlifeiscomposedofthestateprotectedMaasaiMaraNationalReserve(MMNR)of1,510km2andadjacentcommunityandprivatelands—historicallytotallingapproximately6,000km2,formingthenorthernmostpartoftheSerengeti-Maraecosystem.Withthree-quartersoftheecosystemoutsideofthestateprotectedarea,ourvision—tosecurewildlifeandsustainablelivelihoodsforabetterfuture—willbewonorlostnotintheMMNRbutintheconservanciesandtheneighbouringareas—anestimatedareaof3,000km2.
TheMara’sconservancymovementformallystartedin2005andatthepresenttime,theprivateandcommunitylandsincludenineoperationalconservanciesatvariouslevelsofdevelopment,covering1,150km2andincreasingthetotalprotectedareacoveragefrom26%to43%oftheentireMaraEcosystem.Theseconservanciesaremainlyfinancedbythetourismsectorandgovernedbyjointstakeholderconservancyboards,composedoflandownersandtourismparties.Throughthepaymentofmonthlyleasesbythetourismparties(andaprivatebenefactorinoneconservancy)totheMaasailandowners,theconservanciessupportthelivelihoodsofapproximately3,000landowners,equivalenttoanestimated25,000people(aseachlandownerrepresentsafamilyofapproximately7.4people).Thereiscontinuedinterestinestablishingnewconservanciesacrosstheregion,withanothersixproposedorinformation.
Despitethisprogressoverthepastfewyearsinrestoringandprotectingcriticalsectionsoftheecosystem,therearenumerousexistingandrisingthreatsandchallenges.Inparticular,theunstabletourismclimatethatishighlysensitivetothenationalsecurityissuesfacingKenyaaswellasotherevents,suchastheoutbreakofEbolainwesternAfrica.Thissensitivityofthetourismsector,onwhichsomuchoftheMaraconservancies’modelrelies,createsaseriouschallengeofsustainability,exacerbatedbyotherchallengeslike:theabsenceofecosystemmanagementorplanning;lackofaMara-wideconservancygovernanceapproachandbenchmarks;aninsufficientnetworkofconservanciesandconservationareastoprotectthecriticalareasandintensecompetitionbetweenpeople,wildlife,livestockandtourismforthefinitespaceandnaturalresources.
TheMaasaiMaraWildlifeConservanciesAssociation,asthearea’sRegionalAssociation,legallyrecognizedwithintheWildlifeAct2013,hasthemandatefromitsMara-widemembershiptosourcefundsandimplementprogramsthatwillprovidetheleadershipandcoordinationacrosstheregion-toconservetheGreaterMaasaiMaraEcosystemthroughanetworkofprotectedareas(conservanciesandconservationareas),fortheprosperityofall.IncollaborationwithTheNatureConservancy(TNC)andmultipleMararelatedpartiesandstakeholders,MMWCAhasdevelopedthisCulturalandNaturalResourceConservationActionPlan(CNR-CAP),toaddressthesustainabilityandfutureoftheGreaterMaasaiMaraEcosystem(excludingtheMaasaiMaraNationalReserve).
TheaimofthisConservationActionPlan(CAP)istocreateaframeworkacrosstheGreaterMaasaiMaraEcosystemthat,ontheonehand,identifiesthekeytargetsandcriticalobjectivestobeachievedoverthenextyearsinordertosustainthemagnificenceandintegrityoftheregionand,ontheotherhand,proposessomeofthecorestrategiestobetakenforwardfromJanuary2016toenablerisksandthreatstobemitigatedandopportunitiestobeleveraged,withactualactivitiesspecifiedfortheimmediate12months.
ItisafarreachingCAP,incorporatingculturalandtourismstrategies,financialsustainabilityfortheconservancies,landuseplanning,thecoexistenceofwildlifeandpeople,aswellassustainablegrazing.Itunitesabreadthanddepthofknowledgeandresearch,intoaMara-wideplanningframework.Additionally,itprovidesamulti-levelapproachthatbuildsarobustandsustainableGreaterMaasaiMaracultureandnaturalresourceplanningframeworkthatwillguideandinformbothexistingandnewMarastakeholdersintheirdevelopmentpath.
Inconclusion,thisConservationActionPlanhasbeendevelopedthroughabottom-upandtop-downapproach;astakeholders’workshopintheMarainSeptember2015,complementingstrategicdiscussionsandthoughtleadershipamongstcriticalthinkersduringthecourseoftheyear.Through
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thisintercourse,webelievewehaveidentifiedthecriticalinterventionsandstrategies,toachieveourvisionfortheGreaterMaasaiMara:Aculturallandscapewherecommunitiesandpartnerssecurewildlifeandsustainablelivelihoodsforabetterfuture.
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f. Acknowledgements
TheMaasaiMaraWildlifeConservanciesAssociationwantstothankalltheparticipants(seeAppendix2forcompletelist)whoattendedtheConservationActionPlanning(CAP)workshopintheMaasaiMara,September2015,aswellastheindividualcontributorswhogavetheirtime,expertiseandknowledgeincreatingthisimportantplanningframeworkdocument.
TheMaraworkshopwasdynamic,interestingandeducationalandprovidedanopportunityforparticipantstobecomeversedinconceptualmodelsandtheopenstandardsapproachforconservationplanning.Allwereactivelyinvolvedindiscussionsandgroupexercisesandtheireffortsaregreatlyappreciated.
Inparticularweofferaspecialmentiontoindividualswholedworkinggroupsduringtheworkshopandlaterspearheadedsectionsofthisdocument,theyare:Dr.IreneAmoke,ChaniaFrost,DicksonKaelo,SeanAndersonandProf.StewartThompson.
WeexpressourgratitudetoSarovahotelfortheirexcellentfacilitiesandlogisticsandtoKenEsauforhistechnicalsupportinthepreparationanddevelopmentoftheworkshop,aswellasDanielSopia,(MMWCA’sConservancies’CouncilChairman),forhisleadershipinorganisingtheworkshop.
SpecialthankstoOscarMaldonadoforhisoutstandingprofessionaldiscipline,expertiseanddirectionindevelopingthisConservationActionPlan.Thankyouforkeepingusfocusedamongstmanyotherdemandsandensuringthatwedevelopedthisdocument,withinatimelymanner.
Andaswell,toacclaimedphotographerDanielHernández-Salazar,whocontributedhisexpertiseinvisuallyrecordingtheworkshopandtakingawideselectionofphotographscapturingthedynamicsoftheworkshopandthediversityoftheMaraecosystem.
Finally,weareindebtedtoTheNatureConservancyandinparticularMuniraAnyongeandCharlesOluchinaforthegenerousfunding,participationandinspirationbehindthisCulturalNaturalResource,ConservationActionPlanandfortheongoingsupporttheyareprovidingtoMMWCAforitsdevelopmentacrosstheGreaterMaasaiMaraEcosystem,Kenya.
HelenGibbonsChiefExecutiveOfficerMaasaiMaraWildlifeConservanciesAssociation
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g. ExecutiveSummary
ThisCulturalandNaturalResourceConservationActionPlan(CNR-CAP)respondstotheneedofundertakinganintegratedplanningprocessacrossthedifferentconservanciesneighbouringtheMaasaiMaraNationalReserve(MMNR),inordertoeffectivelyaddresspervasive,increasingthreatstowildlifeandecosystemsacrosstheGreaterMaraEcosystem(GME).ConsideringtheimportancethattheMaasaipeopleandtheirculturehavehadinshapingtheirlandscape,thisactionplantookintoaccountthattheGREis,aboveall,aculturallandscape.
ThemethodologythatguidedtheplanningprocesswastheOpenStandardsforthePracticeofConservation(OS).Basedonscience,theOSfocusdirectlyonimplementingactionsbasedonmeasurableoutcomesandworkinghypothesestobetestedbytheimplementationontheground.
TheCNR-CAPdefineditsgeographicalscopecomprisingaCoreArea,whichexpandstoallexistingconservanciesandsurroundingareaswherenewconservanciesorconservationareasareproposedorcouldbecreatedinthenearfuture,andanInfluenceAreathatencompassesimportantareasforconservation,easttotheCoreArea.ThiszoneispartoftheGreaterMaraEcosystemandisofcriticalimportanceforlong-termwildlifeconservation.Thefollowingvisionstatementwillinspireworkacrossthisscopearea:“Aculturallandscapewherecommunitiesandpartnerssecurewildlifeandsustainablelivelihoodsforabetterfuture.”
Inordertofocustheconservationwork,eightconservationtargetswereselectedtorepresentthebiologicaldiversityandcriticalthreats,beingthreeofthemspecies:ElephantandWildebeest,bothofthemimportantplayinganimportantroleinshapingthelandscape,andthreatenedbypoaching,humanwildlifeconflictanddiversefactorsthatreducetheirrequiredspace;andLion,apexpredator,alsothreatenedbypoachingandhuman-wildlifeconflict.Threeothertargetsareecosystems,whichwerechosentorepresentthehabitatheterogeneityofthesavannahsoftheGME:Grasslands,Forests,andWoodlands.Thethreeofthemareexposedtoconflictinglanduses,suchasagriculture,humansettlementsandovergrazing.Thisplanalsoconsidersnon-biologicaltargets,beingtheMaasaiCultureoneofthem,notonlybecauseofitsintrinsicsignificantvalue,butbecauseitisconsideredacriticalcomponenttoachieveandsustainconservationoutcomes.Lastly,tourismrepresentsafundamentalaspectofconservancies,whichbothsustainsandissustainedbywildlifeconservation.Itisnot,however,a“conservation”targetperse,butratherasocialtargetresultingfromtheecosystemservicesprovidedbywildlifeconservation.
Allthese8conservationtargetshaveacriticalimportancefortheCNR-CAPastheyarethebasisforsettinggoals,carryingoutconservationactions,andmeasuringconservationeffectiveness.Theviabilityanalysisdemonstratedtheurgentneedtoworkontheminacoordinated,integrativemanner.Onlytwo,ElephantandLionwereratedin“Good”status,whereasWildebeest,Grasslands,Woodlands,WaterSources,theMaasaiCultureandTourismwererated“Fair.”ThemostcriticallyendangeredtargetisForest,rated“Poor.”
Theneedforanintegrativeconservancies-wideapproachdefinitelyincreasesbytheseriouslevelofcurrentthreatstowildlifeandtheMaasaiculture.Theplanningprocesshighlightedelevenmajorthreats.Theyaredefinedasultimatehumanactivitiesorprocessesnegativelyimpactingtheviabilityoftheconservationtargets.Sixofthemwererated“High”:Fencing,UnplannedSettlementsandUrbanisation,Uncontrolled/UnsustainableGrazing,HumanWildlifeConflictandCharcoalBurningandLogging,andInfrastructure;threewererated“Medium”:Poaching,AgricultureLandUse,LossofMaasaiCulture,andonlytwowererated“Low”:SandExtractionandPollution.Climatechangeisnotnecessarilydeemedasathreat,butitistherootcauseoflocaleffectsthatdorepresentthreatstowildlifeandecosystems.Thisplanconsidersthatmoreresearchneedstobeundertakeninordertoclearlydefinewhatclimatechangeeffectsneedtobeaddressedanddesignpropermitigationoradaptationstrategiesaccordingly.ClimateChangehasbeenincludedinthelistoftopresearchprioritiesofthisplan,sothatimmediateactionscanbeimplemented.
Foraddressingthreatsandensuringthelongtermviabilityofthetargets,fourconservationstrategiesweredesigned:LandUsePlanningforaLong-TermFunctionalEcosystem;SustainableGrazingandBeefProduction;PreservingtheMaasaiCulture;HarmoniousCoexistenceofPeopleandNature.Thelanduseplanningstrategyaimstoexpandlandssuitableforconservationandsustainablelandmanagement,minimisingincompatiblelandusesandunsustainablepractices,reducingtherateand
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extentoffencing,aswellastoallowdegradedareastoberestored,increasinglandresilienceandconnectivityacrossthelandscape.ThesustainablegrazingstrategyseekstoincreasetheresilienceoftheMara’srangelands,thevalue,productivityandincomegeneratedbylivestock,whilereducinglivestockstockrates,unsustainablelanduses,andimpactsonwildlife.ThestrategyregardingtheMaasaiCulturepursuespreservingthepositiveculturalpillars,particularlyitsharmonicrelationwithwildlifeandenvironment.Finally,thefourthstrategyincludesdifferentinterventionfrontstomaintainstablewildlifepopulationsanddistributionacrosstheGreaterMaasaiMaraecosystem,andtoreducethehumanfootprintontheenvironmentandwildlife,creatingaharmoniousco-existenceofpeopleandnature.Noneofthesestrategieswouldprosperiffundingisnotproperlyconsidered.Forthatreason,afifthstrategywasdesignedtoensurelong-termfinancialstabilityfortheconservancies.
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1. Introduction
IthasbeenmylifelongdreamtoseethewildlifeofEastAfrica.YetnowthatIamhere,thoughIfindthewildlifeimpressive,itistheMaasaipeopleandtheircultureand
wayoflifethatmovesmeevenmore.U.S.RancherBillMiller
(citedinCurtin&Western2008)
ThisactionplanrespondstotheneedofundertakinganintegratedplanningprocessacrossthedifferentconservanciesneighbouringtheMaasaiMaraNationalReserve(MMNR),inordertomoreeffectivelyaddresspervasive,increasingthreatstowildlifeandecosystemscurrentlyoccurringintheGreaterMaraEcosystem.SuchaneedwasreportedbyanassessmentcarriedoutinJanuary2015(Maldonado2015),whichidentifiedthatdifferentplanninginitiativesacrosstheMaasaiMaralandscapehadlittlelevelofinteractionandmutualreinforcementand,forthatreason,vitalopportunitiesforcollaborativeworkweremissed,tothedetrimentofbetterandmoreenduringconservationresultsontheground.
TheMaasaiMara,alongwiththeneighbouringSerengeti,representsthemosticoniclandscapeofAfricaintheWorld.Thisfameisnotonlyduetoitswildlife,themega-fauna,andtheparticularbeautyofthesavannahs,butalsobecauseitisalong-inhabitedlandscapewherethepeople,theMaasai,havetraditionallyplayedanimportantroleinshapingtheecosystemforatleastthreethousandyears(Reid,2012).Indeed,thegreaterMaasaiMaraecosystemisnotanydifferenttoothergrasslandecosystemsintheworld:itismostlyaculturallandscapewherewildlifeandhumanshavecoexistedforcenturies.Moreover,somescholarsmayarguethattheMaasaigrasslandecosystemexistsbecause,andnotdespitetheinterrelationsbetweentheMaasaipeople,wildlifeandtheirenvironment(theMaasaiculturalpractices,thenon-bioticresourcesandecologicalprocesses,andthelandscape).
ThisCulturalandNaturalResourceConservationActionPlan(CNR-CAP)isthusmadewiththeconsiderationthatathrivingMaasaiCultureisasimportantfortheGreaterMaraEcosystem(GME)aswildlifeis,soitisnecessarytoinitiatepromptactionstoconservebothandthemutuallyreinforcingrelationshipthatlinksthetwo.
1.1. Rationale
ConservanciesacrosstheMaralandscapewereestablishedbothorganicallyandindependently,althoughtheyfacefewdistinctindividualissues.Morethaninmanyotherlargeconservationareas,criticalthreatsandconstraintsaresharedacrosstheMaasaiMara,notonlyamongwell-establishedconservancies,butalsointherestofneighbouringcriticalareasthatdonothaveanyconservationmanagementregimeyet.Alltheseareasconstitutethesamelandscape,whichcanbedefinednotonlybyitsecologicalandculturalfeatures,butalsobybeingexposedtothesamepressuresandopportunities.
Asamatteroffact,themainrationalefortheestablishmentofconservanciesisthattheMasaiMaraNaturalReserve—oneofthemostimportantandfamousprotectedareasintheworld,isinsufficienttoguaranteethelongtermviabilityofitswell-knownemblematicspecies,likeelephantsandwildebeest,andtheintegrityofthewholeecosystemthatdependsonthegreatmigration.Consequently,thefutureoftheNationalReservedependsonthesuccessoftheconservancies,andthesuccessofeachindividualconservancydependsonthesuccessofthewholeconservancy-system.Forthatreasontwoverybasicpremisesshouldgoverntheconservationapproachacrossthislandscape:
Asingleconservancyisnotenoughtoensurelongtermwildlifeconservation Allandeachconservancyisonlyonepart(asignificantpart,though)ofthewholeecosystem
Inturn,thesepremisesprovidetherationaleforaconservancies-widecommonagendathatconsidersthat:
Theecosystemencompasses(anddepends)onwide-range,highlymigratoryspeciesthatrequirealargerlandscapeapproach;
Theconservancieshaveparticularthreatsandconstraints,butmostofthem(ifnottheallof
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them)aresharedacrosstheconservanciessystem:landsub-divisionandfencing;poaching;land-conversion,amongothers;
Mostofcurrentcriticalthreatsaresystemic,thustheyrequireabroaderandmoreintegratedapproachinaddition(ifnotinstead)toasite-basedresponse;
Someneededactions(anti-poaching,monitoring)canbeexpensiveandrequireintegratedactiontoidentifytheiroutcomesoverthelargersystemtakingadvantageofeconomiesofscale.
Theneedforanintegrativeconservancies-wideapproachdefinitelyincreasesbythecriticallevelofcurrentthreatstowildlifeandtheMaasaiCulture.Newpolicieshaveradicallymodifiedthelandmanagement,encouragingfencingandthusinterruptingthenaturalmovementofspeciesthroughtheirmigrationroutes.Currentandpotentiallanduseisatriskofbecomingamajorthreatwithcatastrophicimpactsonallnaturalresourcesandlivelihoods.Poaching,inparticularelephantpoaching,isintensifyingfastaswell,butisadynamicthreatthatmovesacrossthelandscapeinoccurrenceandintensity.Itsresponseiscostlyandrisky,andrequiresnotonlycoordinatedaction,butalsosustainedsourcesoffundingtobesuccessful.
Ontheotherhand,engaginginanintegrativeplanningprocessalsoprovidestheopportunitytoredefinetheconservationparadigm,understandingtheintertwiningrelationshipbetweentheMaasaiculture,theirlivelihoods,andtheMaraecosystem,inparticularthewildlife.Itisclearthatnoneofthesepartscanprevailwithouttheother—acharacteristicthattrulymakestheMaasaiMara,aboveall,aculturallandscape.
1.2. Methodology
TheOpenStandardsforthePracticeofConservation(simplyknowastheOpenStandards—OS)wasthemethodologyusedfordevelopingtheCNR-CAP.Severalreasonsjustifiedthischoice:
1. TheOSaretheplanningmethodologyforanumberofconservationorganisationsworkingeitheracrosstheMarae.g.,WWF,orsupportingconservationinitiativesintheMarae.g.,AfricanWildlifeFoundation,TheNatureConservancy.Itisthereforelargelyacommon,sharedandknownmethodology.
2. TheOSareinspiringthenewofficialconservationplanningguidelinesoftheKenyaWildlifeService(A.Kariuki,comm.pers.).Further,applyingOSfortheMaracouldhaveadidacticpurposegiventhatotherplanningeffortswillincludeasimilarapproachinthefuture—includingtheforthcomingrequestedplans,suchastheNarokCountySpatialPlan,theGreaterMaraEcosystemPlanandtheconservancy-levelplans.
3. Science-based,theOSfocusdirectlyonimplementingactionsbasedonmeasurableoutcomesandworkinghypothesestobetestedbytheimplementationontheground.ManyconservationplansintheMarahavelackedimmediateactionplans,causingafrustratedimplementation.TheOSseekstoovercomethislimitation.
4. TheOSlevelofcomplexityforplanning(notthelevelofrigour)canvaryaccordingtotheurgencyofgettingtotheimplementationstage.A“RapidOS”varianthasbeenbroadlyusedincasesthatrequireurgentactions,or/andthatcannotcompromiseorinvesttoomuchstakeholders’timeintheplanningprocess.
5. TheOSarealsobasedontheprincipleofencouragingparticipationofmajorcriticalstakeholders.Theirviewpointsandopinionsarethemajorcomponentforthesituationanalysesthatleadstothestrategydevelopment.
6. Overtheyearsofpractice,OShassucceededinincorporatingnotonlyabiodiversityfocus,butalsoaculturalapproach,analysingtheinteractionbetweenbothnaturalandculturalconservationtargets.GiventhecharacteristicsoftheMaasaiMara,suchanapproachisappropriate.Fromsuchaprocess,aCulturalandNaturalResourceConservationActionPlan(CNR-CAP)focusedonspecifictargets(bothnaturalandcultural)couldemerge.
TheConservationMeasuresPartnership(CMP),analliancetowhichmostoftheinternationalconservationorganizationsbelong,createdtheOpenStandards.Theyassembleprovenbestpracticesforconservationprojectplanningandmanagementintheirdifferentphasesandsteps.Indeed,morethanjustplanning,theOSfocusonsoundprojectmanagement,wheremonitoring,learning,adapting
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andsharingarekeycomponentsoftheprojectcycle.Orputdifferently,majorphasesofOSfocusonplanningtoproceedtoactionandundertakeadaptivemanagement,asshowninthediagrambelow.
Graph1:OpenStandardsProjectCycle(Source:CMP2007)
1.3. Theplanningprocess
TheinitialassessmentdevelopedinJanuary2015identifiedsomechallengesinundertakingtheintegrativeplanningapproachthatthisprocesswantedtoavoid.Forthisreason,theplanningprocessneededtobedesignednotonlytobringtogetherallcriticalstakeholdersandonthesamepage,butaswell,doingitinarapidandefficientmannersothatplanningfatigue—anundesiredeffectthathadhinderedpreviouseffortsandcouldjeopardizeeffectiveparticipationandresults,wasside-stepped.Further,theprocesswasalsodesignedforreconcilingascience-basedapproachwithdifferentparties’interests,andforfocusingonimmediateimplementation.
Withthisinmind,theplan’sprocessincorporatesthreephases:
a. FirstPhase:Planning
Methodologicalandlogisticalpreparation,comprisingselectionofbasicinformationandparticipantsforthepreparationoftheplanningworkshopagenda,materialsandlogistics
Theplanningworkshop,on-site,withtheparticipationofmorethan40attendants,conductedfrom7th–11thSeptember2015.
