maasai mara conservancies cultural & natural …

MAASAIMARACONSERVANCIESCULTURAL&NATURALRESOURCE

CONSERVATIONACTIONPLAN

Photo:DanielHernández-Salazar©2015

OscarIvánMaldonado(ProcessFacilitatorandEditor),IreneAmoke,SeanAnderson,ChaniaFrost,HelenGibbons,DicksonKaelo,Daniel

Sopia,StewartThompson(Contributors)

November2015

2

MaasaiMaraConservanciesCulturalandNaturalResourceConservationActionPlanEditor:OscarIvánMaldonado,Consultant([email protected])

Withcontributionsfrom:IreneAmoke,SeanAnderson,ChaniaFrost,HelenGibbons,DicksonKaelo,DanielSopiaandStewartThompson

Cartography:IreneAmoke(CNR-CAPScopeArea)Othermaps:ElephantVoices&SaveTheElephants,andMMWCA

PlanningCoreTeam:HelenGibbons,MMWCAMuniraAnyonge,TNCAllanEarnshaw,MMWCADanielSopiaMMWCAEvansMwangiPREPAREDEdwinTambaraAWFRobertNdeteiWWFApolloKariukiKWSDicksonKaeloKWCAOscarMaldonadoIndependentConsultant

Coverphoto:WildebeestintheGreaterMara.DanielHernández-Salazar©2015/MMWCA

ThisConservationActionPlanwasmadepossiblewiththesupportof:TheNatureConservancy

3

a. Tableofcontents

a. Tableofcontents...................................................................................................................3

b. ListofDiagrams,Graphs,MapsandTables............................................................................5

c. ListofAppendixes..................................................................................................................5

d. Acronymsandabbreviationsusedinthisplan.......................................................................6

e. Foreword...............................................................................................................................7

f. Acknowledgements...............................................................................................................9

g. ExecutiveSummary.............................................................................................................10

1. Introduction........................................................................................................................12

1.1. Rationale.....................................................................................................................................12

1.2. Methodology..............................................................................................................................13

1.3. Theplanningprocess..................................................................................................................14

1.4. TheScopeofthePlan.................................................................................................................15

1.5. VisionforthePlan’sScope.........................................................................................................16

2. ConservationTargets...........................................................................................................17

2.1. ConservationTargetDescription................................................................................................17

2.1.1. Elephant(Loxodontaafricana)...................................................................................................17

2.1.2. Africanlion(Pantheraleo)..........................................................................................................19

2.1.3. Wildebeest(Connochaetestaurinus).........................................................................................21

2.1.4. Grasslands,ForestsandWoodlands...........................................................................................23

2.1.5. Water….......................................................................................................................................24

2.1.6. MaasaiCulture...........................................................................................................................24

2.1.7. WorldClassTourismDestination...............................................................................................25

2.2. ConservationTargetViabilityAnalysis.......................................................................................26

2.3. ResearchNeeds..........................................................................................................................29

3. DirectthreatstoConservationTargets.................................................................................29

3.1. Threatdescription......................................................................................................................29

3.1.1. Fencing.......................................................................................................................................29

3.1.2. Agriculture..................................................................................................................................30

3.1.3. Poaching.....................................................................................................................................30

3.1.4. HumanWildlifeConflict..............................................................................................................30

3.1.5. UnplannedSettlementsandUrbanisation.................................................................................31

3.1.6. Uncontrolled/UnsustainableGrazing.........................................................................................31

3.1.7. Charcoal(Logging/burning)........................................................................................................31

3.1.8. LossofMaasaiCulture................................................................................................................32

3.1.9. Infrastructure.............................................................................................................................32

3.1.10.Sandextractionandpollution....................................................................................................33

4

3.1.11.ClimateChangeeffectsasnewthreat........................................................................................33

3.2. Threatanalysisandrating..........................................................................................................34