Analysis,writing,editingandreviewofthisCNR-CAPdocumentfromSeptembertoendofNovember2015
b. SecondPhase:
Implementationoftheimmediateactivitiesthatrequireurgentimplementation Implementationanddevelopmentofactivitiesthatcanlaunchorsustainotheractivitiesor
strategiesoverthemedium-andlong-term Endofyearreviewandassessmentofprogresstodate
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c. ThirdPhase:
Basedonannualreview,followuponimplementationofon-goingstrategiesandactivities Basedontheplan’sprioritiesandproposedzoning,influenceonotherplanningprocessesat
lower(conservanciesandotherconservationareaswithintheCNR-CAPscopearea)andupper(thewiderCountyArea)levels.
1.4. TheScopeofthePlan
Theactionplan’sscopeistheareawherethebiodiversityorculturalfeaturesofinterestarelocatedandwherepositivechangesresultingfromourstrategiesareexpected.Mostofthestrategiesareexpectedtotakeplacewithinthegeographicalscopeofthisplan,butthisdoesnotprecludeimplementingotherrequiredinterventionsoutsideofthedefinedarea—particularlytheonesthatfocusonpolicy,fund-raisingandbuildingconservationpartnershipsandsupport.
FortheCNR-CAP,thescopecomprisestwoareas,CoreAreaandInfluenceArea,asfollows:
CoreArea:
TheCoreAreacomprisesallexistingconservanciesandsurroundingareaswherenewconservanciesorconservationareasareproposedorcouldbecreatedinthenearfuture.Thestrategiesincludedinthisplanaretobecarriedoutinthisarea.
Morespecifically,theCoreAreaisdeterminedasfollowsandasshownbelowinMap1:
WestoftheIsiriaescarpmentontotheEucleabushlandonOloiriengroupranchincludingtheproposedMaasaiMoranConservancyandcoveringtheentireextentofNyakweriforestandOloisukutConservancy,bufferingOloisukutConservancydowntotheMaraRiver.
FollowingNorththeMaraRiverallthewaytoEmartiBridgeandalltheareaswithinEnonkishuConservancy;theneastwardsalongEmorijoiHillstoNjsuanibellowLemekcentre.
ExtendingEastofthePardamathills,tothecultivatedlandandfencedlandofOlkinyei,crossingtheNarok-Sekenaniroad,nearLekangahillsextendingtotheMajimotoandParkitabohills.
ExtendingsouthwardstothewesterntipofNaikara,includingproposedOlpuaConservancy;furtherextendingalongtheOlderkesiConservancyborder,totheKenya-Tanzaniainternationalborder.
Influence(orSecondary)Area:
TheInfluenceArea(alsocalledSecondaryArea)encompassesimportantareasforconservation,easttotheCoreArea.ThiszoneispartoftheGreaterMaraEcosystemandisofcriticalimportanceforlong-termwildlifeconservation.Althoughnodirectactivitiesarecurrentlyplanned,theCNR-CAPisexpectedtohaveaninfluencethereamidrelevantstakeholderse.g.throughtheGreaterMaraEcosystemPlan,inordertoamplifythegeographicalscopeofconservationendeavours.
Thisareaincludes(asshownbelowinMap1):
TheareaadjacenttotheMagadi-LoitaecoregionincludingtheNaiminaEnkiyioforest,theplainsWestoftheforestandtheNgurmanescarpmenttotheShompoleandOlkiramatianandextendingnorth-easttotheMosiroSuswaregionunderthecoordinationoftheSouthernAssociationofLandowners(Soralo)
TheMajimoto-NarosuraplainsandthePololet-Morijoplains.
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Map1:CNR-CAPGeographicalScope
1.5. VisionforthePlan’sScope
Thevisionisastatementthatsummarisesthedesired,idealstateorultimateconditionthatthestakeholdersinvolvedintheimplementationoftheplanwouldliketoachieve.Thevalueofthevisionresidesbothinrepresentingageneralagreementonwhichtheconservationactionsarefounded,andinbeingasourceofinspirationandcommitment.
AstheMaraisamulti-linguallandscape,threeversionsofthevisionstatementfortheCNR-CAPScopeareaweredeveloped,inEnglish,Maasai,andSwahili.
VisionStatement
“Aculturallandscapewherecommunitiesandpartnerssecurewildlifeandsustainablelivelihoodsforabetterfuture”
MaaVersionoftheVisionStatement
“Orbakuneilolkuaaknaibungateilopenyolaretokpeeeramatiinguesipeetumidupotonabikoooonkolonginaaponu”1
SwahiliVersionoftheVisionStatement
“KwaMazingirayautamaduninamaliasiliambapojamiinawashirikawanamaishaendelevukwakuulindanakuhifadhiwanyamaporikwamaishaborayabaadaye”2
1FreetranslationfromEnglishbyDanielSopia2 FreetranslationfromEnglishbyKenEssau,reviewedbyIreneAmoke
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2. ConservationTargets
AccordingtotheOSandotherrelatedmethodologies(e.g.TNC’sConservationActionPlanning,orWWF’sProjectandProgramManagementStandards),ConservationTargetsarealimitedsetofspecies,communitiesandecologicalsystemsthatrepresentandencompassthefullarrayofbiologicaldiversityfoundintheplan’sgeographicalscopearea.
Thereasonforfocusingonselectedconservationtargetsisstrategicandmanagerial.Itrestsontheassumptionthatthereisnoprojectthatcancomprehendthefullbiologicaldiversity(ofwhichmanycomponentsareunknown),sothereisaneedtospecificallyselectthemostemblematicfeatures—ecosystemsorwildlifespecies,asreferencepointstotheothers,thatrepresentthemajorthreatsthatcriticallyaffectsomeorallofthefeatures.
Fromthisapproach,three“finefilter”conservationtargetswereselected3:ElephantandWildebeest,bothofthemimportantshapersofthelandscape,whicharethreatenedbypoaching,humanwildlifeconflictanddiversefactorsthatreducetheirrequiredspace;andLion,astheapexpredator,alsothreatenedbypoachingandhuman-wildlifeconflict.
Similarly,three“coarsefilter”conservationecosystemtargets(ecosystems)werechosenastheyrepresentthehabitatheterogeneityofthesavannahsoftheGreaterMaraEcosystem:grasslands,forests,andwoodlands.Thethreeofthemareexposedtoconflictinglanduses,suchasagriculture,humansettlementsandovergrazing.
Forsomeconservationinitiatives,suchisthecaseoftheCNR-CAP,itisalsoimportanttoconsidernon-biologicalconservationtargets.Astheacronymofthisplanstandsfor,theculturalcomponentisofparticularimportancefortheGME.Indeed,theMaasaiCultureisnotonlyconsideredasaconservationtarget,butalsoasanecessarycomponenttoachievethebiological-targets,andlong-termenduranceofthepositiveresults.
Lastly,tourismrepresentsafundamentalaspectofconservancies,whichbothsustainsandissustainedbywildlifeconservation.Itisnot,however,a“conservation”targetperse,butratherasocialtargetresultingfromtheecosystemservicesprovidedbywildlifeconservation,namelytheeducational,recreational,inspirationalandaestheticvalues.
Allthese8conservationtargetshaveacriticalimportancefortheCNR-CAPastheyrepresentthebasisforsettinggoals,carryingoutconservationactions,andmeasuringconservationeffectiveness.2.1. ConservationTargetDescription
2.1.1. Elephant(Loxodontaafricana)
TheAfricanelephantiscurrentlyfoundin37countriesinsub-SaharanAfrica(Blancetal.,2007)withindividualhomerangesvaryingfrom15to3,700km2(Douglas-Hamilton,1972).Theytendtomovebetweenavarietyofhabitatsandoverwidealtitudinalandlatitudinalranges,fromdenseforest,openandclosedsavannah,grassland,ariddeserts,mountainslopesandoceanicbeaches,andfromthenortherntropicstothesoutherntemperatezone.DespitelargetractsofcontinuouselephantrangeremaininginpartsofCentral,EasternandSouthernAfrica,elephantdistributionisbecomingincreasinglyfragmentedacrossthecontinent(Blanc,2008).TheAfricanElephantissubjecttovariousdegreesoflegalprotectioninallrangestates.Althoughupto70%ofthespeciesrangeisbelievedtolieinunprotectedland,mostlargepopulationsoccurwithinprotectedareas.Anincreasingnumberoftrans-boundaryelephantpopulationsareco-managedthroughthecollaborationofrelevantneighbouringrangestates.
3TNC’sversiónofOS,ConservationAtionPlanning,suggestthecoarsefilter/finefilterapproachforselectingconservationtargets.Coarsefiltertargetsaredefinedbyecologicalsystemsthat,whenconserved,alsoconservethespeciestheyencompass.Thefinefiltertargetsarespeciesand/orcommunitiesthatarenotwellcapturedbycoarsefiltertargetsbecausetheyfaceparticularthreatsandthereforerequirespecificattention.
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TheAfricanelephantisthelargestlivinglandmammalwithmalesofthespeciesweighingupto6,000kg(Hanks,1969).Theirdietmayincludegrass,herbs,bark,fruitandtreefoliage.Insavannahhabitats,grassmaymakeup70%oftheelephants’dietinthewetseason,withlargerproportionsofbrowsecontributingtotheirdietasthedryseasonprogresses.Estimatesformeandailyintakerangefrom4%(Lawsetal.,1970)to7%(Ruggiero,1992)ofbodyweight,whilsttheyonlydigest40%ofwhattheyconsume.Elephantsarecapableofgreatlyaffectingthestructureofvegetationandathighdensitiesreducewoodlands,convertingthemtomoreopengrassland(Western,1989).Vegetationdamagecausedbyelephantsisanormalactivityandcancontributetobeneficialchangesinhabitatdiversityandbiomassturnover(Pooleetal.,2013).
Elephantsarenotedfortheirintelligence,closefamilytiesandsocialcomplexity(Moss,1988),aswellastheirabilitytocommunicateoverlongdistancesthroughtheuseofpowerfullowfrequencycalls(Pooleetal.,2013).
ThespeciesisknowntohavebecomenationallyextinctinBurundiinthe1970s,inTheGambiain1913andinMauritaniainthe1980s.EasternAfricawastheregionwiththelargestnumberofelephantsinthe1970s,butalsotheonethatexperiencedtheworstpoachingepisodesinthatandthefollowingdecade.TheAfricanElephantwaslistedasVulnerable(VUA2a)inthe2004IUCNRedList,priortowhichthespecieswaslistedasEndangered(ENA1b)(Blanc,2007).
Descriptionoftargetinprojectscope
GivinganaccuratefigureforthenumberofelephantspresentintheGreaterMaasaiMaraecosystemisproblematicastheelephantsmovesignificantdistancesthroughouttheirextensivehomerange,whichinthiscaseincludesmovementacrosstheKenya-Tanzaniaborder.ItispossibletoeithergiveafigureforthenumberofindividualelephantsthatusetheMara,oralternativelythenumberofelephantsthatareoccupyingtheMaraataparticularpointintime(Pooleetal,2015).
Consideringhistoricalcountssince1986,itwasestimatedin2013that4,132elephantswereusingtheMarasideoftheSerengeti-Maraecosystem(Pooleetal.,2014).Populationsarenotevenlydistributed,withrelativelyhigherdensitiesfoundinthesouthernMaraandmost(60.5%)foundwithinMMNR(AerialCount2014).
IntheMaraecosystem,groupsmayvaryinsizefromonetoover300individuals.Thesedifferentgrouptypesandsizesarenotrandomlydispersedintheecosystem,ashumanactivity,togetherwithassociatedthreats,stronglyinfluencethelocationanddistributionofelephants,theirbehaviour,patternsofmovementandtendencytoaggregate(Pooleet.al.,2015).Forexample,highpressurefromlivestocktendstoincreasecompetitionforgrazingandreduceelephantgroupsize,asinthenorthernpartsoftheMaraecosystem(Pooleetal.,2015).Elephantshavealsobeenrecordedasbeingsensitivetochanginglevelsandpatternsofsecurity.Thisincludesillegalkillingofelephants,whichinfluencestheirpopulationdynamicsandmovement,suchastakingrefugeinmoresecureareasandseekingsafetyinnumbers,applyingmoreandextendedpressuretotheecosystemsinthese‘safe-havens’.Inthiscase,thecurrentimpactofelephantsintheMMNRisaproductofunsustainablelevelsoflivestockgrazingandinsecurityinthegreaterecosystem(Pooleet.al.,2015).“Unlesslivestockandotheranthropogenicactivitiesarecarefullymanagedconflictwithelephantsislikelytoincrease”(Pooleet.al.,2015).
Variousstakeholders,includingconservanciesandcommunitymembers,haveparticipatedinmonitoringofelephantmortalitysince2010,withanaimtobetterunderstandtheinteractionsanddynamicsbetweenpeopleandelephants,aswellaselephantsandtheirhabitats.TheMararesearchpartnersadoptedtheMIKE(MonitoringofIllegallyKilledElephants)protocol(Pooleet.al.,2015)anddatacollectedfromtheMaraecosystembetween2010and2014showsthatincidencesofillegalkillingoccurredpredominantlyoutsidetheMMNRwithcomparativelyhigherPIKE(ProportionofIllegallyKilledElephants)valuesthaninsidetheReserve,whereonly30%ofelephantmortalitieswereattributedtoillegalkilling(Map2).InsomeareasthePIKEisextremelyhigh(e.g.SianaConservancyrecordedaPIKEof93%)andareamongthehighestlevelsofillegalelephantkillingrecordedinKenya.TheareacoveredbyestablishedMaraconservancieshadthelowestPIKEfiguresofanyareaoutsideoftheMMNR,at70%.“AnelephantpopulationisdeemedtobeindeclinewhenaPIKEof54%andaboveisrecorded”(Pooleet.al.,2015).WhetherinsideoroutsideoftheReserve,inthecaseofinjury(physicalwoundsordeath),theKWSveterinariansimmediatelyprovidetreatmentand,whenever
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necessary,tusksareremovedfromacarcass(Obandaet.al.,2008).However,theneedtostrengthenmanagementstrategiesespeciallyoutsidetheMMNRwherePIKEfiguresarefarhigherthanthesustainablelimitispertinent.
Map2:ElephantmortalitybycausesanddistributionofcarcassesintheMaraecosystemfrom2010to2014.Anarbitraryzoning(boldorangepolygons)oftheMaraecosystemhasbeendoneforpurposesofcomparingaveragePIKEvaluesbetweenareas.ThePIKEvalueswereabove54%exceptforMaasaiMaraNRindicativeofapopulationindeclinefromillegalkilling.(ElephantVoices&SaveTheElephants,inPooleetal.,2015)
Rationaleasaconservationtarget
Asakeystonespecies,elephantsplayacrucialecologicalrole,maintaininglinkagesinthefoodweb,actingasagentsofseeddispersal(Alexandre1977),increasinghabitatmosaicinforests(Kortlandt1984)anddiversifyingmammaliancommunities(Western1989).Theirexterminationfromsomehabitatsmaycauseacascadeofchangeorextinctionsinecosystems(Western1989).Additionally,elephanttourisminKenyaaloneisworthanestimatedUS$200millionannually,witheachelephantbeingworthUS$14,375peryearandalmostUS$900,000overalifetime(DiSilvestro,1991).Duetothehighprofileoftheelephantspeciesandtheinternationalpoachingcrisis,protectionauthoritiesaremandatedtopursueandfollowuponelephantpoachingincidents,translatingtoincreasedsecurityforallotherwildlifeintheecosystem,aswellasfortourism(T.Caro,pers.obs.).Aselephantsareundertremendouspoachingandconflictpressure(Douglas-Hamilton,2009;Ferreira&Okita-Ouma,2012),whilstbeingbothenvironmentallyandeconomicallyimportant,wehaveamoralresponsibilitytoprotectthem.
2.1.2. Africanlion(Pantheraleo)
TheAfricanlionisthelargestofallAfricancarnivores.Themainperiodofgrowthisinthefirstthreeyearswithmalesattainingmaximumweightat7yearsold(190kg)andfemalesat5to6yearsold(126kg)(Skinner&Smithers,1990).Unlikeotherfelids,lionsaresocialbeingsandliveinfission-fusiongroups,thefoundationofwhichisagroupofrelatedfemalesandtheiroffspring(Packeretal.,1990).Meanpridesizevariesandappearstobepositivelycorrelatedwithabundanceofpreyduringtheperiodofleastabundance(Bygottetal.1979).Liondensitiesaredirectlyrelatedtopreybiomass(Haywardetal.2007),andasinglelionpridemayrequirearangeofupto1,000km2overthecourseofoneyear(Funston,2011).Dispersalinlionsissex-biasedassub-adultmalesalwaysdisperse,whilefemalesrarelydo(Pusey&Parker,1987).Theageofdispersalishighlyvariable(20-42months),while
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thetimingofdispersalishighlycorrelatedtopridetake-overs(Elliotetal.2014).Ataround4to6yearsold,malecoalitionsstarttochallengeforpridetenure,withtheirreproductivesuccessdependingontheoutcome.Ifincomingmalesdefeattheresidents,theywillkillallcubssoastobringthefemalesintooestrus(VanderWalletal.,2009)andchaseawayallsub-adultmalesandfemalesthataretooyoungtobreed(Hanby&Bygott,1987,Elliotetal.,2014).Maleswilltypicallyholdtenureoffemalepridesfornomorethantwoyearsbeforeincomingmalesdisplacethem(Bygottetal.1979).Twoyearsisalsotheinterbirthintervalforfemales,shouldtheircubssurvive(Packeretal.,1988).Pridesdefendtheirterritoriesandareabletoidentifythenumbersandidentitiesofotherlionsbytheirroars,therebyfacilitatingterritorialboundaries(Packeretal.,1990).
Theirdietusuallyconsistsofthemostlocallyabundantmediumtolargeungulatessuchasbuffalo,zebraandwildebeest(Mills&Shenk,1992)andpreferentiallypreysuponspecieswithinaweightrangeof190–550kg(Hayward&Kerley,2005).
LionsonceoccurredwidelyinEurope,theMiddleEast,AsiaandAfrica.TodaytheyareextinctinEuropeandtheMiddleEastwiththelastindividualsexterminatedinGreeceabout100ADandinPalestineinthe12thCentury(Skinner&Smithers,1990).ThereisonesmallpopulationofthesubspeciesP.leopersicaremainingintheGirForest,India.OntheAfricancontinenttheyarenowextinctinthenorth,disappearingfromTunisiaandAlgeriainabout1891andfromMoroccoin1920.IntherestofAfricatheirrangehasshrunkwiththeencroachmentofhumansandtheyprimarilyoccurinNationalParksandGameReserves.Thecurrentextentoffree-ranginglionisaround3.4millionkm2,whichrepresentsa75%rangereductioninthelast100years(Riggioetal.,2012)
TheAfricanlionpopulationhasalmosthalvedinthelast3decadesandcontinuestodecline.In1980therewereanestimated75,000lions(Ferreras&Cousins,1996),whiletodayitislikelythatthereisamaximumof35,000freeranginglions(Riggioetal.,2012).EastAfricarepresentsacrucialregionforthelions’persistenceasitcurrentlyholdsaround57%ofAfrica’sremaininglions(Riggioetal.,2012).However,thepreybaseoflionsisalsoindecline,havingaknockoneffectonthisapexpredator.
Descriptionoftargetinprojectscope
Estimationsofanimaldensitiesandabundancearecentraltoeffectivemanagementandconservation(May,1999).However,obtainingaccurateestimatesisnotoriouslydifficultforrareandcrypticcarnivores(Ogutuetal.,2006).In1992,22lionpridesweredocumentedintheMMNRandtheimmediatesurroundings,with484lionsincludingcubs,averaging22lionsperpride,plus74nomads(78%ofwhomweremales),givingatotalof558lionsatadensityof0.30/km2(Ogutu&Dublin,2002).LiondensityintheMarareserveatthistimerankedamongthehighestrecordedinAfricansavannahs(Ogutu&Dublin,2002).
From1982to1988,individuallionswerefoundin7pridesinsideand6pridesoutsidetheMarareserve.Overthese7years,thepopulationremainedstableinsidebutdecreaseddramaticallyoutsidethereserveinpastorallandswhereMaasaipastoralistshadestablishedpermanentsettlementsby1982–83(Ogutuetal,2005).
Inthe2002MaraCount,itwasreportedthatlionshaveastrongpreferenceforprotectedsavannah(Reidetal,2003).InOgutu’s2002count,therewasnochangeinthenumberoflionsfoundinsidetheReservecomparedwith1991,butitwassuspectedthatlionpopulationshavedeclinedovertimeoutsidetheReserve,supportingtrendsacrossthecontinent(Bauer&VanDerMerwe,2004)andsignalsaseriousthreattotheirlong-termpopulationviability(Ogutuetal.,2005).Thisdeclineisprobablyowingtoconflictswithpastoralism,necessitatingurgentconservationinterventionsthatintegratepastoraleconomicwelfarewithlargecarnivoreconservationgoalstofosterlong-termviabilityoflionpopulationsinthepastoralsystems(Ogutuetal.,2005).ThemostrecentpublishedestimateoflionsintheMaraecosystemis286individuals(Baueretal,2015)–51%ofthe1992estimate.However,thatfigureactuallycomesfroma2005wholecountsurveythatwascarriedoutoverawholeyear.Itshouldbenotedthatthesurveymethodsusedvaried,notablythefigurespresentedbyOgutuwereestimatedusingcall-insurveys,whilethefigurespresentedbyBaueretal.(2015)wereobtainedfromawholecount.Bothmethodshaveassociatederrorsandinaccuraciesanditisthereforedifficulttodrawinferencesfromthem.Morerecently,theMaraLionProjecthasstartedtointensivelymonitorthelionpopulation.Theyhavedevelopedaspatiallyexplicitmark-recapturemethodologythatwillallowforaccurateandbiologicallymeaningfultrendstoberevealed.
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Theirinitialsurveyhasshownaliondensityof15.15lionsper100km2,overtheirstudyarea,whichencompassestheMaasaiMaraNationalReserve,OlareMotorogi,Naboisho,Lemek,OlChoro,MaraNorthandOlKinyeiconservancies(Elliot&Gopalaswamy,inprep.).
Rationaleasaconservationtarget
In Africa, wildlife-viewing preferences of tourists of all nationalities, budgets and experience, arenarrow and exacerbated by the perceived importance of the so-called ‘big five’, themost popularspecies(Lindseyetal,2007).Withoneofthehighestremainingliondensitiesintheworld,200,000to300,000 tourists flock to theMaasaiMaraannually to see thisemblematic species. The fascinationthat lions exert on the general public is exemplified by economic estimates of their value for thetourism industry: in the 1980s, a single lionPanthera leoL.in Amboseli National Park, Kenya, wasvaluedatUS$128,750peryear(citedinSergioetal.,2006).Sincetourismandthebenefitsitbringsare frequently lauded as the only reason for communities to conserve wildlife, reductions in lionpopulationsandthereforetourismcouldhavealsoanegativeeffectontheecosystemmorewidely.In terms of ecological importance, these apex predators are necessary for ecosystem integrity andstabilityand,as indicatorspecies,declines intheirnumberscanbesymptomaticofwiderproblemsthat need to be addressed. By ensuring lions are conserved, thewider ecosystem and communitystandstobenefit.
2.1.3. Wildebeest(Connochaetestaurinus)
FormerlywildebeestdistributionspannedfromsouthernKenyasouthwardstonorthernandeasternNamibia,Botswana,theOrangeRiverinSouthAfrica,andMozambique(East,1999;Estes,2013),withintroductionstoregionsoutsidetheirformerdistributionrange,suchastheEasternHighlandsofZimbabwe(East,1999).Populationdensitiesestimatedbyaerialsurveysrangefromlessthan0.15/km²incentralandsouthernKalaharitoashighas34.0-35.0/km²intheSerengetiandNgorongoroCrater(IUCN,2008).Somewildebeestpopulationsarenaturallyrelativelysedentaryand/ortheirseasonalmovementsaregenerallyaccommodatedwithinprotectedareas.
Fivesubspeciesofwildebeestarerecognized:WesternWhite-beardedWildebeest(C.t.mearnsi);EasternWhite-beardedWildebeest(C.t.albojubatus);NyassaWildebeest(C.t.johnstoni);Cookson’sWildebeest(C.t.cooksoni);andBlueWildebeest(C.t.taurinus).
Wildebeestarepuregrazers,showingapreferencefortheshort-grassplainsborderingAcaciasavannah,openbushlandandwoodlandindrierareas(IUCN,2008).Serengetiwildebeestthriveonshortgrasslandsinalkalineandvolcanicsoilsduringtherainyseason,andwithdrawtolongergrasslandsinareasofhigherrainfallandpermanentwaterduringthedryseason.Theyarerarelyfoundabove1,800-2,100m(e.g.,theNgorongoroCrater).CommonWildebeestrequirewateratleasteverydayortwointhedryseason(Estes,2013).
ThemostrecentestimateofthetotalpopulationofCommonWildebeestisaround1.55millionacrossitsfullrange,largelyduetotherecoveringoftheSerengeti-Marapopulationtoabout1.3million(havingdroppedbelowonemillionfollowingthesevere1993drought)(Hopcraftetal.,2013).However,somesubspecies’populationsareinsteepdecline,suchasthewildebeestpopulationthatmigratesannuallybetweentheMaasaiMaraNationalReserveandtheLoitaPlains,whichhasshrunkbymorethantwo-thirdsfrom1977to2009duetotheexpansionofagriculture(Bedelian,2013;Ogutuetal.,2011).
Descriptionoftargetinprojectscope
TheMarawildebeestpopulationcomprisesbothmigratoryandresidentpopulationsoftheWesternWhite-beardedWildebeestsubspecies(C.t.mearnsi).TheEastAfricansavannahsarehighlyvariableecosystems,somigrationenableswildebeesttotrackspatiallyandtemporallyvaryingresourcesacrossthelandscape.WildebeestmigrateintoandoccupytheMMNRandsurroundingconservanciesfromtheSerengetiandLoitaplainstoaccessdryseasongrazingbetweenJulyandOctober(Ogutuetal.,2011).Theyalsomigratetoaccessbreedinggrounds,toreducetherisksofpredationanddisease,andtoenhancetheirgenetichealth(Bolgeretal.,2008).Thisgivesmigratorywildebeestpopulationsanadvantageoverresidentpopulations,allowingthesepopulationstorisetoveryhighabundances(Bedelian,2013;Hopcraftetal.,2013).
TheSerengeti-Marawildebeestpopulationofwildebeestincreased6foldbetween1963and1977
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followingtheeradicationofrinderpest,beforestabilizingatitscurrentpopulationofapproximately1.3million(Hopcraftetal.,2013).Themammalmigrationistheworld’slargestandmostspeciesdiverse,comprising1.3millionwildebeest,0.6millionzebrasandThomson’sgazelle(Hopcraftetal.,2013)coveringadistanceof1,500kilometreseveryyear.WhilsttheSerengeti-Marapopulationhasremainedlargelystablesince1977,precipitousdeclinesofatheLoitapopulation,residentintheMaraecosystem,of70%,fromapproximately113,000in1977to35,000by2009haveoccurredandthispopulationcontinuestodeclinetodate(Ogutuetal.,2011).Thesepopulationdeclineshavebeendirectlyattributedtothepervasiveexpansionofmechanizedagriculture,increasinghumanpopulationdensitiesandlivestockincursionsinprotectedareasthathaveoccurredacrosstheregion,aswellaslandsubdivision,settlements,fencing,roadsandotherinfrastructure(Bedelain,2013).Theseprocessesfragmentthelandscapeandobstructmigratoryroutesandthereforeaccesstodryseasongrazingandwateronwhichthepopulationsarecriticallydependent(Ogutuetal.,2011).Climatechangewillexacerbatethisthreatastheincreasedfrequencyandseverityofdroughtsandfloodsthatisexpectedtooccur(IPCC,2012)willmodifyvegetationgrowthandhencefoodavailabilityforthemigratinganimals.Theabilityofmigrantstorespondtochangingclimaticconditionsislikelytobeimpairedbysuchman-madethreatsashabitatlossandfragmentation(Ogutuetal.,2011).
ThehomerangesizeofwildebeestintheMararangesfrom8.5km2to13,277.6km2,andtheymovethroughouteachoftheconservancies,(exceptfortheEnonkishuconservancy),spendingmostoftheyearintheseareas,outsideoftheMMNRboundaries.Thishighlightstheimportanceoftheconservanciestowardsthelong-termsustainabilityofthismigratoryungulate(Stabach&Boon,2014).
Map3:SerengetiandLoitaWildebeestMigrations.Source:MMWCA(2015)
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Rationaleasaconservationtarget
TheiconicwildebeestmigrationsofEastAfricaplayavitalroleinecosystemfunctionduetotheirdirecteffectonpredatorpopulationsandgrassfoodresourcesrequiredbyotherwildlifespecies(Sinclairetal.,2008).Economically,themagnificentannualmigrationmakestheMMNRandsurroundingareasoneofthepremiertouristattractionsinKenya(Ogutuetal.,2011).TourismgeneratedanestimatedUS$1.2billionrevenueinKenyain2012(KNBS,2013inBedelain,2013).Anylossofwildlifemigrations,ortheirhabitats,willcontributetobiodiversitydeclineandunderminesomeofEastAfrica’skeytourismproducts,withsignificantimpactsonnationaleconomies.Urgenteffortsneedtobemadetoprotectwildebeestmigratorycorridorsanddispersalareas,includingtheMaraConservancies,toensurethesegreatmigrationsforthefuture(Bedelain,2013).
TheIUCNcurrentlylistswildebeestasaspeciesofLeastConcernwithastablepopulation(IUCN,2013).However,thisdesignationrelatesmostlytotheSerengeti-Marapopulation(Stabachetal.,2015),whilstforotherpopulations,suchastheLoita-Marapopulation,widespreadandprecipitousdeclineshavebeenrecorded(Ogutuetal.,2013).
2.1.4. Grasslands,ForestsandWoodlands
ThevegetationoftheGMEisamosaicofhabitatsthatcomposethesavannah,rangingfromdenseforestsandwoodlandsthroughtoopengrassland,beingthelaterthematrix4.ForacomprehensiveoverviewofthevegetationoftheGMEseeBennett(2002).
Globallysavannahhabitatsarefoundintemperate,borealandaridenvironments.Manyofthesearetypesofgrasslandwithvaryingdegreesoftreecoverandtreespeciescomposition,whichhavebeenconvertedtoagriculturalfarming.Alargeproportionoftheworld’ssavannahgrasslandsarefoundinthedrytoaridzoneswith68%foundindevelopingcountries(Boval&Dixon,2012).Savannahsareclassifiedasagrasslandecosysteminterspersedwithtreessufficientlywidelyspacedtomaintainanopencanopy(Menaut,1983).Peopletraditionallyinhabitingthearidtosemi-aridgrasslandsaregenerallynomadictosemi-nomadicpastoralistswhodependheavilyonextendedpasturestosupportnotonlytheirlivelihoodbutalsotheirculturalvalues(Ayantundeetal.,2011;DeFries&Rosenzweig2010).Inareaswhereclimaticconditionsandsoilqualityarenotsuitableforfoodcropproductiongrasslandsremainasgrazinglands,notonlyforlivestock,butalsovastnumbersofwildherbivores.
Grasslands
EasternAfricaisrenownedasacentreofgeneticdiversityoftropicalgrassesandthecentreofgreatestdiversityofcultivatedgrassspecies(Boonman,1993).ThePoaceaeformthemainvegetationlayer,interspersedwithfewannualsandperennials,andoccasionaltreesandshrubs,mostlyAcaciaspp.(Bussmanetal.,2006).Themedatriandraisoneofthemostwidespreadgrassspeciesinsub-SaharanAfrica.Thespeciesisveryvariableandshowswideadaptationtogrowthinboththehighlandregionsandthelowlandsavannahs.IntheMaraT.triandraconstitutesapproximately50%ofthegrasscoverinlighttomoderategrazedsites,withaseverereductioninpresenceinareaswhichhaveheavylivestockgrazing/corralpresence.OthergrasslandspeciescompositionthroughouttheMaraisvariable,linkedtodifferingenvironmentalparameters.Forexampleandbywayofcontrast,Bussmanetal.,(2006)locatedatotalof155plantspeciesbelongingto52familiesintheSekenaniValley,with267speciescollectedfromtheLoitaHills.
Forests
Forestsaredefinedasvegetationofcontinuoustreecoveratleast10mtallwithover-lappingcanopies(Menaut1983).‘Forest-savannah’mosaicsarehighlydynamicecosystemsandsupporthighlevelsofspeciesrichnessduetotheircomplexstructuraldynamics.‘Grassandshrubsavannahs’tendtobesituatedontheborderbetweendesertandwoodlandsavannahsandaredrierinclimateasaconsequence,especiallytothenorth(Shorrocks&Bates,2015).‘Treeandshrub’savannahdescribes
4Inlandscapeecologythematrixinalandscapemosaicisdefinedas“thebackgroundcovertypeinalandscape”(Turner,etal.2001)
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acontinuousherbaceouslayerinterspersedwithtrees;thedominantvegetationspeciesinanyoneoftheseareasoftenformamorespecificclassification.
Woodlands
Woodlandsaredescribedasmoreopenareasoftreecover,withtrees8-20meterstallandcanopycoverofapproximately40%.Theavailablelightreachingthegroundlayerallowsfortheestablishmentofasparseshrublayerandagroundlayerdominatedbygrasses.Thegrassdominatedgroundlayeractsasfuelforfire,whichisoftenthebiggestfactoraffectingwoodlandsavannah.
Rationaleasaconservationtargets
ThethreemajorhabitatsoftheGMEsavannahswereselectedasconservationtargets,giventhattheyrepresenttheSerengeti-Maraecosystemspatialheterogeneity,oneofthemostimportantfactorsindrivingecosystemprocesses,whichresultsintheseasonalmovementsofvastnumbersofwildlife(Thirgoodetal.,2004).Theheterogeneityhypothesissuggeststhat‘simple’ecosystems(homogenoushabitats)arelesslikelytosupportlargeassemblagesofbiologicalspeciesthan‘diverse’ecosystemswherehabitatheterogeneityishigh(Diamond1988;Fryxelletal.,2005;Cromsigtetal.,2009).Severalstudiessuggestthatincreasedhabitatheterogeneityinsmallareaswillsupportmorediversespeciesassemblagesandprovideincreasedresiliencetotemporalvariationsthanlargeareaswithminimalspatialvariation(Fryxell,etal.,2005;Báldi,2008).Reedetal.,(2009)conductedastudyexaminingthespatialdistributionofvegetationtypes(habitats)inrelationtorainfallandtopographicreliefintheSerengeti-Maraecosystemfromsatelliteimagery.Intandemwithpriorresearch(Sankaranetal.,2004;Urban&Keitt,2001)topographyandclimatewerefoundtobeimportantdriversinthedistributionandspeciescompositionofhabitatpatchesinalandscape.Concurrently,resultsfromReedetal.,(2009)indicatedthatintheSerengeti-Maraecosystem,vegetationdiversityanddistributionisheavilyinfluencedbyannualrainfallandthehydrologicalconditionofthesoil.
2.1.5. Water
Waterconstitutesacriticalaspectthatdeterminesnotonlythelong-termviabilityoflivelihoodsandwildlife, but also represents a vital element for the annualmigration ofwildebeest during the dryseason.
TheMaraRiveristhemostimportantsourceofwaterintheplan’sgeographicalscopeandtheGME.With a length of 395 km, the Mara River is a principal perennial source that rises in the MauEscarpment flowing down through theMMNR and crossing part of the Serengeti National Park inTanzania before disemboguing in LakeVictoria (MMNR, 2009). TheMara River has four perennialtributaries:theAmalaandNyangoreRiversdrainingfromthewesternMauescarpment,andtheSandand Talek Rivers,which rise in the Siana and LoitaHills respectively. Overall, theMara River Basincoversapproximately13,750km2,ofwhich65%arelocatedinKenya(LVBC&WWF-ESARPO,2010)
Rationaleasconservationtarget
TheGMEriversareofcritical importance insupportingpeople, livestockandwildlife,particularly indryseason.Theyholdafundamentalimportanceinthegreatmigrationdynamics,andtheaccesstothesewater sources by resident andmigratorymammals is imperious at critical times of year. Asstated intheMMNRManagementPlan(MMNR,2009—notyetapproved)thewildebeestmigrationwillbeunabletosurviveinitscurrentmagnitude,residentwildlifespecieswillbeseriouslyimpacted,andthearea’secologycouldbedisturbedifthemainwatersourcesareseverelyaltered,inquantity,quality and seasonability. In 1993, for instance, a severe short-term drought caused the death ofaround400,000wildebeest.
Anecdotalevidenceindicatesthattherivers’flowisdeclining,particularlyduringthedryseason.Thechanging landusepatterns (settlementsandagriculture), increasedeffluentdischargesandclimatevariabilityareaffectingwatervolumes.
2.1.6. MaasaiCulture
TheMaasaitribeofKenyaandTanzaniaarerenownedfortheircolourfulandproudculturalheritage,centredontheirtraditionalsemi-nomadiclifestyleandstrongcommunalsocialorganization.Therearingoflivestockinsharedgrazingareashasbeenpracticedformanycenturies,whilstlivinginsemi-permanentandeasilyremovabledwellingsmadefromnaturalmaterials.Traditionaldress,
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language,musicanddanceareallinstantlyrecognizableas“Maasai”,andtheage-oldritualsformimportantpillarsintheidentityandwellbeingofthesecommunities.
MaasaiCultureintheGreaterMara
IntheGreaterMara,theMaasaicommunities’semi-nomadicculturefocusedonlivestockrearingandsemi-permanentfamilyvillagesconstructedfromnaturalmaterialhasmaintainedanopenlandscapewherepeople,livestockandwildlifearefreetoroam.Indeedtraditionalbeliefstowardswildlifehavefurtherenhancedagenerallypeacefulandmutuallybeneficialco-existencebetweenpeople,wildlifeandtheland.
Whilstthesepositiveculturalpillarshavemostlyenduredtheonslaughtofoutsideinfluences,therecentdevelopmenthistoryoftheGreaterMarahasbroughtsomesignificantthreatstotheMaasaiculture.RapidlyexpandingpocketsofurbanisationarechangingandfragmentingthelandscapeandbringingwiththemawaveofWesterncultureandinfluence.Thepopulationexplosionandscarceresourcesarealsopushingthecommunitytowardsalternative,non-communallanduses.Fenceshavebecometheoutwardevidenceoftheshiftingvaluesawayfromthetraditionofasharedandopenpastureland.Theresultantindividualisticlifestylehasleadtorisinginequalitiesandalossofthesenseofcommunityandtogetherness.
Thebreakdowninelder-ledtraditionalgrazingrotationschemesandplanninghasalsoincreasedconflictwithinthecommunityandaddedthepressuretofenceoffgrassbanksbyindividuallandowners.
RationaleasaConservationTarget
TheGreaterMara’swildlife,landandpeoplehavealwaysbeeninter-dependentoneachother.Asuccessfulmodelofcommunity-basedconservationisessentialifthelongevityoftheecosystemistoberealized.ThereisanextremelystrongdesirefortheMaasaicommunitiestomaintaintheirpositiveculturalpillarsfortheircommongoodandwellbeing.Interestingly,theseculturalpillarsdoaligninmanycaseswiththestrategiesneededtoprotectwildlifeinanopenlandscapeandbuildaworld-classecotourismdestinationonthebasisoftherichwildlifediversityandthefamousMaasaiculture.
2.1.7. WorldClassTourismDestination
Thehighvaluetravelleroftodayisseekingmemorabledestinationswithanenriching,experientialtravelexperience.Tobeatrulyworldclasstourismdestination,theremustthereforebeastrongidentityaroundthethemesofexclusivity,authenticityandsustainability.Thegroundworkforsuchadestinationmustincludehighqualityoperationalstandardsandacommonethosandsetofethicsacrossoperators.Thedestinationmarketingshouldresultinabrandthatinstantlyrecognizableinthetourismmarketforitsexceptionaloffering.
MaasaiMaraConservanciesasaWorldClassTourismDestination
Overthepastfewdecades,Kenya’simageintheworldtourismsectorhasbeenentrenchedasahighvolumeandlowvaluetourismdestination.TheMaasaiMaraNationalReserve,asthenation’smostpopularsafariarea,reflectsthistrendwithover5,000bedsaccessingthe1,500km2reserve.Thelackofplanningandpoorenforcementoflimitsonnewconstructionhasfuelledthismasstourismmodel.Theresultisagenerallylow-end,overcrowdedsafarithatisnolongerattractivetohighvaluetravellersseekingaqualityexperience.CompetitivesafaridestinationsinAfrica,suchastheOkavangoDelta(Botswana)andtheSerengeti(Tanzania)arethereforewidelyregardedaspreferableoptions,despitetheunparalleledwildlifeviewingandrichMaasaicultureonofferintheMaasaiMara.
TheconservanciessurroundingtheMaasaiMaraNationalReservedohoweverhaveagrowingreputationforaverydifferentandhighvaluetouristexperience.Thisispredominantlybasedonthelowtouristdensities,controlledbynumberofbedsperhectare,andstrictcodeofconductsforoperatorsregardingkeyelementsofaguestexperience,suchasqualityofsafarivehiclesandguidetraining.Generallyhigherstandardsofeco-friendlymethodologiesandtourisminfrastructurealsoreinforcethesepositiveelements.
Thegainsmadeintheseareasarehoweverfragmented,withtheneedtofurtheralignstandardsoftourismoperationsandcontrolsacrossneighbouringconservancies.Thereisalsoverylittle
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destinationmarketingbeingdoneatconservancy-widelevel,orindeedevenatanindividualconservancylevel,withthevastmajorityofthemarketingbeingundertakenbytheindividualcamps.
Thetourisminvestmentmodelinconservanciesisunderurgentneedofre-invention.Thecurrentprevalentmodelfeaturesafixedmonthlyfeepayablebytourismpartnersperbedoperatedintherespectiveconservancies,withtheintentionofthismonthlycommitmentcoveringvirtuallyallconservancymanagementcostsandleases.ThetourismdownturninKenyahasinturnplacedseverepressureonthetheseoperationstothepointwheremanyareunderthreatofcollapseandpaymentstotheconservancy,andinturnlandownersormanagers,arefrequentlydelayed.Thislackoffinancialstabilityisthreateningthefutureofthesetourismoperationsandassuch,theconservancies’primaryfundingsource.
Uncontrolledorunmanagedgrazingfromsurroundingcommunitieswithintheconservancieshasthepotentialforconflictaswellasseriouslyaffectingtheguestexperience.Unplannedsettlementswithintheboundariesoftheconservancies,withinsightoftheguestactivitiesorblockingcrucialwildlifecorridorsarealsomajorthreatstothequalityofthedestination.Bothoftheabovecanbelinkedtotheadditionalthreatofcompetingandincompatiblelandusewithinconservanciesorthesurroundingareas.
RationaleasaSocialTargetresultingfromConservation
Theconservancyfinancialmodelisextremelyreliantonastableandindeedsuccessfultourismmodel,asthechiefeconomicdriverfortheforeseeablefuture.Theroleoftourismrevenuesincludesthefinancingofconservancyleases,themanagementofconservanciesandtheprovisionofemploymenttothepartnercommunities.Indeedtheprotectionofthegeographicalscopearea’sbiodiversityandrichculturalheritageisundeniablyinter-dependentwithsustainingathrivingecotourismdestination.
2.2. ConservationTargetViabilityAnalysis
Theviabilityanalysisisusedtoassessthecurrentstatusof“health”ofourconservationtargets.Manytimes,particularlyinstartingprojectsorfirstOSiterations,theresultsoftheseanalysesarenotassatisfactoryasonewouldlikethemtobe,althoughhavingageneralapproachonthetargetviabilityisnecessaryinordertodefineconservationgoalsandprioritiseinterventions.Moreover,viabilityanalysesareoftenagoodtooltoalsounderstandtheresearch,dataandinformationneeds.