3.3. TheContext:CausesandeffectsofThreatstoConservationTargets........................................38

4. Stakeholderanalysis............................................................................................................40

5. Theconservationstrategies.................................................................................................43

5.1. Strategy1:LandUsePlanningforaLong-TermFunctionalEcosystem.....................................43

5.1.1. Theoryofchange........................................................................................................................43

5.1.2. Objectives,generalactivitiesandactiontoimplementinthefirstyear....................................43

5.2. SustainableGrazingandBeefProduction..................................................................................47

5.2.1. TheoryfChange.........................................................................................................................47


5.3. PreservingtheMaasaiCulture...................................................................................................50

5.3.1. TheoryofChange.......................................................................................................................50


5.4. HarmoniousCoexistenceofPeopleandNature.........................................................................53

5.4.1. TheoryofChange.......................................................................................................................53


5.5. FinancialSustainability...............................................................................................................57

5.5.1. Theoryofchange........................................................................................................................57


5.6. Risksandpotentialnegativeimpactsassessment......................................................................60

6. MonitoringPlan...................................................................................................................61

7. Zoningproposal...................................................................................................................73

8. Bibliography........................................................................................................................74

5

b. Listofdiagrams,graphs,mapsandtables

Diagram1:ScopeAreaConceptualModel.......................................................................................................39Graph1:OpenStandardsProjectCycle(Source:CMP2007)............................................................................14Map1:CNR-CAPGeographicalScope..............................................................................................................16Map2:ElephantmortalitybycausesanddistributionofcarcassesintheMaraecosystemfrom2010to2014.19Map3:SerengetiandLoitaWildebeestMigrations.Source:MMWCA(2015)..................................................22Table1.a:Resultsoftheviabilityanalysisforbiologicaltargets.......................................................................27Table1.b:Resultsoftheviabilityanalysisforculturalandsocialtargets..........................................................28Table2:Threatrating…...................................................................................................................................35

Table3:StakeholderAnalysis..........................................................................................................................41Table4:Risksandnegativeimpacts.................................................................................................................60Table5:ProposedDefinitionofZonesfortheCNR-CAP...................................................................................73

c. Listofappendixes

Appendix1:ResultChainDiagrams.................................................................................................................81Appendix1.1:ResultChainDiagram,StrategyLandUsePlanningforaLong-TermFunctionalEcosystem........81Appendix1.2:ResultChainDiagrams,StrategySustainableGrazingandBeefProduction................................82Appendix1.3:ResultChainDiagrams,StrategyPreservingtheMaasaiCulture................................................83Appendix1.4:ResultChainDiagrams,StrategyHarmoniousCoexistenceofPeopleandNature......................84Appendix1.5:ResultChainDiagrams,StrategyFinancialSustainability...........................................................85Appendix2:Listofparticipantsintheplanreviewworkshop..........................................................................86

6

d. Acronymsandabbreviationsusedinthisplan

AWF:AfricaWildlifeFoundationCRS:CorporateSocialResponsibilityCWCCC:CountyWildlifeConservationandCompensationCommitteeGIS:GeographicalInformationSystemsGME:GreaterMaraEcosystemILRI:InternationalLivestockResearchInstituteIPCC:IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChangeIUCN:InternationalUnionforNatureKEA:KeyEcologicalAttributeKFS:KenyaForestServiceKenyaNationalBureauofStatisticsKWCA:KenyaWildlifeConservanciesAssociationKWS:KenyaWildlifeServiceKWT:KenyaWildlifeTrustMaMaSe:MauMaraSerengetiSustainableWaterInitiativeMEP:MaraElephantProjectMMNR:MasaiMaraNationalReserveMMWCA:MaasaiMaraWildlifeConservanciesAssociationMoU:MemorandumofUnderstandingNEMA:NationalEnvironmentalManagementAuthorityNGO:Non-GovernmentalOrganisationsOOMT:OlareOrokMotorogiTrustTBD:ToBeDetermined/DefinedTNC:TheNatureConservancyUNDP:UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgrammeWWF:WorldWideFundforNature