Therearetwoapproachesfortheviabilityanalysis:thesimpleapproach,andtheKeyEcologicalAttribute(KEA)approach.Theformerismostlybasedontheexpertknowledgeandavailableinformationfromtheworkingsessionsorworkshops,whereeachtargetisratedaccordingtothis4-levelscale:
VeryGood-Ecologicallydesirablestatus;requireslittleinterventionformaintenance.Good-Withinacceptablerangeofvariation;someinterventionrequiredformaintenanceFair-Outsideacceptablerangeofvariation;requireshumanintervention.Poor-Restorationincreasinglydifficult;mayresultinextirpationoftarget
TheKEArequiresmoreanalysis.EachconservationtargetneedstobeassignedwithatleastoneKEA,whicharedefinedbytheneededecologicalconditionsthatthetargetrequiresforitslong-termpersistence.KEAcouldimplysizee.g.populationsize,habitatsize,area;conditioni.e.ratiobetweenfemalesandmales,adultsandjuveniles;ecosystemstructure,orlandscapecontexti.e.connectivityofhabitat,andneedtohaveatleastoneindicatori.e.specimenspersquarekilometre,foraspeciesdensity.TheindicatorisusedtodefinethresholdsofacceptablerangeofvariationthatdefinethestatusfromVeryGoodtoPoor.
Forspeciesandecosystems,someKEAsweredeterminedtoprovidebasicnotionsofthecurrentstatusofeachtarget.TheseKEAs,however,wereonlyusedasaguideforapreliminaryanalysis,butwerenotconsidereddefinitive.Hence,thesimpleviabilityanalysisforspeciesandecosystemswaspreferredforthetimebeing.KEAdefinitionforeachoneofthe7biologicaltargetsisatopresearchpriority,asmentionedinpoint2.3,below.
Fornon-biologicaltargets,suchasMaasaiCultureandWorldClassTourismdestination,theKeyAttributesweredeterminedthroughathoroughdescriptionofwhatdefinesaviabletarget.
Theresultsofviabilityanalysisarepresentedinthefollowingtables:
Table1.a:Resultsoftheviabilityanalysisforbiologicaltargets
Viabilityanalysisforspecies
Item ViabilityMode Status Sources Goals
Elephant Keyattribute Good Expertknowledge MaintainthestatusofGOODbyconservingtheirhabitat,movementspaceandgrassavailability
Lion KeyAttribute Good Expertknowledge MaintainthestatusofGOODbyconservingtheirhabitat,improvingconnectivitywithintheecosystemandconservingtheirpreybase
Wildebeest KeyAttribute Fair Roughguess RaisethestatustoGOODbyconservingtheirmigrationroutesandcalvingareaaswellasimprovinggrassqualityandavailability
Viabilityanalysisforspecies
Item ViabilityMode
Status Sources Goals
Forests Simple Poor Roughguess NonetlossofallkeyhabitatsintermsofareatheGMENonetreductioninconnectivityindicesforallkeyhabitatsNonetlossoflandscapeheterogeneityintheGMEMaintainboththespeciesandstructuraldiversityrepresentedwithinthewoodland,forestandgrasslandhabitats.
Grasslands Simple Fair Roughguess
Woodlands Simple Fair Roughguess
Water Simple Fair Roughguess RaisethestatustoGOODbyimprovingwaterqualityRaisethestatustoGOODbymaintainingminimumflowsindryseason
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Table1.b:Resultsoftheviabilityanalysisforculturalandsocialtargets
Viabilityanalysisforculturalandsocialtargets
Item ViabilityMode----
ΔIndicator
Status TargetViabilityRating
Source Goal
Poor Fair Good VeryGood
Maasaiculture KeyAttribute Fair RaisetothestatusofGOOD
KA:Communallanduse
ΔPercentageofunfencedland
Fair <75% 76-80% 80-94% 95% NotSpecified RaisetothestatusofGOOD
KA:Livestockkeeping
ΔPercentageofhouseholdsinsustainablerange(50-100)
Fair <60% 61-70% 71-94% >95% RoughGuess RaisetothestatusofGOOD
KA:LanguageandDressing
ΔPercentageofpeoplespeakinglanguage/wearingdressing
Good <50% 51-60% 61-80% >80% ExpertKnowledge RaisetothestatusofGOOD
Worldclasstourismdestination
KeyAttribute Fair RaisetothestatusofVERYGOOD
KA:Tourismdensity
ΔBed/acre Good <250 250-299 300-350 >350 ExpertKnowledge RaisetothestatusofVERYGOOD
KA:Bedoccupancy
Δ%occupiedannually
Fair ExpertKnowledge RaisetothestatusofVERYGOOD
KA:Ecologicalfootprint
Δ%offacilitieswithSilverESOKratingorhigher
Fair <50% 50-69% 70-89% >90% ExpertKnowledge RaisetothestatusofVERYGOOD
2.3. ResearchNeeds
Asmentionedabove,viabilityanalysisservetoidentifycriticaldataandinformationgapsthatneedtobefilledbyresearch.Clearly,agooddefinitionofKeyEcologicalattributesforeachoneofthebiologicaltargetsshouldbethenumberoneresearchpriorityaccompanyingtheCNR-CAP.Thislistcouldinclude,butnotlimitedto:
Elephantandwildebeestpopulationsanddensities Movement/migrationroutesforelephantsandwildebeest Spatialdistributionanddensitiesofcarnivores,particularlylions Preybaseforcarnivores Savannahmosaiccompositionandstructure(asrelatedofits3maincomponents:grasslands,
woodlandsandforests) Minimumdynamicareasforwoodlandsandforests,consideringthelandscapeheterogeneity Suitablevolumeofgrassestosustainwildlifeandlivestock Structureanddynamicsofgrasslands Waterquality,quantityandseasonabilityindicators Climatechangeeffectsonecosystemsandkeyspecies(particularlytargetspecies) Animalunitcarryingcapacityinthegeographicalscopearea Threatrelatedindicators:e.g.percentageofplotsfencedinthegeographicalscopearea.
3. DirectthreatstoConservationTargets
Directthreatsaretheproximateactivitiesorprocessesthathavecaused,arecausingormaycausenegativeimpactstotheconservationtarget’sviability(TNC,2007).Generallyspeaking,directthreatsarelimitedtohumanactivities,suchasunsustainablegrazing,incompatibleagriculture,roadsorlogging,anddonotincludenaturaldisturbancesunlesstheyarealtered(e.g.,irregularprecipitationregimescausedbyglobalwarming)oraggravatedbyhumanactivities(increaseoffireoccurrencesbecauseofslash-and-burnagriculture).
3.1. Threatdescription
3.1.1. Fencing
Landsub-divisionandprivatizationinKenyahasresultedinincreasedfencingacrosstheGME,withtheconsequentexclusionofwildlife.Theuniquepastoral/wildlifesystemthathascharacterisedtheMaracouldshortlybelostunlesslandholdingscanbemanagedtomaintainthefreemovementoflivestockandwildlife(Lampry&Reid204).Theimplicationsoflandsubdivisionandfencingtobiodiversityconservationandlivestockproductivityarebecominganimportanttopicinacademicliterature.KimaniandPickard(1998),forinstance,statethat“[land]sub-divisionwillthreatencontinuedextensivenomadiclivestockproductionbydecreasingmobilityandthecarryingcapacityofgroupranchland,increasethepotentialforlanddegradationandcropfailures,andinterferewithtraditionalwildlifemigrationpatterns.”
Fencinganditsrootcausesfragmentthelandscapeandobstructmigratoryroutes,theaccesstodryseasongrazingareasandwateronwhichmanymammalpopulationsarecriticallydependent(Ogutuetal.,2011).ThegreaterMaraisnotonlyintegraltotheannualMara-Serengetiwildebeestmigration,butalsotothe“internal”migrationofthemajorityofungulatespeciesastheymovebetweenpreferentialfeedingareasandwatersources(e.g.zebra,topi,Thompson’sandGrant’sgazelles).OftencitedintheliteraturearethenegativeimpactsoffencingtotheAfricanelephant,akeystonespeciesintheAfricansavannah.Negativeimpactssurroundrestrictingtherangeoftheelephant,whichinturnleadtodisruptionofecosystemstructureandfunction(Guldemond&vanAarde,2008;Shrader,Pimm&VanAarde2010;Valeixetal,2011;Asner&Levick2012).Additionally,concernscontinuetoelevatesurroundingthecontinuedcompressionofelephantintoever-decreasingamountsofprotectedarea(vanAarde&Jackson,2006;Valeixetal,2011;Young&vanAarde,2011).Restrictingthemovementofungulatespeciesalsoimpactsuponpredatorswhomustbeableto“follow”theirprey.Previousauthors(Estesetal,2011)haveindicatedalikelyconsequenceofthiswillbeanalterationtopopulationdynamicswiththepossibilityoftrophiccascades,leadingtolossofbothecosystemfunctionandbiodiversity.
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Perhapsthelargest,butasyetmostpoorlyunderstoodimpactoftheincreasedamountoffencinglinkstoclimatechangeanditsimpactuponanimalmovementpatterns.ThiswasraisedbyWoodroffeetal.(2014)whoconcludedthat,asclimatechangeincreasesthensodoestheimportanceofwildlifemobilityandlandscapeconnectivity,notingthatfencingofwildlifeshouldbecomeanactionoflastresort.Untilwearemuchmoreconversantwiththerelationshipbetweenclimatechangeandanimalmovementpatternsinsavannahecosystemsthentheprecautionaryprincipleofverylimited/zerofencingshouldprevail.
Fencingalsolimitsmovementandaccesstotraditionalpastoralists.Anumberofstudies(BehnkeandScooners,1993;Ellisetal.,1993;Swallow1994)arguethatsemi-nomadicandnomadicpastoralismisthebestuseofsemi-aridareas,as[unlikesedentarylivestockproduction]“itallowspasturetobeusedopportunistically,makingmoreefficientuseofenvironmentalvariationsinpastureproductivitywhicharecommoninsemi-aridareas”(KimaniandPickard,1998).
3.1.2. Agriculture
LandconversiontoagricultureintheNarokCounty(bothforintensiveandsubsistenceagriculture)hasbeendocumentedsincethelate1980s(SerneelsandLambin,2001a,2001b).Amongthemanyfactorscausinglandconversiontoagriculture,sourcesparticularlyconcurontwo:accessibilitytomarketsandlandtenure(SeneelsandLambin,2001b).Thusfar,theformerhasbeenthecauseforagriculturalexpansionattheedgesoftheMaasaiecosystemandinad-hocplotsofland.Ifcommunicationsaretobeimproved,landconversionwillexpandaswellinotherareas.Asseenabove,agriculturalexpansionisamongthemajorcausesoftheLoitawildebeestpopulationdecline.
Landprivatisationhasbeenamajorcauseforagriculturalexpansion,particularlyforsubsistenceagricultureheldbynon-MaasaimigratingtotheMara.Asitoccurswithlivestock,smalllandholdingsforsubsistencefarmingarenotabletosustainfamiliesoverthelongterm(ConnellyandChaiken,2000),creatingmorepressureonthenaturalresourcebase.SenoandShaw(2002)assertthat“cultivationisfarlesscompatiblewithwildlifethangrazing[andthat]anychangestowardcultivationwillhavesignificantimplicationsforthewildlifethatutilizethereserveandadjacentgroupranches.”AtthesametimeHomewoodetal.(2002)reportthatlandtenure(explicitlystate/communalversusprivate)agriculturalpolicyandmarketconditionsaremorethecauseofrapidland-coverchangeanddeclineofwildlifethanhumanpopulationdensityandgrowthratesandlivestockpopulationtrends.
3.1.3. Poaching
Poaching,localconsumptionofbushmeatandthewidespreaduseofsnaresarealsoaseverethreattowildebeestpopulations,accountingforapproximately70,000-129,000deathsperyearintheMara-Serengetiecosystem(RentschandPacker,2012).Asforelephants,poachingforivoryhastraditionallybeenthemajorcauseofthespecies’decline.Between2010and2014,uptothreequartersofannualelephantdeathswerereportedbyMEPasanimalskilledillegallyintheMara(MEP2015).ThedeathshaveoccurredparticularlyinPardamatandSiana,andasmentionedintheconservationtargetdescription,thereisacorrelationofavoidanceofpoachingeventsandincreasedlevelsofareamanagement.
3.1.4. HumanWildlifeConflict
Arapidlygrowinghumanpopulationandresultingnewsettlementshavebroughtlionsincloserproximitywithhumansresultinginhighratesoflivestockpredationandsubsequentretaliatoryandpreventativekillingsoflions(WoodroffeandFrank,2005).
Currentlythemostimportantperceivedthreatisthelossandfragmentationofhabitatcausedbyon-goinghumanpopulationexpansionandrapidlandconversion.Aspecificmanifestationofthistrendisthereportedincreaseinhuman-elephantconflict,whichfurtheraggravatesthethreattoelephantpopulations.Elephantsareknowntoforagewidelybeyondtheboundariesofprotectedareasandenterintocultivatedcropfarms.Thiscrop-raidingbehaviourisariskfactor(Chiyoetal.2011),whichfrequentlycausesconflictsandresultsinelephantinjuryordeath(Mijeleetal.2011).Itisthesehabitatrequirementsthatmakethisspeciesparticularlyvulnerabletoconflict(Kangwana1993;Kiiru1994).
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3.1.5. UnplannedSettlementsandUrbanisation
Theexplosionofscatteredandunplannedperi-urbancentresintheGreaterMarahasbeendrivenbydemandforservicesbyanincreasinglocalpopulationandthoseemployedintourismorindeedtouriststhemselves.Ribbondevelopmentsalongthemainroadsthroughthegeographicalscopeareacanclearlybeidentified.Theincreaseinalternativelandusehasadditionallyledtotheneedforcertainspecializedindustryservicestobeprovidedinacentrallocation.Investorsandentrepreneursfromwithin,butsignificantlyalsofromoutsidethelocalcommunity,haverespondedtothedemandfortheseservicesandwithnorural-urbanplanninginplace,thishasledtoadisorganizedflurryofdevelopmentintheperi-urbanpockets.Theserural-urbansprawlsdetractfromtheopenlandscapeneededforwildlifeandasthebasisforthetraditionalMaasaiwayoflife.ThereisalsoagrowingWesterninfluenceemanatingfromthesedevelopments,mirroringtheurbancultureandlifestylesfoundinotherpartsofKenyaanderodingthestrengthofMaasaiidentityofthecommunityasiseasilyidentifiedbythedecreaseintraditionaldressandlanguageinthesecentres.
3.1.6. Uncontrolled/UnsustainableGrazing
Therehasbeenwidespreadcollapseinthetraditional,elder-ledgrazingsystemintheMaasaicommunities,predominantlycausedbythesub-divisionoflandandadrifttowardsanindividualisticmindset.Poorqualitybreeds,populationincrease,cashsaleofsmallstockandalackofeducationonalternativeinvestmentshavealsomeantthatthereissevereover-stockinginthescopearea–particularlyofsheepandgoats.Thissituationhasbeenaggravatedbyverylittleclarityonareasonablestockingrate,whichalsoneedstoincorporatethegrazingneedsofthenon-domesticungulatepopulation.
Thisover-stockinghasdevelopedinamannerinwhichthenumberoflivestockownedbyeachfamilyunitisdrasticallyinequitableinitsdistribution.Cattlebarons,withgoodaccesstograssandthecapitalrequiredtoinvest,havethousandsofcattle,goatandsheepwhilstotherfamiliesinthecommunityowneithernoneorfewlivestockunits.TheimpactonthesefamilieswithnolivestockintermsofwellbeingintheMaasaicultureissignificant.
Currently,thetotalnumberoflivestockunitsinthegeographicalscopeareaiscausingunsustainablepressureontheavailablegrasslands,dependeduponbybothwildanddomesticanimals.AlthoughtheMarahasshownextraordinaryresilienceinmaintaininghugepopulationsofdomesticandmigratorywildherbivores(LampreyandReed,2004),theincreasingovergrazinganditslong-termeffectscouldleadtothelossofnativevegetationcover.Reportedeffectsofovergrazingincludeadecreaseofherbaceousvegetationcoverinhighlivestockdensityareas(Lamprey1984,citedinLampreyandReed,2004).Otherperceivednegativeimpactsofovergrazinginvolvechangesinvegetationstructureandcomposition(Fynn,2012;Treydteetal.,2013)thatimpairsthefunctionalcharacteristicsanddynamicsofgrasses(Kiokoetal.,2012),encroachmentofwoodyvegetation(Talbot,1986)andincreasingincidenceoferosionandpoorqualityofsoils(Kiokoetal.,2012).Desta(n/d)determinesthatoverstocking,overgrazingandpoorlivestockmanagementasanimportantfactorforlanddegradationinEasternAfrica.Similarly,otherstudiesconcludethattheresourcepartitioningbetweenlivestockandwildlife,specificallywildebeestandzebra,haveastrongpotentialforcompetitionbetweencattleandthenativespecies(wildebeest,zebraandotherungulates),especiallyinperiodsoftimewhenquantityorqualityofgrassesarescarce(VoetenandPrins1999).
Uncontrolledgrazingalsoleadstoadisruptioninthequalityofecotourismexperienceinthescopearea,aswellasbringingrelatedsecurityconcernsrelatedtotheunmonitoredmovementofherdersincloseproximitytounfencedtourismfacilities,whichcouldpotentiallyleadtoincidentsoftheft.
3.1.7. CharcoalBurningandLogging
Firewoodandparticularlyitsby-productcharcoalarethemainsourceofenergyinKenya,andeveninthebestcase,agreatproportionofthepopulationwillkeeprelyingonwoodfuelsfordecades(Neuberger,2015,Kalenda,n/d).Thesupplyoffirewoodandproductionofcharcoalrepresentanenormousandgrowingthreattowoodlands,forestsandtheirbiodiversity,notonlybecausetheyarebasedonlocalneedsanddemands,butalsobecausetheyrepresentalucrativebusinesswhichdonotonlyincludethosedirectlycollectingandburningwood(Rowan,2009).InareasliketheGME,charcoalisalsoknowntobethealternativesourceoflivelihood,supportingpeopleduringfamineanddroughtdisasters(Kalenda,n/d).
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Both,forestsandmainlywoodlandsfaceeminentenvironmentalthreatfromunsustainablecharcoalproduction,athreatthatwilllastandincreaseunlessdeliberateeffortsinorganizingthatpracticeareundertakentopromoteitinasustainablemanner.
Otherrootcausesofwoodextractionfromwoodlandsandforestsinthescopeareaincludehousebuildingmaterialsandfencing.Somespecificspeciesarespecificallyaffected,suchastheCedar(JuniperusProcera,Höchst;alsoknownasAfricanjuniper),theonlyjunipernaturallyoccurringsouthoftheEquator,whichisdemandedgiventhedurability,robustness,andresistancetotermitesandweatherofitswood(Maunduetal.2001).
3.1.8. LossofMaasaiCulture
ThetraditionalMaasailifestylehasbeenoneofsemi-nomadismortranshumancebasedprimarilyontherequirementsoftheirlivestock,andadaptationtotheannualvariationsintherainregimeandgrassavailability.Thatway,inwetseasonstheMaasaimovewiththeirlivestocktotheopenplains,whererainhasprovidedabundantgrassandsurfacewater.Duringdryseasonstheyoccupythemorehillyormountainouswoodedareas,wheredry-seasongrazingandpermanentwater(intheformofeitherperennialriversorwaterholes)areavailable.Livestock,particularlycattle,formthebasisofthetraditionalMaasaicultureandeconomy(Talbot,1986).
Landsubdivisionisradicallychangingthewaythelandscapehasbeentraditionallymanagedbythesemi-nomadMaasai,whichrepresentsatremendousshiftintheirculture,asitisleadingtotheendofthetraditionalpastorallife(Tallisetal.,2008).Asmostgrasslandsintheworld,theMaasaiMarahasalwaysbeenaculturallandscapewherehumanlivelihoodswascompletelyintegratedintheecosystemdynamics.SomescholarsmayarguethattheMaasaigrasslandecosystemexistsbecause,andnotdespitetheinterrelationsbetweentheMaasaipeople,wildlifeandtheirenvironment(theMaasaiculturalpractices,thenon-bioticresourcesandecologicalprocesses,andthelandscape).Thesecharacteristicsarewellunderstoodbylocals—mainlybyelders.However,thisunderstandingiscurrentlybeingerodedamongtheyoungergenerationsbyfalseconceptionsofmodernity,newvalues,increasingpovertyandrecently,bylandsubdivision.Thecombinationofallthesefactorsisdisastrousforthelocalcultureand,consequently,forwildlife—aslocalculturebrutallytransformsitself,itsvaluesfor,understandingtoandcloserelationwithnaturemutateaswell.ThePardamatlocalresidentsinterestedinestablishinganewconservationareaintheirlands,clearlystatedthat“weneedtounderstandthatthe[Maasai]Marahasalwaysbeenafree-roamingspaceforwildlife,livestockandpeople,”(comm.pers.)aclearperceptionofthewildlife-humaninteraction.Indeed,thesymbiosisbetweentheMaasaiandtheirenvironmentandwildlifeissocrucialfortheirculturethateldersliterallyandrepeatedlymentionedthattheculturalchangesfosteredbylandsubdivisionmeanthe“endoftheworld”(comm.pers.)Thisdelicate,intertwiningrelationshipbetweentheMaasaiculture,theirlivelihoodsandtheMaraecosystem,inparticularthewildlife,needstoberecognizedasthemajorconditionforlongtermconservation.Itisclearthatnoneofthesepartscanprevailwithouttheother—acharacteristicthattrulymakestheMaasaiMara,aboveall,aculturallandscape.
AsmentionedintheMMNRManagementPlandraft(MMNR,2009),overthelong-term,theMaasaiculture,withitsaffinityandtolerancetowardsnatureandwildlife,hasbeenamajorfactorinensuringthecontinuingabundanceofwildlifeandtheirhabitatsintheGreaterMaraEcosystem.Itsdegradationandlostwillcontributeandaggravateotherthreatstowildlife
3.1.9. Infrastructure
Infrastructuremaybeanindicatorofhumandevelopment.However,whenitispoorlyplannedandimplemented,orbuiltinsensitiveareas,itrathercausesnegativeeffectsonhumanwellbeing,theenvironmentandwildlife.Inthecaseofthisplangeographicalscopearea,twomajorfactorstriggerfastandpoorlyplannedinfrastructure:humansedentarisationandtourism.
Sedentarisationleadstounplannedsettlements,andconsequentlytothedemandofservices,suchashealth,education,andtradefacilities,amongothers.Oncetheseservicesareprovidedsettlementsbecomethemselvesincentresthatcallmorepeopletosettle-in,sometimesalsoattractedbyworkopportunitiesthattourismmayprovide.Tourisminturn,useslandresourcesforaccommodation,tourismfacilitiesandotherinfrastructureprovision.Toughthemajorimpactofsedentarisationandtourismisthedevelopmentofroadnetworks.
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Roadsseverelyinterferewithmigratoryroutes,causedirectwildlifemortalityduecollisions,andincreasesecosystemfragmentation.Theyalsoenableeasyaccess,andforthatreasontheyopennewareasforhumanmigration,developmentandincompatiblelanduseswithwildlife(Bedelain,2013).AsmentionedintheAgriculturesectionofthischapter(3.1.2.,above),easyaccesstomarketshasbeenanimportantcauseforagriculturaldevelopment.Forthatreason,theprojectoftarmackingtheroadfromNaroktowntotheMMNR’sSekenanigateisofmajorconcern.
3.1.10. SandExtractionandPollution
TheharvestingofsandfromtheMarariversisasignificantissueinsomeareasofthegreaterMaraecosystem,namely;Naikarra,Siana,MajimotoandasmallsectionofTalek.ThesandisusedfortheconstructionofhousesinthenearbyregionaltownofNarokandmorerecentlyisbeingtransportedformarketinNairobi.Additionally,KWShasidentifiedadirectlinkbetweensandharvestingandthepoachingofwildlife,withbushmeatbeingfoundinlorriescarryingsandandallegationsthatthetransporterlorriescanalsobeusedtocarryivoryandforestproductslikeCedar(Juniperusprocera),Sandalwood(Osyrislanceolata)andOleaAfricana(Oleaeuropaeasubsp.africana).
Theextractionofsandisanincreasinglyimportantissue,especiallywithinthecontextofchangingweatherandrainfallpatterns,asthesandinriversholdswaterduringthewetseasonthatisslowlyreleasedduringthedryseasons.Further,theremovalofsanddestroystheriverinevegetation,whichinturncausesinstabilitytotheriverbanks,thesiltationofriversanddamagetorivercrossingpoints.
InothercountiesinKenya,especiallyKajiadoandMachakos,theyhaveimposedabanonsandharvestingandMachakosisdevelopingabilltomanagetheharvestingofsand,asavaluableresource.
Pollutionismainlyassociatedwithpesticideuseonfarms,andisprobablyresponsibleforthedisappearanceofpartoftheflora,butalsothedisappearanceofinsectsandbirds.Somepeoplehavereportedakindofskindiscolorationamonghipposinriverswherethecurrentislow(AssociationTendua,n/d).However,pollutionisalsovisibleintowns,villagesandtheysurroundingareaswherepoorornodisposalandmanagementofwastearenotonlydegradinghumanhealth,butalsodeterioratingwaterquality,wildlife,land,cultureandscenicvalues.
3.1.11. ClimateChangeeffectsasnewthreat
ClimatechangeisnotnecessarilydeemedasathreatinOS-basedconservationplans,althoughitisconsideredastherootcauseoflocaleffectsthatdorepresentseriousthreatstowildlifeandecosystems.Thereisanincreasingcorpusofscientificliteraturedocumentingclimatechangeeffectsandforecastingscenarios(Galvin,2009),howevermoreresearchneedstobeundertakeninordertoclearlydefinewhatclimatechangeeffectsneedtobeconsideredasthreatsanddesignpropermitigationoradaptationstrategies.
InrecenttimestherainfallpatternsoftheMarahavebecomeincreasinglyerratic,anddroughtisapronouncedconsideration,withmoreregularperiodsofdroughtofincreasingdurationinrecentyears.TheElNiñoSouthernOscillation(ENSO)forcesrainfallpatternsoutofphaseandconsequentlyisincreasinglycitedasbeingofmajorconcern,primarilybecauseboththewildanddomesticanimalsareheavilyreliantonthenaturalcycleofwateravailabilityandaswell,therecentdroughtshaveresultedinmajoreconomicandecologicalchange.Areductioninsurfacewateravailabilityhasdirectimpactsforbothwildlifeandlivestockpopulationsalike.Firstly,itsubstantiallyelevatesmortalityratesandsecondlydroughtwillresultinthemorerobustagegroupssurviving,producinganunnaturalskewinthepopulationdynamics(Serneelsetal.,2001).FuturechangesinrainfallpatternandperiodicitywilllikelyhavesevereimplicationsforthewildlifeoftheGME.ForexampleMdumaetal.(1999)foundthatwildebeestnumbersaresignificantlyaffectedbyrainfallinthedryseasonasitdirectlyaffectsfoodavailability,whichinturnwilldirectlyaffectpredatornumbersandsurvivalrates.
Climaticerraticpatternswillalsoaggravateotherthreats.Habitatfragmentationduetolandusechangeslimittheaccesstodryseasongrazingandwateronwhichthecattleandwildlifearecriticallydependent(Ogutuetal.,2011).Climatechangewillexacerbatethisthreatastheincreasedfrequencyandseverityofdroughtsandfloodsthatisexpectedtooccur(IPCC,2012)willmodifyvegetationgrowthandhencefoodavailabilityforthemigratinganimals.Theabilityofmigrantstorespondtochangingclimaticconditionsislikelytobefurtherimpairedbysuchman-madethreatsashabitatloss
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andfragmentation(Ogutuetal.,2011).
ThisCNR-CAPhasnotyetdesignedstrategiesonclimatechangeadaptationandmitigation,althoughitproposestorapidlyinitiatestudiesleadingtounderstandtheeffectsanddefineinterventionsaccordingly.
3.2. Threatanalysisandrating
Thethreatanalysisconsistsnotonlyinassessinghoweachdirectthreatnegativelyaffectseachtarget,butalsoinhavingabetterunderstandingofhowdifferentthreatsaffectonetarget,andhowtheensembleoftargetsisaffectedbyonesinglethreat.Attheendofthisanalysis,onealsohasamoreaccurateperceptionofhowallthreatsareimpactingtheensembleoftargets,inotherwords,theoverallchallengethattheplanisaimingtoundertake.
Ratingthreatsisalsoimportantfromastrategicperspective,asithelpstofocusactionsontheonesthataremostimportanttoaddress.Again,itisimportanttoconsidertheentiresetofdirectthreatsandnotlimittheanalysistothethreatsthattheconcernedorganisationshavetheexpertiseorresourcestoaddress(CMP,2013).
Thereareanumberofthreatratingtoolsforthepurposeofanalysingandratingthreats.Thisprocessusedtheonebasedonrankingtheseverity,scopeandirreversibilityofeachthreat,asfollows:
Severity:Thelevelofdamagetotheconservationtargetthatcanreasonablybeexpectedwithin10yearsundercurrentcircumstancesi.e.,giventhecontinuationoftheexistingsituation.
• VeryHigh:Thethreatislikelytodestroyoreliminatetheconservationtargetoversomeportionofthetarget'soccurrenceatthesite.
• High:Thethreatislikelytoseriouslydegradetheconservationtargetoversomeportionofthetarget'soccurrenceatthesite.
• Medium:Thethreatislikelytomoderatelydegradetheconservationtargetoversomeportionofthetarget'soccurrenceatthesite.
• Low:Thethreatislikelytoonlyslightlyimpairtheconservationtargetoversomeportionofthetarget'soccurrenceatthesite.
Scope:Mostcommonlydefinedspatiallyasthegeographicscopeofimpactontheconservationtargetatthesitethatcanreasonablybeexpectedwithin10yearsundercurrentcircumstancesi.e.,giventhecontinuationoftheexistingsituation.
• VeryHigh:Thethreatislikelytobewidespreadorpervasiveinitsscopeandaffecttheconservationtargetthroughoutthetarget'soccurrencesatthesite.
• High:Thethreatislikelytobewidespreadinitsscopeandaffecttheconservationtargetatmanyofitslocationsatthesite.
• Medium:Thethreatislikelytobelocalizedinitsscopeandaffecttheconservationtargetatsomeofthetarget'slocationsatthesite.
• Low:Thethreatislikelytobeverylocalizedinitsscopeandaffecttheconservationtargetatalimitedportionofthetarget'slocationatthesite.
Irreversibility:Thedegreetowhichtheimpactofasourceofastresscanberestored.
• VeryHigh:Thesourceproducesastressthatisnotreversiblee.g.,wetlandsconvertedtoashoppingcentre.
• High:Thesourceproducesastressthatisreversible,butnotpracticallyaffordablee.g.,wetlandconvertedtoagriculture.
• Medium:Thesourceproducesastressthatisreversiblewithareasonablecommitmentofresourcese.g.,ditchinganddrainingofwetland.
• Low:Thesourceproducesastressthatiseasilyreversibleatrelativelylowcoste.g.,off-roadvehiclestrespassinginwetland.
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Table2:ThreatRating5
Threats \ Targets Maasai culture Woodlands Water
sources Elephant Lion Forests Grasslands Wildebeest Summary
Threat Rating
Fencing High Medium Medium Medium Medium High
High Scope High Medium High Medium High High
Severity High Medium High Medium High High
Irreversibility Medium Medium Low Medium Low Low
Uncontrolledgrazing/Overgrazing Medium Medium High High High High
High
Scope High Medium High High High High
Severity Medium Medium High High Medium High
Irreversibility Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium
Unplannedsettlementsandurbanisation High Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium High High
High Scope High Medium Medium High Medium Medium High High
Severity High Medium Medium Medium High Medium High High
Irreversibility Medium Medium Medium High High High High High
5ThreatratingexcludesWorldClassTourismDestinationinitsanalysis.Asitimpactedbyhowallthreatsaffecttheothertargetsitdependsupon,itisnotdirectlyaffectedbyanyoftheidentifiedthreats.However,theoverallrateof“High”couldbeconsideredasasurrogateofthelevelofthreatoverthetarget.
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Threats \ Targets Maasai culture Woodlands Water
sources Elephant Lion Forests Grasslands Wildebeest Summary
Threat Rating
Infrastructure Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium High
High Scope Medium Medium Medium Medium High High
Severity Medium High Medium Medium Medium High
Irreversibility High High High High High High
Charcoal(Logging/burning) High High
High Scope High High
Severity High High
Irreversibility Medium Medium
Human-wildlifeconflict High High Low Medium
High Scope High High High High
Severity High High Medium Medium
Irreversibility Medium Medium Low Medium
Agriculturelanduse Medium Medium Low Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium
Medium Scope Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium
Severity High Medium Medium High Medium High Medium Medium
Irreversibility Medium High Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium
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Threats \ Targets Maasai culture Woodlands Water
sources Elephant Lion Forests Grasslands Wildebeest Summary
Threat Rating
LossofMaasaiculture Medium Low Medium Low Low High Medium
Medium Scope Medium Low High High Medium High High
Severity Medium Low Medium Low Low High Medium
Irreversibility High Low Medium Medium Medium High High
Poaching Medium Medium High
Medium Scope Medium Medium High
Severity High Medium High
Irreversibility Medium Medium Medium
Pollution Low Medium
Low Scope High Medium
Severity Medium Medium
Irreversibility Low Medium
Sandextraction Medium
Low Scope Medium
Severity Medium
Irreversibility Medium
SummaryTargetRating High Medium Medium High High Medium High High High
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3.3. TheContext:CausesandEffectsofThreatstoConservationTargets
Inthescopearea,alternativeandcompetinglandusesrepresentasawholethemajorthreatfortheconservationofecosystems,wildlife,aswellasfortheMaasaiculture.Thisisaggravatedbyfocusedthreatstowildlifetargets,suchaspoachingandhuman-wildlifeconflictsituations.ThehighlevelofthreatsisaffectingconsiderablytheMaasaiMaraConservanciespursuitofbecomingaworld-classtourismdestination.
Diagram2showsthefactors(yellowboxes)thatleadtodirectthreats(pinkboxes),interconnectedonewitheachotherinaweb-kindofrelationship.Structuralproblems(populationincrease,poverty)arecertainlythebaseseriesoffactors,thoughland-subdivisionisplayingacriticalroleinspillingoverunprecedentedlevelofthreats.Landsub-divisionofcommunalland(previouslyknownas“groupranches”)hasindeedledtotheabilityforeachlandownertomakeindividualchoicesonhowthelandwillbeused.Commercialandsubsistencefarming,aswellasurbanlanduses,currentlystandoutastheleadingalternatives.Onfacevaluethesealternativesoftenprovideacompellingimprovementofreturnsforlandownerswhencomparedtotraditionallanduses,whicharefarmorecompatibletoconservation,ecotourismandthepreservationoftheMaasaiculture.Pooraccesstolivestockmarketsandlowqualitybreedshaveaddedpressuretoseekalternatives.Itistheprolificincreaseoffencingoflandthatisthemostobvioussymptomofthisthreat,closingoffopenspaceandcorridorsforwildlifeanddividingthecommunity.
Aggravatingtheimpactsofpoachingandhumanwildlifeconflict,habitatmodificationrepresentsachangethatresultsinthehabitatbecominglesssuitablethanitwaspreviouslytowildlife(Reidetal.,2004)andpeopleaswell.IntheMarathisreflectsconditionsinareasthatareheavilygrazedbylivestockbutcouldstillbeutilisedbywildlifesuchasintheheavilyusedareasintheformergroupranches(Prins1992).Fragmentationisthe‘breakingupintosmallerpieces’ofsuitableareasinalandscape(Reidetal.,2004).Bothhabitatlossandmodificationcancontributetofragmentationandtheseverityoftheeffectishighlydependentonthescaleofthechangeandthetargetspecies.
Habitatloss,contractionandfragmentationresultingfromthedirectthreatstoecosystemtargetshaveallbeensuggestedasprevalentcausesinthedecreaseofwildlifenumbersinareasthathistoricallysustainedlargenumbers(seeOgutuetal.,2011;Ogutuetal.,2010;Ogutuetal.,2009;Fryxelletal.,2005;Sinclairetal.,1995).Reidetal.,(2004)describetheprincipalprocessesofhabitatchange,allofwhichcanbeattributedtoincreasedhumanactivityinthecontextoftheMaraecosystem.Habitatloss,orconversion,directlymodifiesthecompositionofalandscapebytransforming‘suitablehabitat’intoahabitatthathasreducedinqualitytonolongerbe‘entirelysuitable’.IntheMarathisisattributedtoexpandingpermanentsettlementsandtradingcentres,conversionofrangelandtocropland,andtheerectionofimpenetrablefences(Reidetal.,2004).Inareaswheretheincidenceoflivestockgrazingishigh,wildherbivores,whichvarybetweengrazers,browsersandmixedfeeders,oftendiminishinnumbersasaresultofdisturbanceandcompetitionforfood(Riginos&Young2007).Inaddition,intensivelivestockgrazinghasfrequentlybeenlinkedtoshrubencroachmentinsub-SaharanAfrica(Scholes&Archer1997;Asneretal.,2009;Roquesetal.,2001;Cabraletal.,2003;Sankaranetal.,2008);whichresultsinadecreaseinpalatableherbaceousvegetationandanincreaseinunpalatablewoodyvegetation(ScholesandWalker,1993).
Ashumanpopulationsgrow,sotoodoestheirdemandforland,increasingfragmentationandisolationofwildlifepopulations.Inthelast100yearslionshavelost75%oftheirformerrangeduetoprogressiveintensificationoflanduse,sedentarisation,diversificationoflivelihoodsandlandfragmentationthroughprivatizationoflandtenuredrivenbydynamicsocio-political,demographicandeconomicprocesses(Riggioetal.,2012).Theconfinementandconcentrationofelephantsindecliningrangeswithreducedallowanceforseasonalmigrationiscausingelevateddensitiesandhabitatdestructionthatcanbedetrimentaltospeciesdiversityandtoelephantsthemselves.
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Diagram1:ScopeAreaConceptualModel
40
DefinitionoftheboxesandovalsinDiagram2
Causalorcontributingfactors(yellowboxes):Contextualfactors,usuallynegativefactors,thatcauseathreatoranothercausalfactor,orcontributetotheirexistence.
Directthreatonconservationtargets(pinkboxes):Theproximatehumanactivitiesorprocessesthathavecaused,arecausingormaycausenegativeimpactstotheviabilityofconservationtargets.Theyshouldnotbeconfusedwith“stressors”(forinstance,fragmentation),whicharetheeffectofathreatinatarget.
Conservationtargets(lightgreenovals):Biologicalfeaturessuchasspecies,communitiesandecologicalsystemsthatrepresentandencompassthefullarrayofbiologicaldiversityfoundintheplan’sgeographicalscopearea,and/ornon-biologicalelementsthatareworthytoconservebecauseoftheirintrinsicvaluesandrelationwiththebiologicalconservationtargets,suchastheMaasaiCulture,inthiscase.
Socialtargetsresultingfromconservationtargets(brownoval):AlsoknownasHumanWellbeingTargets,aspertheOSjargon,theyrefertonon-biologicaltargetsthatresultfrombiologicaltargets’conservationviatheecosystemservicesthatthelaterprovide.
Planscope(darkgreenbox):Theareawherethebiodiversityorculturalfeaturesofinterestarelocated,wheremostofthestrategiestakeplace,andwherepositivechangesresultingfromthestrategiesareexpectedtohappen.
Strategy(lightyellowhexagons):Interventionsaimedtoachieveconservationobjectivesandgoals,orsupportotherstrategiesimplementation.Thehexagonsandrespectivearrowsinthisdiagramrefertotheinterventionentrypointsthatwereidentifiedtodesignstrategiesupon.
4. Stakeholderanalysis
ThemostimportantstakeholdersrelatedwiththecontextofthescopeareaappearontableXX.Stakeholdersaresocialgroups,agencies,organizations,orindividualswhoareplayingaroleinthecurrentoverallsituationthataffectstheconservationtargets,andmayhaveadirectorindirectinterestorroletoplayintheplan’simplementationandexpectedresults.
Thetablebelowshowsforeachstakeholderidentifiedwhattheircurrentsituationisvis-à-visthecontextdepictedintheConceptualModel.Somestakeholdersbenefit(+),someothersarenegativelyaffected(-),whereasinsomecasestheybothbenefitandarenegativelyaffected.Thesecondcolumnreflectswhatistheircurrentcontributioninsolvingthenegativefactorsthataffectconservation.Asusualinthisplan,theratingisbasedonthe4-levelscale,fromLowtoVeryHigh(includingMediumandHigh).Byrecognisingtheircurrentroleinconservationandtheirlevelofpower,theirexpectedroleinthisplanwasassessed,aswellastheoverallimportance.
Basedonthisanalysis,onecaneasilyidentify3groupsofstakeholders
a) Stakeholdersmostdirectlyimplicated:
ThisgroupencompassesthestakeholderswhohaveanoverallimportanceratedasVeryHigh.Theycurrentlyplayimportantrolesincoordinationandplanningparticipation,and/orwillhaveacriticalparticipationintheplan’simplementationandsupport.Notallofthemhaveacurrentactivepositiverole.Non-conservancylandowners,forinstance,donotprovideanycontributiontoconservation,althoughitisexpectedtheywilljoinconservanciesand/orundertakeconservation-relatedconservationinitiatives.Thestakeholdersinthisgroupintegratethe3majorsocialsectorsrelevantforthisplan:communities(conservancyandnon-conservancylandownersandtheirfamilies);tourism(tourismpartners),andconservationparties,thelatterincludingdirectimplementerson-the-ground(MMWCA,conservancymanagers),orsupportingagenciesatlocal,countyornationallevels(KWCA,NEMA,MinistryofTourismandWildlife,KWS).
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b) Relevantstakeholders:
Thisgroupincludessurroundingcommunitiesonwhichtheplanexpectstohaveanimpacton,andinstitutionsororganisationsthatcanhaveacriticalroleinsupporting,contributingorimplementingdifferentactivitiesofthisplan,suchastheCountyGovernment,conservationNGOs,academiaandresearchers,churchesandreligiousorganisations.
c) Otheraccompanyingstakeholders
Thethirdgroupincludesotherstakeholdersthatcansupportsomeactivitiesorprocessesneededfortheplan’ssuccess.Itincludes,butisnotlimitedtotheNationalGovernmentandotherNGOs.