7

e. Foreword

TheMaasaiMaraEcosystem—hometothegreatestmammalmigrationinAfricaandtheworld-renownedMaasaitribe—isthejewelofthecrownforwildlifeconservationandsafaritourisminKenya.Hostingmorethan95speciesofmammalsandover550speciesofbirds,theMaracontainsapproximately25%ofKenya’stotalwildlife(Ogutuetal.2015).TheGreaterMaasaiMaraEcosystem,playinghosttothisabundanceofwildlifeiscomposedofthestateprotectedMaasaiMaraNationalReserve(MMNR)of1,510km2andadjacentcommunityandprivatelands—historicallytotallingapproximately6,000km2,formingthenorthernmostpartoftheSerengeti-Maraecosystem.Withthree-quartersoftheecosystemoutsideofthestateprotectedarea,ourvision—tosecurewildlifeandsustainablelivelihoodsforabetterfuture—willbewonorlostnotintheMMNRbutintheconservanciesandtheneighbouringareas—anestimatedareaof3,000km2.

TheMara’sconservancymovementformallystartedin2005andatthepresenttime,theprivateandcommunitylandsincludenineoperationalconservanciesatvariouslevelsofdevelopment,covering1,150km2andincreasingthetotalprotectedareacoveragefrom26%to43%oftheentireMaraEcosystem.Theseconservanciesaremainlyfinancedbythetourismsectorandgovernedbyjointstakeholderconservancyboards,composedoflandownersandtourismparties.Throughthepaymentofmonthlyleasesbythetourismparties(andaprivatebenefactorinoneconservancy)totheMaasailandowners,theconservanciessupportthelivelihoodsofapproximately3,000landowners,equivalenttoanestimated25,000people(aseachlandownerrepresentsafamilyofapproximately7.4people).Thereiscontinuedinterestinestablishingnewconservanciesacrosstheregion,withanothersixproposedorinformation.

Despitethisprogressoverthepastfewyearsinrestoringandprotectingcriticalsectionsoftheecosystem,therearenumerousexistingandrisingthreatsandchallenges.Inparticular,theunstabletourismclimatethatishighlysensitivetothenationalsecurityissuesfacingKenyaaswellasotherevents,suchastheoutbreakofEbolainwesternAfrica.Thissensitivityofthetourismsector,onwhichsomuchoftheMaraconservancies’modelrelies,createsaseriouschallengeofsustainability,exacerbatedbyotherchallengeslike:theabsenceofecosystemmanagementorplanning;lackofaMara-wideconservancygovernanceapproachandbenchmarks;aninsufficientnetworkofconservanciesandconservationareastoprotectthecriticalareasandintensecompetitionbetweenpeople,wildlife,livestockandtourismforthefinitespaceandnaturalresources.

TheMaasaiMaraWildlifeConservanciesAssociation,asthearea’sRegionalAssociation,legallyrecognizedwithintheWildlifeAct2013,hasthemandatefromitsMara-widemembershiptosourcefundsandimplementprogramsthatwillprovidetheleadershipandcoordinationacrosstheregion-toconservetheGreaterMaasaiMaraEcosystemthroughanetworkofprotectedareas(conservanciesandconservationareas),fortheprosperityofall.IncollaborationwithTheNatureConservancy(TNC)andmultipleMararelatedpartiesandstakeholders,MMWCAhasdevelopedthisCulturalandNaturalResourceConservationActionPlan(CNR-CAP),toaddressthesustainabilityandfutureoftheGreaterMaasaiMaraEcosystem(excludingtheMaasaiMaraNationalReserve).