Table3:StakeholderAnalysis(explanationsforcolumnsfollowthetable)
Stakeholder
Curren
tsituation*
Contrib
ution*
*
Currentroleinconservation
Curren
tlev
el
ofpow
er**
*
Expectedorpotentialroleintheplan O
verall
impo
rtan
ce
MMWCA (-) M>H CoordinationStakeholdermobilizationImplementationFundraisingPublicawareness
M>H PlanningFundraisingProgrammemgt.Lobbying
VH
Conservancylandowners
(+)(-)
M>H ConservancyplanningAwarenessCoordinationInfluencingProvisionoflands(Setasidelandsforconservation)PlanningOperationGovernance
VH OwnershipInfluence,implementationofplans,monitoring,accountability,decisionmakingProvisionoflandsOperationGovernancePlanimplementation,Influencingdecisionmakingonpolicies
VH
Tourismpartners
(+)(-) VH FinancingEmployingPlanningMarketingCSR/TrustInvestmentTourismproductdevpt.ImplementationOperationsSecurityBringincome,fundraising
H PlanningImplementationEngagementContinuingexistingroleMarketing,funding
VH
Conservancymanagers
(-) H Mediation,policing,security,settlementplanning,grazingplanning,employment
H Responsibilityofplanningimplementation,existingrole
VH
Non-conservancylandowners
(+) L None VH JoinconservanciesConservationsupport
VH
KWCA (-) L PolicyAdvocacy
VH PolicyAdvocacyFundraising
VH
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Stakeholder
Curren
tsituation*
Contrib
ution*
*
Currentroleinconservation
Curren
tlev
el
ofpow
er**
*
Expectedorpotentialroleintheplan O
verall
impo
rtan
ce
NEMA (-) L QualitycontrolLicencing
VH Improvecurrentrule VH
CountyMinistryofTourism&Wildlife
(=) L None H RegulationLegislation,Implementation
VH
KWS (-) L>M Oversight M>H Lawenforcement,security
VH
Surroundingcommunities
(=)/(+)
M Hostingwildlifeandconservancylandowners,charcoal,poaching,human-wildlifeconflict
M Participation,conflictmanagement,benefitsharing,visionownership
H
CWCCC (-) L>M Payingcompensation,arbitration,conflictresolution,policydialogue
M Conflictresolution H
Churches/Religiousorganisations
(+) L>M Spiritualnourishment VH Positiveinfluenceonconservation
H
ConservationNGOs
(-)(+) M Facilitationplanning,expertise,fundingFundraising,projectsupport
L>M Capacitybuilding,lobbyingFundraising,technicaladvise
H
CountyGovernment
(+) L>H Revenuecollection,licencing,security,regulationGovernance
H>VH Spatialplanning,infrastructure,supportoftheCAPfunding
H
Academiaandresearchers
(-)(+) L Datacollection,monitoring,analysing,communication
L Ecologicalmonitoring,research
H
NationalGovernment
(+) L Policy,regulation,security,licencing
H Funding,marketing M
OtherNGOs (+) L>M Economicdevelopment M CoordinatewithMMWCA
M
*Currentsituation:Determinestheeffectofcurrentsituationinparticularstakeholders.Someofthemmaybenefit(markedwitha(+)symbol,e.g.byusinglandornaturalresources;obtainingfinancialgains;gainingpower;increasingtheirinstitutionalpresence.Someotherstakeholdersmaybenegativelyaffected(markedwitha(-)symbol),e.g.bysufferingeffectsofnaturalresourcesmisuseorbynotachievingtheirinstitutionalobjectives.Insomecases,stakeholdersmaybothbenefitandbeaffectedatthesametime.Thiscaseincludes,forinstance,thosestakeholderswhogainaregionalinstitutionalpresencebuthavedifficultiesinachievingtheirinstitutionalgoals.Afourthcase,markedwitha(=)symbolincludesthosestakeholderswhoplayaratherneutralroleinthecurrentcontext.**Contribution:Referstothecurrent(notexpected)contributionofthestakeholdersinsolvingthepresentsituation.***Currentlevelofpower:Showstheperceivedlevelofpowerofagivenstakeholderforcriticaldecision-making.
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5. Theconservationstrategies
Conservationstrategiesaretheresponsetothemostcriticalthreatsidentified.Throughthemanagement,reductionorabatementofthesethreats,itisexpectedtoimprovetheviabilityofconservationtargets.
Conservationstrategiesaredesignedtakingasstartingpointtheconceptualmodel(Diagram1),wherestrategic“entrypoints”forinterventionareidentified.Negativefactorsarethentransformedintopositiveresults,towhichotherpositive,necessaryresultsareaddedinordertocreatea“resultchain”thatdepictsthegeneralworkingassumptionofthestrategy.TheseresultingdiagramsareshowninAnnex1.Theworkingassumptionstatements,calledTheoriesofChange,areatthebeginningofeachconservationstrategydescription.
5.1. Strategy1:LandUsePlanningforaLong-TermFunctionalEcosystem
5.1.1. Theoryofchange
IfweestablishandimplementaCNR-CAPzone-wideecosystemmanagementplan,integratingtogetherthemanagementplansoftheindividualconservancies,aswellasdevelopingplansforexistingareasnotcoveredbyconservancies,informedbytheCNR-CAP,aswellasembeddedwithintheNarokCountySpatialPlan;Andif,theseplansgazetterural/urbanplanningguidelinesthatintegrateculturalaspectsandareimplementedwithin3kmborderoftheMMNRandtheconservancies
Andif,theseplansintegrateoptimalandequitablebenefitsharingandincentivesforlandownersandtheirfamilies,includingincome-generatingenterprisesforcommunities;
Andif,registeredleasesaremaximisedandsecureland,forthepurposeofconservation
Andif,landsalesforincompatiblelandusesareminimisedinsideandoutsideofConservancies,withfencingminimisedthroughmaximisingcommunallanduseandmanagement
Thenwewillexpandlandssuitableforconservationandsustainablelandmanagement,minimisingincompatiblelandusesandunsustainablepractices,reducingtherateandextentoffencing,allowingdegradedareastoberestoredandincreasinglandresilienceaswellasconnectivityacrossthelandscape,therebymakingtheGreaterMaasaiMararegionalong-termfunctionalecosystem.
5.1.2. Objectives,generalactivitiesandactiontoimplementinthefirstyear
ObjectiveLUP1:Bymid-2016,theCNR-CAPfortheMaasaiMaraconservancieshasbeenapproved;itsimplementationhasstartedandisinformingplanningprocessesatconservancy,GreaterMaraEcosystemandNarokCountylevels.
Generalactivities ActionstoimplementinYear1(2016)
Responsibleperson/otherstakeholdersinvolved
LUP1.1FinalisetheCNR-CAPdocumentbyDecember2015
Finalisethevision,targets,strategies,threats&challengesfortheConservationActionPlan
FinalisetheCNR-CAPgeographicalzoningplan
KeystakeholdersandMMWCAboardvalidatetheCNR-CAP
DistributionofCNR-CAPtoauthoritiesandotherparties
MMWCA&TNC,w/keycontributingparties
LUP1.2UpdateorfinalisemanagementplansineachindividualMaraconservancy
Identifythestatusofexitingconservancymanagementplans
DevelopastandardMaraconservancymanagementplanformat,basedonthe2013WildlifeActguidelines,existing
MMWCAwithindividualconservanciesanda
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conservancyplansandcriticalissuesidentifiedintheCNR-CAP
Assistindividualconservanciestoeitherfinaliseordeveloptheirrespectiveplans
Identifycostsandfundingforformationofindividualmanagementplans
consultant
LUP1.3DevelopecosystemplanfortheGreaterMaraEcosysteminformedbytheCNR-CAPandclusterofMaraconservancies’plans
DevelopanactionplanwithKWS Bringtogetherplansfrom2-3conservancies
inageographicalcluster,intoamacroconservancyplan,e.g.,withinthecentralsectionoftheMara,incorporatingthewedgesbetweentheconservanciesandneighbouringunprotectedareas
RaisematchedUSAIDfundsfordevelopmentofmacro-conservancyplansandforundertakingtheecosystemplan
MMWCA,w/AWF&KWSw/planningexpertise
LUP1.4Plansdevelopedfornon-conservancyareasor/andconservanciesindevelopment
Identifyunprotectedareas,orconservanciesindevelopmentforplandevelopment
Developplansforareaswithfundsalreadyavailable
MMWCApluskeypartnerslikeWWF
LUP1.5MonitorandassistthedevelopmentoftheNarokCountyspatialplan
MonitortheprogressoftheSpatialPlanandassistaspossibleinrelationtothesectionforthegreaterMaraecosystem
MMWCAplanningrelatedexpertise
ObjectiveLUP2:ByDecember2017,developandgazetterural/urbanplanningguidelinesthatintegrateculturalaspectsandimplementwithin3kmborderoftheMMNRandconservanciesareas(SharedwiththeObjectivePMC2,inthePreservingMaasaiCultureStrategy)
Generalactivities ActionstoimplementinYear1(2016)
Responsibleperson/otherstakeholdersinvolved
LUP2.1/PMC2.1DevelopRural/urbanplanningguidelines
Rural/urbanplanningguidelinesdeveloped Awarenessandlobbyingforrural/urban
planningguidelineswithin3kmofReserveandconservancies
TBD
LUP2.2/PMC2.2ImplementRural/urbanplanningguidelines
Assistcountygovernmentindevelopingrural/urbanplanningframeworkfor3kmoutsideofMMNRandconservancyboundaries
TBD
ObjectiveLUP3:ByDecember2018,benefitsfromconservanciesareoptimalandequitableforlandownersandtheirfamilies,includingincome-generatingenterprisesforcommunities(SharedwithObjectiveFIS5fromFinancialSustainabilityStrategy)
Generalactivities ActionstoimplementinYear1(2016)
Responsibleperson/otherstakeholdersinvolved
FIS5.1/LUP3.1IdentifytheMaraequitableandoptimalbenefitmodel
Buildonworktodate,undertakenbyAWF EngageacrossMarastakeholdersand
undertakeprocesstogainagreementonthekeypointsofamaximisedbenefitmodel
MMWCA&AWF
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FIS5.2/LUP3.2Establishoptimalandequitablebenefits
Compareexistingbenefitswiththeoptimalmodel–developanactionplanforthewayforward
MMWCA&AWF
FIS5.3/LUP3.3Progressconservationsensitiveincome-generatingbusinesses
Identifyviablebusinessinitiatives Developbusinessandactionplansfor
priorityinitiatives
MMWCAw/AWFandotherkeyMarastakeholders
FIS5.4/LUP3.4Implementconservancies’benefitcommunicationcampaign
Developformalcampaignforroll-out,buildingonworktodate
Rolloutcampaign
MMWCA-Communications-OOMT
ObjectiveLUP4:ByDecember2017,90%oflandleasesareregisteredaslandunderconservation,acrossalloperationalconservanciesandcomplianceisenforced.
Generalactivities ActionstoimplementinYear1(2016)
Responsibleperson/otherstakeholdersinvolved
LUP4.1Registerofleasesforlandunderconservation,acrosstheMaraconservancies
Continueadministrationandprocessingoflandleases,X%peryear(tobedefined)acrossalloperationalconservancies
EngageMinistryofLands/Landsofficetoagreetoanefficientandcost-effectivewayofregisteringlandacrossthegreaterMaraecosystem
RaisematchedUSAIDfundsforleaseregistrationfeesandassociatedcosts
MMWCAw/individualconservancies
LUP4.2EstablishFundforconservanciesandconservancylandowners,tofundadditionallandpurchasesforconservanciesandstoplandbeingsold
FundestablishedwithUSAIDfunding RaisematchedUSAIDfundsforpurchaseof
land
MMWCAw/keypartners
LUP4.3Earlyrenewofconservancylandagreementsacrossconservancies
Ideafloatedduring2016,toseewhattimelineisfeasible
MMWCAw/individualconservancies
ObjectiveLUP5:ByDecember2018,landsalesforincompatiblelandusesareminimisedinsideandoutsideofConservancies,andbyDecember2019theareaunderfencingisminimisedthroughmaximisingcommunallanduseandmanagement(SharedwiththeObjectivePMC3,inthePreservingMaasaiCultureStrategy)
Generalactivities ActionstoimplementinYear1(2016)
Responsibleperson/otherstakeholdersinvolved
LUP5.1/PMC3.1Undertakelandusevaluationstudy
Initiateandundertakevaluationstudy Outreachcommunicationstodisseminate
resultsofstudy Agreementacrossthemultipleagents,about
theoptimal,sub-optimalandworselanduses
MMWCAw/AWFandMMU(w/internationaluniversity)
46
Disincentivesagainstfencingandotherincompatiblelandusesdeveloped
LUP5.2/PMC3.2Buildonthe2015fencingresearch,mapandevaluatelanduseacrosstheregion
MapthelandusesoftheMaraecosystem,buildingontheworkdonetodateforKoyaiki(Totalarea,numberofplots)
MMWCAw/keypartners,e.g.,OOMT
LUP5.3/PMC3.3EstablishConservationAreasacrossbroaderareaaspertheagreedCNR-CAPgeographicalzone
CNR-CAPgeographicalzoningplanfinalised(asabove)
MMWAw/keypartners
LUP5.4/PMC5.4RegulatelandsalesacrosstheMaraconservanciesandneighbouringareas
AnacrosstheMaraconservancieslandadministrationprocessestablished
Afundsetup(asperpointLUP4.2)throughwhichtokeep/buylandintheConservancies,establishedthroughUSAIDfunds
RaisematchedUSAIDfundsforpurchaseofland
MMWCA
ObjectiveLUP6:ByDecember2018,theareasunderprotectionor/andsustainablelandusehaveincreasedby100%,fromtheexisting1,000km2(outsidetheReserve)to2,000km2(oftheproposed3,000km2fortheCNR-CAPgeographicscopearea)
Generalactivities ActionstoimplementinYear1(2016)
Responsibleperson/otherstakeholdersinvolved
LUP6.1PrioritiseareasforexpansionofconservanciesandconservationareasacrosstheunprotectedGreaterMaraEcosystem
Mapallunprotectedareas,withintheCNR-CAPagreedzone,identifyingallmigratoryroutesandcorridors,areasandfeaturesofspecificnaturalresourceimportance,etc.
Identifyexistinglanduse,categorisingifcompatibleorincompatibletolandresilienceandconservation
MMWCAw/expertise
LUP6.2Engagelandowners Engagelandownerswithinpriorityareas Identify,assessandagreeonthebestland
use Raisefundsfortheoperationof
ConservationAreasintheseexistingunprotectedareas
Continuedevelopmentofprioritisedareas:Siana,Pardamat,escarpmentregion
MMWCAw/expertise
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5.2. SustainableGrazingandBeefProduction
5.2.1. TheoryfChange
IftheconservanciesandsurroundingareasacrosstheCNR-CAPzoneimplementsustainablegrazingplanswhichincorporatesustainablestockratesandtakeintoaccountbothwildlifeandlivestockgrazing,
Andif,weincreasereturnsfromcommunitycattlethroughbettermarketsdemandinggoodqualitylivestockfromMaralandownersandcommercialisedmarketpracticebytheMaasaialongwithimprovedanimalhusbandrywithinacontextofconservationconditionality
Andif,cattlebusinessplanswithsufficientinvestmentstoenablesustainablecommercialcattleproductionpracticesacrosstheconservanciesandsurroundingareasoftheCNR-CAPzoneareagreedandimplemented;
ThenwewillincreasetheresilienceoftheMara’srangelands,thevalue,productivityandincomegeneratedbylivestock,whilereducinglivestockstockrates,unsustainablelanduses,andimpactsonwildlife
5.2.2. Objectives,generalactivitiesandactiontoimplementinthefirstyear
ObjectiveSGB1:ByDecember2017,sustainablegrazingplansforconservanciesandcommunityareaswithsustainablestockingrates,aredevelopedandimplementationhasstarted
Generalactivities ActionstoimplementinYear1(2016)
Responsibleperson/otherstakeholdersinvolved
SGB1.1Establishoptimallivestock(cattleandshoat)densityperhectareacrosstheMararegions,consideringwildlifegrazingneeds
IdentifylandcarryingcapacityforvariousregionsofMara(incorporatingrainfall,qualityofsoils,etc.),takingintoaccountwildlifeandlivestockgrassconsumptionneeds
Developandinitiategrasslandsmonitoringsystem
MMWCAw/keypartners,includingconservanciesandexistinglivestockplayers
SGB1.2ImplementedguidelinesforsustainablegrazingplansacrossMaraconservancies
SignoffondevelopedguidelinesacrossallMaraconservanciesor/andcompatibleadaptedversions
ImplementacrosshalfoftheMara’soperationalconservancies
MMWCAw/individualconservancies
SGB1.3Implementedguidelinesforsustainablegrazingplansacrosscommunityareasoutsideofconservancies,butwithintheCNR-CAPgeographicalscope
Designaprogramthatfacilitatescommunitylivestocktobemanagedinasustainablewayacrosscommunityareasoutsideofconservancies
ObjectiveSGB2:ByDecember2017,increasereturnsfromcommunitycattlethroughbettermarketsandmarketpracticebytheMaasai,qualitybreedsandfatteningpractices,withinthecontextofconservationconditionality
Generalactivities ActionstoimplementinYear1(2016)
Responsibleperson/otherstakeholdersinvolved
SGB2.1Identifyandestablishaccesstomultiplelivestockmarkets,with
Buildingonworkundertakenduring2015:
Baselinesurveyonexistingmarketprices
TBD–toincludeexistinglivestockrelated
48
higherreturnoninvestmentthanexistingmarkets
Identificationofmarketswithhigherreturnoninvestment
Developmechanism/entitytoorganisebulksalesoflivestocktogainhigherbargainingpower
Makeagreementswithidentifiedmarketoutletsprovidingbestreturnonmarket
playersintheMara
SGB2.2Establishanimalhusbandryandqualitybreeding
Buildingonworkundertakenduring2015:
Finaliseanoutreachprogramtoenablethecommunitycattletobeupgraded,includingasrequiredabreedexchangeprogram
TBD–toincludeexistinglivestockrelatedplayersintheMara
SGB2.3Implementconservancyor/andconservancyneighbouringlandscattlefatteningprogram
Buildingonworkundertakenduring2015:
Finaliseaprogramtoenablethecommunitycattletobefattenedinsideconservancies
TBD–toincludeexistinglivestockrelatedplayersintheMara
SGB2.4ImprovemarketpracticebytheMaasailivestockowners
Buildingonworkundertakenduring2015:
Communityoutreachcampaigndesignedandstartup
TBD–toincludeexistinglivestockrelatedplayersintheMara
ObjectiveSGB3:Bytheendof2016,cattlebusinessplansfortheconservancieswillbefinalisedandfundsforinvestmentwillbesecured
Generalactivities ActionstoimplementinYear1(2016)
Responsibleperson/otherstakeholdersinvolved
SGB3.1Developcattlebusinessplansfortheconservancies
Buildingontheworkundertakenduring2015,asuitablespecialisthiredasrequiredtofinalisebusinessplansforoneordifferentscenariosacrosstheMara
Approvebusinessplanforimplementationacrossatleast2conservancies
MMWCAw/keypartners&individualconservancies
SGB3.2Raiseinvestmentfundsforthecattlebusinessplans
Onthebackofthebusinessplans,developsuitableinvestmentproposals
Identifyandsubmitproposalstosuitabledonors
Securesuccessfulfunds
MMWCAw/keypartners&individualconservancies
SGB3.3Implementbusinessplanmodelthroughinvestmentfunds
Startimplementationoftheadoptedbusinessplan
TBD
ObjectiveSGB4:ByDecember2020,majorityofhouseholdskeepsustainablelivestocknumbersrelativetoavailablegazingrange
Generalactivities ActionstoimplementinYear1(2016)
Responsibleperson/otherstakeholdersinvolved
SGB4.1Gainagreements Achievein1-2conservancies MMWCAw/
49
frombothconservancyandnon-conservancylandownerstokeepsustainablelivestocknumbersbasedoncarryingcapacityandimprovedbreedsw/higherROI
individualconservancies
SGB4.2Rolloutoutreachcommunicationscampaignforsustainablenumbers
Developcommunications’campaignstrategyandstartrollout
MMWCAw/keypartners
SGB4.3PutNarokCountyGovernmentpolicyandlegislativeframeworkinplacetosupportsustainablepractices
Identifyexistingrelevantpolicyandlegislativeframework
MWMCA
50
5.3. PreservingtheMaasaiCulture
5.3.1. TheoryofChange
IftheMaasaicommunityremainsproudoftheirculturalpillars,therespectfulrelationshipwiththeirnaturalenvironmentisrevitalised;
Andif,compatiblerural/urbanplanningisimplementedacrossthegreaterMaralandscape;
Andif,communallanduseandsustainablelivestockraisingarepromoted;
ThentheMaasaiCulturewillbepreservedanditsrelationwithwildlifeandenvironmentwillagainbeharmonious
5.3.2. Objectives,generalactivitiesandactiontoimplementinthefirstyear
ObjectivePMC1:ByDecember2016,theprincipleMaasaiculturalpillarsaredefinedandtheMara-wideculturalpridecampaignisunderway
Generalactivities ActionstoimplementinYear1(2016)
Responsibleperson/otherstakeholdersinvolved
PMC1.1IdentifyandclearlydefinetheprincipleculturalpillarsoftheMaasaipeopleandtheirrelationwiththeenvironment
Identifykeystakeholderstoparticipateinthisprocess(elders,communityleaders,anthropologists,etc.)
Designtheprocess(Interviews,workshops,validationmeetings)todefinepillarsanddisseminatetheresults
Createabaselineandactionplanonculturalawarenessandpride,withindicatorstomeasuresuccess
Iniciateamobileculturalpridecampaignteam,thatrotatesindifferentcommunities(e.g.betweenweeklymarketsandcommunitygatherings)withaninnovative«story-telling»approachofre-inforcingpositiveculturalpillars
MMWCA
PMC1.2DesignandimplementaCulturalPrideCampaign
Identifykeylocalandexternalpartners(localgovernment,educationinstitutions,RARE)
Designconceptofthecampaign Developactionplan,includingrequired
resourcesandkeyplayers Getsupportofnationalandcounty
governmentandinstitutions Linkbehaviourchangestoconservation
outcomesontheground(i.e.fencing,grazing,etc.)
MMWCA
PMC1.3CreateaMaasaiCulturalInterpretationCentreandrelatedwebsite
DesignconceptoftheCentre&website MMWCA
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ObjectivePMC2:ByDecember2017,developandgazetterural/urbanplanningguidelinesthatintegrateculturalaspectsandimplementwithin3kmborderoftheMMNRandconservanciesareas(SharedwithObjectiveLUP2,fromLandUsePlanningStrategy)
Generalactivities ActionstoimplementinYear1(2016)
Responsibleperson/otherstakeholdersinvolved
LUP2.1/PMC2.1Developrural/urbanplanningguidelines
Rural/urbanplanningguidelinesdeveloped Awarenessandlobbyingforrural/urban
planningguidelineswithin3kmofReserveandconservancies
TBD
LUP2.2/PMC2.2Implementrural/urbanplanningguidelines
Assistcountygovernmentindevelopingrural/urbanplanningframeworkfor3kmoutsideofMMNRandconservancyboundaries
TBD
ObjectivePMC3:ByDecember2018,landsalesforincompatiblelandusesareminimisedinsideandoutsideofConservancies,andbyDecember2019theareaunderfencingisminimisedthroughmaximisingcommunallanduseandmanagement(SharedwiththeObjectiveLUP5,LandUsePlanningStrategy)
Generalactivities ActionstoimplementinYear1(2016)
Responsibleperson/otherstakeholdersinvolved
LUP5.1/PMC3.1Undertakelandusevaluationstudy
Initiateandundertakevaluationstudy Outreachcommunicationstodisseminate
resultsofstudy Agreementacrossthemultipleagents,about
theoptimal,sub-optimalandworselanduses
Disincentivesagainstfencingandotherincompatiblelandusesdeveloped
MMWCAw/AWFandMMU(w/internationaluniversity)
LUP5.2/PMC3.2Buildonthe2015fencingresearch,mapandevaluatelanduseacrosstheregion
MapthelandusesoftheMaraecosystem,buildingontheworkdonetodateforKoyaiki(Totalarea,numberofplots)
MMWCAw/keypartners,e.g.,OOMT
LUP5.3/PMC3.3EstablishConservationAreasacrossbroaderareaaspertheagreedCNR-CAPgeographicalzone
CNR-CAPgeographicalzoningplanfinalised(asabove)
MMWAw/keypartners
LUP5.4/PMC5.4RegulatelandsalesacrosstheMaraconservanciesandneighbouringareas
AnacrosstheMaraconservancieslandadministrationprocessestablished
Afundsetup(asperpointLUP2.2)throughwhichtokeep/buylandintheConservancies,establishedthroughUSAIDfunds
RaisematchedUSAIDfundsforpurchaseofland
MMWCA
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ObjectivePMC4:ByDecember2020,positivechangesregardingculturalawarenessandpride,andarereported
Generalactivities ActionstoimplementinYear1(2016)
Responsibleperson/otherstakeholdersinvolved
PCM4.1Annuallytrackmonitoringindicators
Endofyearmonitoring TBD
PCM4.2Linkbehaviourchangestoconservationoutcomesontheground(i.e.fencing,grazing,etc.)
Incorporateindicatorsintoannualmonitoring
TBD
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5.4. HarmoniousCoexistenceofPeopleandNature
5.4.1. TheoryofChange
IfweimproveourunderstandingoftheMara’swildlifepopulationdynamicsanddistributionpatterns,itsroleintheGME,theexternalfactorsthatimpactit,anditsinfluencesinthesurroundinghumanpopulation;
AndIfweunderstandtheMara’shumanpopulationdynamicsanditsimpactsoncurrentandfuturelivelihoods,engagingcommunitiestoacceptandpracticepopulationcontrol;
Andif,weempowercommunityrangersandenhanceappreciationofwildlifebycommunities;
Andif,weembracegoodnaturalresourcemanagementandsustainableuseforcharcoalproduction,forestcover,surfacewaterandsoils
Andif,wehaveabetterunderstandingofclimatechangeimpactsinordertoundertakeadaptationandmitigationmeasures
ThenwewillmaintainstablewildlifepopulationsanddistributionacrosstheGreaterMaasaiMaraecosystem,andwewillreducethehumanfootprintontheenvironmentandwildlife,creatingaharmoniousco-existenceofpeopleandnature,forthebenefitofwildlife,communityandlivelihoods.
5.4.2. Objectives,generalactivitiesandactiontoimplementinthefirstyear
ObjectiveHPN1:ByDecember2017,thenumberoffamiliespracticingfamilyplanninghasdoubledcomparedtotheearly2016baselineandbyDecember2020populationgrowthrateacrosstheMarahasstabilisedtothenationalaverageof2%
Generalactivities ActionstoimplementinYear1(2016)
Responsibleperson/otherstakeholdersinvolved
HPN1.1Collectandanalysepopulationdatatodeterminewayforward,buildingontheexistinganalysisforthecentralKoyiakiregion
ReplicateexistingstudytoeasternandwesternsectionsoftheMararegion
Identifycausesandmeansofstoppinghighpopulationgrowthrate
Starttoputintoactionidentifiedwaysforward
MMWCAw/OOMT
HPN1.2Developandimplementafamilyplanningprogramme
Engagefamilyplanningspecialistsanddevelopanactionplan
Engageandsensitisecommunities Distributefamilyplanningmethods
TBDw/healthauthorities,localclinics&hospitals
ObjectiveHPN2:ByDecember2018,thenumberofillegalactsconcerningwildlifeisreducedby60%comparedtotheearly2016baseline
Generalactivities ActionstoimplementinYear1(2016)
Responsibleperson/otherstakeholdersinvolved
HPN2.1Ensuretheenforcementoflawsandregulationbyappropriateauthorities
Engagelawenforcementagencies Continuedoutreachtrainingandinformation
ontherelevantlawsandregulations
TBD
HPN2.2Buildthecapacityofcommunitiesandcommunityrangerstomanageandsecurewildlife
TrainandequipexistingcommunityrangersthroughUS-INLfunds
Sensitisecommunitymemberstotheimportanceoftheworkbythescouts
Undertakeexchangeswithotherareasfacing
TBD
54
similarchallengestoplanandworkjointly,andtobemoreeffectiveandsuccessfulontheground
HPN2.3Putinplacecompensationandinsurancewithchecksandbalances
AssessexistingschemesacrosstheMara(andconservanciesinKenya)toidentifyrecommendationsonthebestwayforward
Investigateinsuranceoptionsinthemarketplace
TBD
HPN2.4Revitaliseandinsomecasesdeveloptheappreciationofwildlifebycommunities
Developoutreachcommunicationscampaignandstartroll-out
MMWCA
ObjectiveHPN3:ByDecember2018,reducedependencyoncharcoalby40%andencouragetheuseofalternativeenergysources(climatemitigationandadaptation)
Generalactivities ActionstoimplementinYear1(2016)
Responsibleperson/otherstakeholdersinvolved
HPN3.1ImplementsustainablecharcoalproductionandenergyprojectsinatleastfoursitesinNyakweriandLemekfordemonstrationpurposes
Showcaseefficientcharcoalproductiontechniquesandalternativeenergyintwosites(oneineachlocation)
UndertakeexposuretourforopinionleadersofeachcommunitytoKakuziSosambuanddeveloprecommendationsonwayforward
TBD
HPN3.2CreatecharcoalassociationsinNyakweriandLemek
Mobiliseopinionleadersineachcommunityaroundthecreationofanassociation
RegistertheAssociation
TBD
HPN3.3Makeavailablesubsidisedalternativecookingmethodsandmaterials
Establishmicro-business(es)withfocusonalternativeenergy
Doexposuretoursforentrepreneurialindividualstorelevantstudysites
TBD
3.4UndertakeanoutreachHPNcampaigntospreadtheuseofalternativeenergysources
Developoutreachcampaignandstarttorollout
TBD
ObjectiveHPN4:By2020,forestsnetlossinareaandvolumeisreducedby60%comparedto2015baseline(climatemitigationandadaptation)
Generalactivities ActionstoimplementinYear1(2016)
Responsibleperson/otherstakeholdersinvolved
HPN4.1Ensuretheenforcementoflawsandregulationbyappropriateauthoritiesinforestprotection
Engagelawenforcementagencies Outreachtrainingandinformationonthe
relevantlawsandregulations
TBD
55
HPN4.2Establishcommunityforestassociation
BringKFStoinitiateCFAformation,incorporatinglearningfromsuccessfulCFAsacrossKenya
UndertakebasictrainingfortheCFAtoenableitsfunctioning
TBD
HPN4.3Promoteuseofalternative/sustainableconstructionmaterialsinfuturestructures
Identifyalternativebuildingmaterials Exploresubsidiesforalternativematerialsto
encourageuse
TBD
HPN4.4Developacarboncreditbushlandsandforestsprogramme(seeFIS5below)
ResearchthepotentialoftheMaralandscape(inparticularthisforestedarea)forestablishingacarboncreditprogram,buildingonworkundertakentodate
TBD
HPN4.5Establishnaturebasedenterprisesacrossconservancies
Identifysuitablenaturebasedenterprises Producebusinessplansinorderofpriority
andlinktonationalfundsandmicro-financeinstitutions
TBD
ObjectiveHPN5:ByDecember2018,specificmeasuresareinplacetomaintainyearroundflowofsurfacewater(climatemitigationandadaptation)
Generalactivities ActionstoimplementinYear1(2016)
Responsibleperson/otherstakeholdersinvolved
HPN5.1Developawaterallocationplanandimplementation
LinkwithLakeVictoriaBasinCommissionandChrisDutton,WRWA
Mapwaterprojects,involvedentitiesandtheirrolesandactivitiesacrosstheMaraecosystem
Developanactionplanthataimstomaintainyearroundflowofsurfacewater
MaMaSe-WWF
HPN5.2Undertakeactionstoconservesoilcover
Developanactionplanthataimstoprotectandsustainstrongandfertilesoilcover
MaMaSe–WWF
ObjectiveHPN6:By2018,understandandhaveinplacemeasurestoadaptor/andmitigateclimatechangeimpactsacrossthegreaterMaraecosystem
Generalactivities ActionstoimplementinYear1(2016)
Responsibleperson/otherstakeholdersinvolved
HPN6.1DevelopandimplementaresearchprogramontheimpactsofclimatechangeacrossthegreaterMaraecosystem
IdentifyexistingrelevantresearchforeastAfricaandinparticularMara-Serengetiecosystemtounderstandclimatechangeimpacts
Developanadaptationandmitigationprogrammebaseduponexistingandfutureimpactsofclimatechange,informedbytheCNR-CAP
MMWCAw/partners
HPN6.2ImplementclimaterelatedcomponentsoftheCNR-CAP
Implementclimaterelatedcomponents(notedabove)withintheCNR-CAP,e.g.,land-useplanning,naturalresourcemanagement:forests,woodandwater
MMWCAw/partners
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ObjectiveHPN7:ByDecember2018,adatabankandresearchfacilityisoperationalforthegreaterMaasaiMara’swildlifepopulationdynamics,distributionpatternsandimpacts
Generalactivities ActionstoimplementinYear1(2016)
Responsibleperson/otherstakeholdersinvolved
HPN7.1Collateexistingwildlifepopulationdatatogetheranddesignawayforward,buildingonexistingdatapracticesandproposedmodels
ReviewtheexistinginformationdatabaseandtheAppliedResearch&InformaticsProgrammeproposaltoassessprogresstodate
Designawayforwardthatintegratesallexistingresearch,plustheMMNRandKWSrelatedinitiatives
Fullprogramfundsrequired
HPN7.2Establishregularecologicalandwildlifemonitoring(includingindicatorspecies)acrossMaraconservancies
Identifythemostsuitablemonitoringmethodologyfortheconservationtargetsandthreats(existingandpotential)intheMaraconservancies
ImplementthemethodologyacrossinterestedMaraconservancies
Establishacentraldepositoryforthedatafromtheconservancies
MMWCAw/conservanciesandotherexpertparties
HPN7.3Establishavirtualresearchfacility
Seeksfundstoestablishanonlineresearchfacility
MMWCA,w/relevantinitiatives
ObjectiveHPN8:By2018,suitablenationalandcountypoliciesthatenablerequiredwildlifeinterventionstomanagepopulationdynamicsacrossthegreaterMaasaiMaraareinplace
Generalactivities ActionstoimplementinYear1(2016)
Responsibleperson/otherstakeholdersinvolved
HPN8.1Identifyrequiredwildlifemanagementinterventionsaswellasexistinglegislationandpoliciesandthecompatibilitybetweenthetwo
Identifyrequiredpotentialinterventions Assessexistinglegislationandpolicies Assesscompatibilityandgapsbetweenthe
two
KWCAandMMWCA
HPN8.2.Workatnationalandcountylevelstoenableapolicyorlegalframeworktoimplementrequiredmanagementinterventions
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5.5. FinancialSustainability
5.5.1. Theoryofchange
Ifconservanciesmaximiserevenuestreamsthrough;livestockenterprise,philanthropicsupport,carboncreditsandotherpotentialsources;
Andif,conservanciesstreamlineoperationalcosts,whileinvestmentsaremadetoengenderlandscapeconservancymanagementandimprovedoperations;
Andif,benefitsfromconservanciesareoptimalandequitableforlandownersandtheirfamilies,withlandleasepaymentsatauniformandagreedratethatiscompetitivewithotherlanduses,plusotherdirectandindirectbenefits,likenature-basedincome-generatingenterprisesforcommunities;
Andif,conservanciesgainincreasedsupportfromcountygovernment,particularlyinfinancialtermsandlegislativeframework;
Andif,theconservanciestourismsectordevelopsaMara-wideconservanciestourismstrategytoelevatetheconservanciesproduct,whilemaximisingtourismincomeandmaintainingsolidconservationpractice
Thenthelong-termstabilityofconservancieswillbesecuredtherebysustaininglandunderconservation
5.5.2. Objectives,generalactivitiesandactiontoimplementinthefirstyear
ObjectiveFIS1:ByDecember2016,livestockenterprise(s)areestablishedwiththepurposeofraisingincomefortheConservanciesinthemedium-term
Generalactivities ActionstoimplementinYear1(2016)
Responsibleperson/otherstakeholdersinvolved
FIS1.1Establishlivestockenterpriseandrelatedprojects
Individualor/andacrossconservanciescattleenterprisemodeldevelopedandagreed,withallkeystakeholders
Raiseinvestmentfundsforcattleenterprise Determinewayforwardforshoat
enterprises(ifany)
MMWCAw/conservancies
ObjectiveFIS2:ByDecember2018,thepotentialoftheMaraEcosystemforests,bushlandsandgrasslandswillbeassessedinordertodevelopinitiativesbasedoncarboncredits
Generalactivities ActionstoimplementinYear1(2016)
Responsibleperson/otherstakeholdersinvolved
FIS2.1AssessthepotentialoftheMaralandscapeforestablishingcarbon-basedprojects,includingbutnotlimitedtoREDD+
Undertakepre-investmentresearch:valueofforests,bushlandsandgrasslandsforcarbonsequestration
Raisefundsforthispre-investmentresearchorfindalternativesystem
MMWCAw/partners
FIS2.2Establishpartnershipstodevelopatleastonecarbonbasedinitiative
Identifyandcontactkeypotentialpartners Undertakepre-investmentphases Advocateforinitiative DevelopMoUforacarbonbasedinitiative
fortheMara
MMWCAw/partners
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ObjectiveFIS3:ByDecember2016,achievefinancialsupportfromphilanthropicfundingsourcesforbothindividualconservanciesandcross-conservanciesinitiatives,e.g.,costsofconservancymanagement
Generalactivities ActionstoimplementinYear1(2016)
Responsibleperson/otherstakeholdersinvolved
FIS3.1Securefundingandothernon-financialsupportfromphilanthropicsourcesandalliances
Sourcepotentialfundersandsubmitapplicationsforsupport
Developfundraisingcommunicationscampaignandstartroll-out
Holdmeetingsandeventsasrequiredtoconfirmfundingsources
MMWCAw/CommunicationsandFundraiserOfficer
ObjectiveFIS4:Bymid-2017,allconservancieshavestreamlinedtheiroperationalcostswithinvestmentsmadetoengenderlandscapeconservancymanagementandimprovedoperations
Generalactivities ActionstoimplementinYear1(2016)
Responsibleperson/otherstakeholdersinvolved
FIS4.1AnalysecurrentcostsandpotentialeconomiesofscaleacrosstheMaraConservancies
Analysisofexistingcosts Analysisofpotentiallysharedcostsacross
conservancies Identificationofotheropportunitiesfor
economiesofscale
MMWCAw/AWF
FIS4.2Realiseeconomiesofscaleandotherefficiencies
Developandpresentmodel Validateandagreeonmodelfor
implementation
MMWCAw/AWF
FIS4.3Investintoconservancies
IdentifyinvestmentneedsofMaraconservanciesanddevelopproposalsforinvestmentoffunds
MMWCAw/AWF
ObjectiveFIS5:ByDecember2018,benefitsfromconservanciesareoptimalandequitableforlandownersandtheirfamilies(SharedwithObjectiveLUP3fromLandUsePlanningStrategy)
Generalactivities ActionstoimplementinYear1(2016)
Responsibleperson/otherstakeholdersinvolved
FIS5.1/LUP3.1IdentifytheMaraequitableandoptimalbenefitmodel
Buildonworktodate,undertakenbyAWF EngageacrossMarastakeholdersand
undertakeprocesstogainagreementonthekeypointsofamaximisedbenefitmodel
MMWCA&AWF
FIS5.2/LUP3.2Establishoptimalandequitablebenefits
Compareexistingbenefitswiththeoptimalmodel–developanactionplanforthewayforward
MMWCA&AWF
FIS5.3/LUP3.3Progressconservationsensitiveincome-generatingbusinesses
Identifyviablebusinessinitiatives Developbusinessandactionplansforpriority
initiatives
MMWCAw/AWFandotherkeyMarastakeholders
FIS5.4/LUP3.4Implementconservancies’benefit
Developformalcampaignforroll-out,buildingonworktodate
Rolloutcampaign
MMWCA-Communications
59
communicationcampaign OOMT
ObjectiveFIS6:ByDecember2017,achievecountyor/andnationalgovernmentfinancialsupportandlegislativeframeworkforconservancies
Generalactivities ActionstoimplementinYear1(2016)
Responsibleperson/otherstakeholdersinvolved
FIS6.1AdvocatetoauthoritiestoagreetheirfinancialsupportandlegislativeframeworkfortheMaraconservancies
Developcommunicationscampaignandstartroll-out
PublicallypresentCAPandgaininprincipalagreementsforframework
LearnlessonsfromNRTonachievingfinancialsupport
WorkwithKWCAtoidentifylegislativeframeworkwayforward
MMWCAw/individualconservancies
ObjectiveFIS7:By2020,theconservanciesareimplementingaMara-wideconservanciestourismstrategytomaximisetourismincomewhilemaintainingsolidconservationpractice
Generalactivities ActionstoimplementinYear1(2016)
Responsibleperson/otherstakeholdersinvolved
FIS7.1Determineandfacilitateoptimalbeddensityrange
Identifycurrentbeddensities Identifycriteriaonwhichoptimalbed
densitiesaredetermined Determineoptimalbeddensityrangeacross
theMaraconservancies
MMWCAw/AWFandtheindividualconservancies
FIS7.2DevelopandimplementaMara-wideconservanciestourismstrategy
DeveloptheframeworkforaMara-wideconservanciestourismstrategy,emphasisingconservancy-wideoperationalstandardsandastrongdestinationmarketingcomponent
MMWCAw/AWF
FIS7.3Increaserevenuesfromtourismbystrengtheningthedestination’simageinkeymarkets,growingdirectmarketingchannelsandaddressingpotentialover-relianceonthird-partyagents
Developactionplanonhowtodothis TBD
60
5.6. Risksandpotentialnegativeimpactsassessment
Theplanningprocessincludedariskandpotentialnegativeimpactassessmentexercise,carriedoutwiththeaimofidentifyingandproposingpreventionandmitigationmeasurestobedirectlyincludedinthestrategydesign.Althoughthisshouldbeanimportantcomponentofsoundplanning,riskandnegativeimpactassessmentseldomisincludedinthestrategymakingprocess.Thisassessmentwasmadethoughtheresultchainanalysis,usingthemethodologySBIA(Maldonado,Panfil&Richards,2010).Theresultsareshownintable4.
Table4:Risksandnegativeimpacts
Resultwhereriskorpotentialnegativeimpactwasfound
Riskorpotentialnegativeimpact
Strategy
affected
Po
ssibility
Mag
nitude
Proposedpreventionormitigationmeasures
Waypreventionormitigationwas
includedintheCNR-CAP
Tourismincome Tourismincomenotreachingcommunities(Negativeimpact)
All L H Transparencyagents,audits,accountabilityVariableportionoflicensefees
Transparencyneedstobepartofperiodicreportingbackoftheplan'sprogress
Incomefromgrazingaccess
Poorincomeformgrazing/livestockpractices(Negativeimpact)
All/SGB
H M Rangelandqualitymanagement
AccesstomarketsandvaluechainsincludedinSGBstrategy
Improvedfinancialsustainability
Lackofpublicfunds(Risk)
FIS H M Countygovernmentengagement
Countygovernmentengagementincludedinseveralstrategies(LUP,SGB,FIS)
Settlementplan Lackofpoliticalsupport(Risk)
LUP M M Politicalgoodwill Sameabove
Sustainablelivestockindustry
Overstockingtoexploitthemarket(Negativeimpact)
SGB H H Spatialplanning Specificstrategyonthesubject
Increasedlivestockinfrastructureandfencing(Negativeimpact
SGB M H Cappinggrazingaccess
Grazingplanning(includedinSGB)
CNR-CAPimplementation
Inadequate/insufficientfunding(Risk)
All H H Investmentmodels Specificfundingstrategy
Landunderconservationincrease
Degradationofunconservedareas(Negativeimpact)
LUP H H Strengtheninglivestockassociations
LivestockassociationsincludedinSGB
CountySpatialPlan DelayedSpatialPlanning(Risk)
LUP H H PushCAPtobeincorporated
EngagecountygovernmentconsideredinLUP
Enforcementoflawandregulation
Weakenforcementofregulation(Risk)
HPN H H Lobbyinglawenforcementagencies
ConsideredinLUP
Familyplanning Oppositionfromculturalandreligiousgrounds(Risk)
HPN M H Trainingsandcampaigns
ConsideredinHPN
61
6. MonitoringPlan
Objective Indicator(s) TypeDoesitexistdata?
MethodWhois
responsible?Whereto
collectdata? FrequencyEstimated
cost
ObjectiveLUP1:Bymid-2016,theCNR-CAPfortheMaasaiMaraconservancieshasbeenapproved;itsimplementationhasstartedandisinformingplanningprocessesatconservancy,GreaterMaraEcosystemandNarokCountylevels.
CNR-CAPvalidatedbykeystakeholdersandMMWCAboard
OP Yes CNR-CAP,Y1workplanandzoningproposalapproval
MMWCA MMWCA December2015
N
Updatedmanagementplansforconservanciesimplemented
OC Yes(partialplan)
UpdatedplanspresentedtoMMWCA
Conservancymanagers
Conservancies 2016and2017(fornewplans)
L
Workplansbasedonmanagementplans
Conservancymanagers
Conservancies Annually L
GMEplanconsideringCNCAPzoningproposalfinalised
OC No Gazettepublication MMWCA,KWS,otherconservationorganisations
NarokCounty Whengazetted,beforeendof2018
L
NarokCountySpatialplanconsideringCNR-CAPzoningproposalfinalised
OC No Gazettepublication MMWCAandNarokCounty
NarokCounty Whengazetted,beforeendof2018
L
ObjectiveLUP2(PMC2):ByDecember2017,developandgazetterural/urbanplanningguidelinesthatintegrateculturalaspectsandimplementwithin3kmborderoftheMMNRandconservanciesareas
Guidelinesgazetted
OP No Gazettepublication TBD NarokCounty End2017 L
Areacoveredbysatisfactoryguidelineimplementation
OC No Fieldcheck TBD Field(3kmaroundMMNRandconservancyareas)
Annually,startingin2018
M
ObjectiveLUP3(FIS5):ByDecember2018,benefitsfromconservanciesareoptimaland
Incomerealisedbyhousehold
IM No,baselineTBD
Survey MaraTrust Field(fullscope) Annually M
62
Objective Indicator(s) TypeDoesitexistdata?