TheaimofthisConservationActionPlan(CAP)istocreateaframeworkacrosstheGreaterMaasaiMaraEcosystemthat,ontheonehand,identifiesthekeytargetsandcriticalobjectivestobeachievedoverthenextyearsinordertosustainthemagnificenceandintegrityoftheregionand,ontheotherhand,proposessomeofthecorestrategiestobetakenforwardfromJanuary2016toenablerisksandthreatstobemitigatedandopportunitiestobeleveraged,withactualactivitiesspecifiedfortheimmediate12months.

ItisafarreachingCAP,incorporatingculturalandtourismstrategies,financialsustainabilityfortheconservancies,landuseplanning,thecoexistenceofwildlifeandpeople,aswellassustainablegrazing.Itunitesabreadthanddepthofknowledgeandresearch,intoaMara-wideplanningframework.Additionally,itprovidesamulti-levelapproachthatbuildsarobustandsustainableGreaterMaasaiMaracultureandnaturalresourceplanningframeworkthatwillguideandinformbothexistingandnewMarastakeholdersintheirdevelopmentpath.

Inconclusion,thisConservationActionPlanhasbeendevelopedthroughabottom-upandtop-downapproach;astakeholders’workshopintheMarainSeptember2015,complementingstrategicdiscussionsandthoughtleadershipamongstcriticalthinkersduringthecourseoftheyear.Through

8

thisintercourse,webelievewehaveidentifiedthecriticalinterventionsandstrategies,toachieveourvisionfortheGreaterMaasaiMara:Aculturallandscapewherecommunitiesandpartnerssecurewildlifeandsustainablelivelihoodsforabetterfuture.

9

f. Acknowledgements

TheMaasaiMaraWildlifeConservanciesAssociationwantstothankalltheparticipants(seeAppendix2forcompletelist)whoattendedtheConservationActionPlanning(CAP)workshopintheMaasaiMara,September2015,aswellastheindividualcontributorswhogavetheirtime,expertiseandknowledgeincreatingthisimportantplanningframeworkdocument.

TheMaraworkshopwasdynamic,interestingandeducationalandprovidedanopportunityforparticipantstobecomeversedinconceptualmodelsandtheopenstandardsapproachforconservationplanning.Allwereactivelyinvolvedindiscussionsandgroupexercisesandtheireffortsaregreatlyappreciated.

Inparticularweofferaspecialmentiontoindividualswholedworkinggroupsduringtheworkshopandlaterspearheadedsectionsofthisdocument,theyare:Dr.IreneAmoke,ChaniaFrost,DicksonKaelo,SeanAndersonandProf.StewartThompson.

WeexpressourgratitudetoSarovahotelfortheirexcellentfacilitiesandlogisticsandtoKenEsauforhistechnicalsupportinthepreparationanddevelopmentoftheworkshop,aswellasDanielSopia,(MMWCA’sConservancies’CouncilChairman),forhisleadershipinorganisingtheworkshop.

SpecialthankstoOscarMaldonadoforhisoutstandingprofessionaldiscipline,expertiseanddirectionindevelopingthisConservationActionPlan.Thankyouforkeepingusfocusedamongstmanyotherdemandsandensuringthatwedevelopedthisdocument,withinatimelymanner.

Andaswell,toacclaimedphotographerDanielHernández-Salazar,whocontributedhisexpertiseinvisuallyrecordingtheworkshopandtakingawideselectionofphotographscapturingthedynamicsoftheworkshopandthediversityoftheMaraecosystem.

Finally,weareindebtedtoTheNatureConservancyandinparticularMuniraAnyongeandCharlesOluchinaforthegenerousfunding,participationandinspirationbehindthisCulturalNaturalResource,ConservationActionPlanandfortheongoingsupporttheyareprovidingtoMMWCAforitsdevelopmentacrosstheGreaterMaasaiMaraEcosystem,Kenya.

HelenGibbonsChiefExecutiveOfficerMaasaiMaraWildlifeConservanciesAssociation

10

g. ExecutiveSummary

ThisCulturalandNaturalResourceConservationActionPlan(CNR-CAP)respondstotheneedofundertakinganintegratedplanningprocessacrossthedifferentconservanciesneighbouringtheMaasaiMaraNationalReserve(MMNR),inordertoeffectivelyaddresspervasive,increasingthreatstowildlifeandecosystemsacrosstheGreaterMaraEcosystem(GME).ConsideringtheimportancethattheMaasaipeopleandtheirculturehavehadinshapingtheirlandscape,thisactionplantookintoaccountthattheGREis,aboveall,aculturallandscape.

ThemethodologythatguidedtheplanningprocesswastheOpenStandardsforthePracticeofConservation(OS).Basedonscience,theOSfocusdirectlyonimplementingactionsbasedonmeasurableoutcomesandworkinghypothesestobetestedbytheimplementationontheground.

TheCNR-CAPdefineditsgeographicalscopecomprisingaCoreArea,whichexpandstoallexistingconservanciesandsurroundingareaswherenewconservanciesorconservationareasareproposedorcouldbecreatedinthenearfuture,andanInfluenceAreathatencompassesimportantareasforconservation,easttotheCoreArea.ThiszoneispartoftheGreaterMaraEcosystemandisofcriticalimportanceforlong-termwildlifeconservation.Thefollowingvisionstatementwillinspireworkacrossthisscopearea:“Aculturallandscapewherecommunitiesandpartnerssecurewildlifeandsustainablelivelihoodsforabetterfuture.”

Inordertofocustheconservationwork,eightconservationtargetswereselectedtorepresentthebiologicaldiversityandcriticalthreats,beingthreeofthemspecies:ElephantandWildebeest,bothofthemimportantplayinganimportantroleinshapingthelandscape,andthreatenedbypoaching,humanwildlifeconflictanddiversefactorsthatreducetheirrequiredspace;andLion,apexpredator,alsothreatenedbypoachingandhuman-wildlifeconflict.Threeothertargetsareecosystems,whichwerechosentorepresentthehabitatheterogeneityofthesavannahsoftheGME:Grasslands,Forests,andWoodlands.Thethreeofthemareexposedtoconflictinglanduses,suchasagriculture,humansettlementsandovergrazing.Thisplanalsoconsidersnon-biologicaltargets,beingtheMaasaiCultureoneofthem,notonlybecauseofitsintrinsicsignificantvalue,butbecauseitisconsideredacriticalcomponenttoachieveandsustainconservationoutcomes.Lastly,tourismrepresentsafundamentalaspectofconservancies,whichbothsustainsandissustainedbywildlifeconservation.Itisnot,however,a“conservation”targetperse,butratherasocialtargetresultingfromtheecosystemservicesprovidedbywildlifeconservation.

Allthese8conservationtargetshaveacriticalimportancefortheCNR-CAPastheyarethebasisforsettinggoals,carryingoutconservationactions,andmeasuringconservationeffectiveness.Theviabilityanalysisdemonstratedtheurgentneedtoworkontheminacoordinated,integrativemanner.Onlytwo,ElephantandLionwereratedin“Good”status,whereasWildebeest,Grasslands,Woodlands,WaterSources,theMaasaiCultureandTourismwererated“Fair.”ThemostcriticallyendangeredtargetisForest,rated“Poor.”

Theneedforanintegrativeconservancies-wideapproachdefinitelyincreasesbytheseriouslevelofcurrentthreatstowildlifeandtheMaasaiculture.Theplanningprocesshighlightedelevenmajorthreats.Theyaredefinedasultimatehumanactivitiesorprocessesnegativelyimpactingtheviabilityoftheconservationtargets.Sixofthemwererated“High”:Fencing,UnplannedSettlementsandUrbanisation,Uncontrolled/UnsustainableGrazing,HumanWildlifeConflictandCharcoalBurningandLogging,andInfrastructure;threewererated“Medium”:Poaching,AgricultureLandUse,LossofMaasaiCulture,andonlytwowererated“Low”:SandExtractionandPollution.Climatechangeisnotnecessarilydeemedasathreat,butitistherootcauseoflocaleffectsthatdorepresentthreatstowildlifeandecosystems.Thisplanconsidersthatmoreresearchneedstobeundertakeninordertoclearlydefinewhatclimatechangeeffectsneedtobeaddressedanddesignpropermitigationoradaptationstrategiesaccordingly.ClimateChangehasbeenincludedinthelistoftopresearchprioritiesofthisplan,sothatimmediateactionscanbeimplemented.