Method Whoisresponsible?
Wheretocollectdata? Frequency Estimated
cost
equitableforlandownersandtheirfamilies,includingincome-generatingenterprisesforcommunities
Sourceofincome
IM No,baselineTBD
Survey MaraTrust Field(fullscope) Bi-annually M
NumberofhouseholdsandpeopledirectlybenefitingofIGB
IM No Survey MMWCA Field(Fullscope) Annually M>H
Peoplereachedbycampaign
OC No Survey(andothers) MMWCA(comms.)
Field(Fullscope) 2*year M>H
ObjectiveLUP4:ByDecember2017,90%oflandleasesareregisteredaslandunderconservation,acrossalloperationalconservanciesandcomplianceisenforced.
Percentageoflandleasesregistered
OC Yes Datacollection MMWCA Fullscope Annually H
Numberofleasebreaches
OC Yes Datacollection MMWCA Fullscope Annually VH
ObjectiveLUP5(PMC3):ByDecember2018,landsalesforincompatiblelandusesareminimisedinsideandoutsideofConservancies,andbyDecember2019theareaunderfencingisminimisedthroughmaximisingcommunallanduseandmanagement
Mapofoptimallandusesandvaluationstudycompleted
OC No FieldworkandGIS MMWCAw/AWFandMMU(w/internationaluniversity)
Fullscope Annually VH
Area(ha)soldforincompatibleusescomparableto2016baseline
IM Underway FieldworkandGIS TBD Fullscope Annually VH
Area(ha)undercommunallanduseandmanagement
IM Underway FieldworkandGIS TBD Fullscope Annually VH
Newarea(ha)underfencingcomparedto2015baseline
IM Underway FieldworkandGIS TBD Fullscope Annually VH
63
Objective Indicator(s) TypeDoesitexistdata?
Method Whoisresponsible?
Wheretocollectdata? Frequency Estimated
cost
Area(ha)werefencesareremovedcomparedto2015baseline
IM Underway FieldworkandGIS TBD Fullscope Annually VH
Totalfencedareacomparableto2015baseline
IM Underway FieldworkandGIS TBD Fullscope Annually VH
NewconservationareasacrosstheCNR-CAPscope
IM Yes Agreements,fieldwork,GIS MMWCA Fullscope Annually M>H
ObjectiveLUP6:ByDecember2018,theareasunderprotectionor/andsustainablelandusehaveincreasedby100%,fromtheexisting1,000km2(outsidetheReserve)to2,000km2(oftheproposed3,000km2fortheCNR-CAPgeographicscopearea)
Area(ha)underprotectionor/andsustainablelanduse
IM No FieldworkandGIS TBD Fullscope Annually VH
Numberofnewlandownersengagedinconservation
OC No Survey TBD Fullscope Annually M
ObjectiveSGB1:ByDecember2017,sustainablegrazingplansforconservanciesandcommunityareaswithsustainablestockingrates,aredevelopedandimplementationhasstarted
Numberofplansdevelopedandalreadyinimplementation
OC Yes Plancollectionandreview MMWCAw/keypartners,includingconservanciesandexistinglivestockplayers
Fullscope 2*year M
Area(ha)coveredbysustainablegrazingplans
OC Partial Planreview,GIS Sameabove Fullscope 2*year M
64
Objective Indicator(s) TypeDoesitexistdata?
Method Whoisresponsible?
Wheretocollectdata? Frequency Estimated
cost
Levelofcompliancetotheplans(i.e.optimallivestockdensityandguidelinesrespected)
OC No Planreview Sameabove Fullscope 2*year M
ObjectiveSGB2:ByDecember2017,increasereturnsfromcommunitycattlethroughbettermarketsandmarketpracticebytheMaasai,qualitybreedsandfatteningpractices,withinthecontextofconservationconditionality
Newmarketsaccessed
OC Yes Salesreportreview TBD Communitycattleassociations/Livestockenterprises
Quarterly M
Priceperkgandunit
OC Yes Salesreportreview MaraBeef Communitycattleassociations/Livestockenterprises
Quarterly M
Numberofcattlesoldviaconservancyenterprises
OC No Salesreportreview MaraBeef Communitycattleassociations/Livestockenterprises
Quarterly M
Incomeperhouseholdfromcommunitycattle
IM Yes Survey MMWCA Conservancies,communities
Annually H
Increaseofincomeperhouseholdbycommunitycattle
IM Yes Survey MMWCA Conservancies,communities
Annually H
65
Objective Indicator(s) TypeDoesitexistdata?
Method Whoisresponsible?
Wheretocollectdata? Frequency Estimated
cost
Revenueperconservancy(perha)
IM Yes Revenuereportreview Conservancies Conservancies Annually M
ObjectiveSGB3:Bytheendof2016,cattlebusinessplansfortheconservancieswillbefinalisedandfundsforinvestmentwillbesecured
Numberofconservanciesimplementingcattlebusinessplans
OC Yes Collect,reviewcattlebusinessplans
Conservancies,MMWCA
Conservancies End2016 L
ObjectiveSGB4:ByDecember2020,majorityofhouseholdskeepsustainablelivestocknumbersrelativetoavailablegazingrange
Numberofagreementsfrombothconservancyandnon-conservancylandownerstokeepsustainablelivestocknumbers
OP Yes Collectagreements Conservancies,MMWCA
Conservancies,communities
Annually M
Legislativeframeworkinplacetosupportsustainablepractices
OP Yes Gazettereview MMWCA/NarokCounty
Gazette Whengazetted
L
Percentageofhouseholdskeepingsustainablelivestocknumbers
OC No Survey MMWCA Communities Annually H
ObjectivePMC1:ByDecember2016,theprincipleMaasaiculturalpillarsaredefinedandtheMara-wide
Keyculturalpillarsidentifiedandvalidated
OP Partial Research MMWCAandothersTBD
Communities 2016 M
66
Objective Indicator(s) TypeDoesitexistdata?
Method Whoisresponsible?
Wheretocollectdata? Frequency Estimated
cost
culturalpridecampaignisunderway
Percentageofpeoplepracticing/awareofpillars
OP No Surveyandresearch MMWCAandothersTBD
Communities 2016andthenannually
M
Culturalcampaignproject
OC No Projectreview MMWCAandothersTBD
Communities 2017 L
Culturalcampaignworkplan,supportandfunds
OC No WorkplanreviewPartners’MoUsreviewBudgetreview
MMWCAandothersTBD
MMWCA 2017 L
Culturalcampaignevents
OC No Workplanreportreview MMWCAandothersTBD
Communities Annually L
Culturalinterpretationcentreandwebsitefunctioning
OC No Sitevisit,activityreportcheck,visitreports
MMWCAandothersTBD
CulturalinterpretationcentreCommunities
Bi-monthly L
ObjectivePMC2:(SeeLUP2) ObjectivePMC3:(SeeLUP5) ObjectivePMC4:ByDecember2020,positivechangesregardingculturalawarenessandpride,andarereported
Positivechangesonculturalpillarsreported
IM No Pre-test,post-testandfollowupsurveys
MMWCAandothersTBD
Communities Annually H
ObjectiveHPN1:ByDecember2017,thenumberoffamiliespracticingfamilyplanninghasdoubledcomparedtotheearly2016baselineandbyDecember2020populationgrowthrate
PopulationdynamicsknownforcentralKoyiaki,easternandwesternsregionsoftheMararegion
OP Partially(onlyKoyiaki)
Research TBDw/healthauthorities,localclinics&hospitals
EasternandwesternsregionsoftheMararegion
2017 H
67
Objective Indicator(s) TypeDoesitexistdata?
Method Whoisresponsible?
Wheretocollectdata? Frequency Estimated
cost
acrosstheMarahasstabilisedtothenationalaverageof2%
Numberofhouseholdsimplementingfamilyplanning
OC No ActivityreportsSurvey
TBDw/healthauthorities,localclinics&hospitals
EasternandwesternsregionsoftheMararegion
MonthlyAnnually
M>H
Communitiesandareacoveredbyfamilyplanning
OC No Survey TBDw/healthauthorities,localclinics&hospitals
EasternandwesternsregionsoftheMararegion
2*year M>H
Pregnancyspacingincrease
IM No Survey TBDw/healthauthorities,localclinics&hospitals
EasternandwesternsregionsoftheMararegion
Annually M>H
ObjectiveHPN2:ByDecember2018,thenumberofillegalactsconcerningwildlifeisreducedby60%comparedtotheearly2016baseline
Numberofactivecommunityrangersperconservancyorconservationarea
OC Yes Rangerrosterreview TBD Communities,conservancies
2*year L
Numberofillegalactsreported
IM Yes Rangerreports TBD Communities,conservancies
Monthly L
Amountpaidincompensation
OC Reports TBD CWCCC,MMWCA,othersTBD
2*year L
Levelofappreciationofwildlifebycommunitymembers
OC No Survey MMWCA Communities 2*year M
68
Objective Indicator(s) TypeDoesitexistdata?
Method Whoisresponsible?
Wheretocollectdata? Frequency Estimated
cost
ObjectiveHPN3:ByDecember2018,reducedependencyoncharcoalby40%andencouragetheuseofalternativeenergysources(climatemitigationandadaptation)
Numberoffunctioningcharcoalassociations
OC Partial Survey,desksurvey KFS,MMWCA Communities,NGOs
2*year M
Annualconsumptionofcharcoalperhousehold
OC No Survey KFS,MMWCA Communities(samplegroups)
2*year M
Numberoffamiliesusingalternativecookingmethodsandmaterials
OC No Survey KFS,MMWCA Communities(Samplegroups)
2*year N
ObjectiveHPN4:By2020,forestsnetlossinareaandvolumeisreducedby60%comparedto2015baseline(climatemitigationandadaptation)
Numberofcommunitieswithforestassociation
OP No Survey,desksurvey TBD Communities,ONGs,KFS
2*year H
Wooduseperhousehold(m3)
OC No Survey TBD Communities,ONGs,KFS
Annually H
Numberoffamiliesusingalternativematerials
OC Survey TBD Communities,ONGs,KFS
Annually H
Forestandwoodlandnetloss(haandm3)
IM No GISanalysis TBD Communities,ONGs,KFS
Annually H
69
Objective Indicator(s) TypeDoesitexistdata?
Method Whoisresponsible?
Wheretocollectdata? Frequency Estimated
cost
ObjectiveHPN5:ByDecember2018,specificmeasuresareinplacetomaintainyearroundflowofsurfacewater(climatemitigationandadaptation)
Mapwaterprojects,involvedentitiesandtheirrolesandactivitiesacrosstheMaraecosystem
OP Yes Desksurvey MMWCAMaMaSe-WWF
ONGs Early2016 L
ActionplantomaintainyearroundflowofsurfacewaterincorporatedtoCNR-CAP
OP No CNR-CAPwithactionplanincorporated
MMWCAMaMaSe-WWF
CNR-CAPupdatedversion
2018 L
ActionplanthataimstoprotectandsustainstrongandfertilesoilcoverincorporatedtoCNR-CAP
OP CNR-CAPwithactionplanincorporated
MMWCAMaMaSe-WWF
CNR-CAPupdatedversion
2018 L
ObjectiveHPN6:By2018,understandandhaveinplacemeasurestoadaptor/andmitigateclimatechangeimpactsacrossthegreaterMaraecosystem
ActualimpactsofclimatechangeacrosstheGMEareknownanddocumented
OP Yes ImpactsofclimatechangeintheGMEreport
MMWCAandpartners
CNR-CAPupdatedversion
Once,endof2016
L
SpecificmitigationandadaptationplanisdevelopedandaddedtoCNR-
OP CNR-CAPwithactionmitigationandadaptationplanincorporated
MMWCAandpartners
CNR-CAPupdatedversion
Once,endof2017
L
70
Objective Indicator(s) TypeDoesitexistdata?
Method Whoisresponsible?
Wheretocollectdata? Frequency Estimated
cost
CAPObjectiveHPN7:ByDecember2018,adatabankandresearchfacilityisoperationalforthegreaterMaasaiMara’swildlifepopulationdynamics,distributionpatternsandimpacts
Biologicalmonitoringplaninplaceforeachoneofthebiologicalconservationtargets
OC Partial Monitoringreportsreview MMWCA MMWCA Annually M
NumberofusersofvirtualresearchfacilityfortheMM
OC No Usercounting MMWCA MMWCA Quarterly L
ObjectiveHPN8:By2018,suitablenationalandcountypoliciesthatenablerequiredwildlifeinterventionstomanagepopulationdynamicsacrossthegreaterMaasaiMaraareinplace
Numberofwildlifemanagementinitiativesaccompaniedbyanenablingpolicy
OC No Wildlifemanagementinterventionreports
MMWCA MMWCA Annually M
ObjectiveFIS1:ByDecember2016,livestockenterprise(s)areestablishedwiththepurposeofraisingincomefortheConservanciesinthemedium-term
Numberoflivestockenterprisesestablished
OP Yes Desksurvey MMWCAandpartners
Conservancies,communities
2*year L
IncomeprovidedbylivestockenterprisestoConservancies
IM Yes Budgetandfinancialreportreviews
MMWCAw/CommunicationsandFundraiserOfficer
MMWCA,conservancies,Livestockenterprises
Annually L
PercentageofCNR-CAPcoveredbylivestockenterprises
IM Yes Budgetandfinancialreportreviews
MMWCAw/CommunicationsandFundraiserOfficer
MMWCA&conservancies
Annually L
71
Objective Indicator(s) TypeDoesitexistdata?
Method Whoisresponsible?
Wheretocollectdata? Frequency Estimated
cost
ObjectiveFIS2:ByDecember2018,thepotentialoftheMaraEcosystemforests,bushlandsandgrasslandswillbeassessedinordertodevelopinitiativesbasedoncarboncredits
PotentialofMaralandscapeforCO2assessed
OP No Reportapproval MMWCAandpartners
MMWCA End2016 L
Atleastonecarbonbasedinitiative
OC No Carbonbasedinitiativeapproval
MMWCAandpartners
MMWCA 2017 L
ObjectiveFIS3:ByDecember2016,achievefinancialsupportfromphilanthropicfundingsourcesforbothindividualconservanciesandcross-conservanciesinitiatives,e.g.,costsofconservancymanagement
Fundssecuredfromphilanthropicsources
OC Yes Budgetandfinancialreportreviews
MMWCAw/CommunicationsandFundraiserOfficer
MMWCA&conservancies
Annually L
PercentageofCNR-CAPcoveredbyphilanthropicsources
IM Yes Budgetandfinancialreportreviews
MMWCAw/CommunicationsandFundraiserOfficer
MMWCA&conservancies
Annually L
ObjectiveFIS4:Bymid-2017,allconservancieshavestreamlinedtheiroperationalcostswithinvestmentsmadetoengenderlandscapeconservancymanagementandimprovedoperations
Percentageofreductionofoperationalcosts
IM Yes Financialreportreview Conservancies,MMWCA
Conservancies 2*year L
ObjectiveFIS5:(SeeObjectiveLUP3)
ObjectiveFIS6:ByDecember2017,achievecountyor/andnationalgovernmentfinancialsupportandlegislativeframeworkforconservancies
Fundssecuredfrompublicsources
OC Yes Budgetandfinancialreportreviews
MMWCAw/CommunicationsandFundraiserOfficer
MMWCA&conservancies
Annually L
PercentageofCNR-CAPcoveredbypublicsources
IM Yes Budgetandfinancialreportreviews
MMWCAw/CommunicationsandFundraiserOfficer
MMWCA&conservancies
Annually L
72
Objective Indicator(s) TypeDoesitexistdata?
Method Whoisresponsible?
Wheretocollectdata? Frequency Estimated
cost
ObjectiveFIS7:By2020,theconservanciesareimplementingaMara-wideconservanciestourismstrategytomaximisetourismincomewhilemaintainingsolidconservationpractice
LevelofcompliancetotheoptimalbeddensityperConservancy
OC Partial On-siteassessment MMWCAandtourismpartners
Conservancies Annually M
Mara-wideconservanciestourismstrategycompletedandimplemented
OC No StrategyapprovalWorkplanapproval
MMWCA,AWFandtourismpartners
MMWCA 2017 L
Annuallevelofbedoccupancy
IM Yes Compilationofcampstatistics
MMWCA,AWFandtourismpartners
Conservancies Annually M
Incomegeneratedbytourismtoconservancymanagement
IM Yes MMWCA,AWFandtourismpartners
Conservancies Annually M
73
7. Zoningproposal
Inordertoachievetheobjectivesofthisplanandenhancethelong-termviabilityofconservationtargets,azoningproposalhasbeendevelopedencompassing6zones.Theirdefinition,objectivesandrelatedactivitiesaredetailedinthetable5.
Itisexpectedthattheproposeddefinitionofzonesandgeographicallocation,willbeground-truthedduringthefirstyearoftheCNR-CAPimplementation,inordertobegazettedandtoinformtheplanningprocessesatthelargerscale(namely,theGreaterEcosystemPlan,andtheNarokCountySpatialPlan).
Table5:ProposedDefinitionofZonesfortheCNR-CAP
Zonename Definition Activities/objectives Location
ßßLessprotectio
nM
oreprotectio
nàà
IntensiveProtectionZone
Criticalareasforwildlifeconservation
Managementofsensitive,endangered,endemicspeciesandcriticalhabitats
Research
EstablishedWildlifeRefuges
CoreConservationZone
Areasforconservationwheresomecompatiblehumanusescouldbeallowed(e.g.low-impacttourismfacilities)
Wildlifeconservation
Controlledhumanusewithinthecontextofamanagementplan
Conservancies
ConservationAreas
Corridors Areasdesignedforthefreemovementofwildlifeacrossthelandscape,particularlybetweentwoormorefragmentsofthehabitat
Ensuringfreemovementofwildlife
Managedhumanuseswithinthecontextofamanagementplan
Importantmigration/movementroutesinnon-protectedlands
CommunityConservationZone(“50%-50%”)
Importantareasforconservationwherehumansandwildlifecanco-exist
Reducetheimpactofhumanactivitiesonwildlifewhilesupportinglivelihoods
Humanusedareaswithmixed-usepotential(wildlifeconservationandlivelihoods)
Multiple-useZone
Areaswherehumanusesarepredominantbutpressureonecosystemsandspeciescanbereduced
Makingcurrentusescompatiblewithwildlifeandenvironmentalconservation
Intenseusedareas(e.g.areasneighbouringvillages)
IntensiveUseZones
Infrastructureareas,denselyinhabitedareas
Reducehuman-inducedimpacts
Implementinnovativeurbanplanning
Villages,roads
74
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Appendixes
Appendix1:ResultChainDiagrams
Appendix1.1:ResultChainDiagram,StrategyLandUsePlanningforaLong-TermFunctionalEcosystem
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Appendix1.2:ResultChainDiagrams,StrategySustainableGrazingandBeefProduction
83
Appendix1.3:ResultChainDiagrams,StrategyPreservingtheMaasaiCulture
84
Appendix1.4:ResultChainDiagrams,StrategyHarmoniousCoexistenceofPeopleandNature
85
Appendix1.5:ResultChainDiagrams,StrategyFinancialSustainability
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Appendix2:Listofparticipantsintheplanreviewworkshop
NameofOfficial Designation Institution EmailAddress
1 Amoke,Irene PKWTProjects KWT [email protected]
2 Anderson,Sean Chairman NaiboishoConservancy
3 Bashir,Munira CountryDirector TNC [email protected]
4 Beaton,Gerard Manager AsiliaAfrica/Naiboisho
5 Earnshaw,Allan CEO KWT [email protected]
6 Esau,Kenn TechincalAssistant
7 Gibbons,Helen CEO MMWCA [email protected]
8 Heath,Justin Manager SeiyaLtd [email protected]
9 Hernadez-Salazar,Daniel
Photographer TNC/MMWCA [email protected]
10 Hoffmeyer,William Manager OlarroConservancy [email protected]
11 Kaelo,Dickson CEO KWCA dkaeolo@kwcakenya
12 Kipees,Sylvester Member OWCT [email protected]
13 Kisemei,Julius Manager LemekConservancy
14 LeparanKisser,Musa Alternate MMWCA [email protected]
15 Lukume,Ben Manager ParadamatConservancy
16 Maldonado,Oscar Consultant TNC [email protected]
17 Matthews,Sean Manager OlarroConservancy [email protected]
18 Mautai,Dominic Member NaiboishoConservancy
19 Monson,Greg ManagingDirector
Kicheche [email protected]
20 Mopel,John Landowner MMWCA [email protected]
21 Mopel,Johnson Chairman MaasaiMoran
22 Muchiri,Francis Warden KWSNarok [email protected]
23 Muli,Daniel HeadCommunity
MMWCA [email protected]
24 Musyoki,Kioko GeneralManager
MaraSarova [email protected]
26 Mwangi,Evans ProjectManager PREPARED [email protected]
27 Ndetei,Robert HeadofSpecies WWF rndetei@wwfkenya
28 Nkoitoi,Francis ManagerMaraNorth
MaraNorthConservancy
29 Nkoitoi,Simon Manager OlKinyeiConservancy
30 Nkuyato,Emmanuel Naturalist MaraSarova [email protected]
31 Ntutu,Mustafa Manager OlChoroConservancy
32 Omondi,Collins CountyWarden KWS [email protected]
33 Pye,Richard Chair OlareMotorogiConservancy
34 Ripau,Maias Itern OOMT [email protected]
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35 Sengeny,John Chairman NaiboishoLandholdingCompany
36 Seno,Simon VCMMU MaasaiMaraUniversity
37 Shuuru,Benjamin Member NyakweriConservancy
38 Sipitiek,Johnson ChairCWCCC AfricaConservationCenter
39 Sopia,Daniel Chairman MMWCA [email protected]
40 Tambara,Edwin ConservationPlanner
41 Thompson,Stewart Researcher OxfordBrookesUniveristy