Foraddressingthreatsandensuringthelongtermviabilityofthetargets,fourconservationstrategiesweredesigned:LandUsePlanningforaLong-TermFunctionalEcosystem;SustainableGrazingandBeefProduction;PreservingtheMaasaiCulture;HarmoniousCoexistenceofPeopleandNature.Thelanduseplanningstrategyaimstoexpandlandssuitableforconservationandsustainablelandmanagement,minimisingincompatiblelandusesandunsustainablepractices,reducingtherateand

11

extentoffencing,aswellastoallowdegradedareastoberestored,increasinglandresilienceandconnectivityacrossthelandscape.ThesustainablegrazingstrategyseekstoincreasetheresilienceoftheMara’srangelands,thevalue,productivityandincomegeneratedbylivestock,whilereducinglivestockstockrates,unsustainablelanduses,andimpactsonwildlife.ThestrategyregardingtheMaasaiCulturepursuespreservingthepositiveculturalpillars,particularlyitsharmonicrelationwithwildlifeandenvironment.Finally,thefourthstrategyincludesdifferentinterventionfrontstomaintainstablewildlifepopulationsanddistributionacrosstheGreaterMaasaiMaraecosystem,andtoreducethehumanfootprintontheenvironmentandwildlife,creatingaharmoniousco-existenceofpeopleandnature.Noneofthesestrategieswouldprosperiffundingisnotproperlyconsidered.Forthatreason,afifthstrategywasdesignedtoensurelong-termfinancialstabilityfortheconservancies.

12

1. Introduction

IthasbeenmylifelongdreamtoseethewildlifeofEastAfrica.YetnowthatIamhere,thoughIfindthewildlifeimpressive,itistheMaasaipeopleandtheircultureand

wayoflifethatmovesmeevenmore.U.S.RancherBillMiller

(citedinCurtin&Western2008)

ThisactionplanrespondstotheneedofundertakinganintegratedplanningprocessacrossthedifferentconservanciesneighbouringtheMaasaiMaraNationalReserve(MMNR),inordertomoreeffectivelyaddresspervasive,increasingthreatstowildlifeandecosystemscurrentlyoccurringintheGreaterMaraEcosystem.SuchaneedwasreportedbyanassessmentcarriedoutinJanuary2015(Maldonado2015),whichidentifiedthatdifferentplanninginitiativesacrosstheMaasaiMaralandscapehadlittlelevelofinteractionandmutualreinforcementand,forthatreason,vitalopportunitiesforcollaborativeworkweremissed,tothedetrimentofbetterandmoreenduringconservationresultsontheground.

TheMaasaiMara,alongwiththeneighbouringSerengeti,representsthemosticoniclandscapeofAfricaintheWorld.Thisfameisnotonlyduetoitswildlife,themega-fauna,andtheparticularbeautyofthesavannahs,butalsobecauseitisalong-inhabitedlandscapewherethepeople,theMaasai,havetraditionallyplayedanimportantroleinshapingtheecosystemforatleastthreethousandyears(Reid,2012).Indeed,thegreaterMaasaiMaraecosystemisnotanydifferenttoothergrasslandecosystemsintheworld:itismostlyaculturallandscapewherewildlifeandhumanshavecoexistedforcenturies.Moreover,somescholarsmayarguethattheMaasaigrasslandecosystemexistsbecause,andnotdespitetheinterrelationsbetweentheMaasaipeople,wildlifeandtheirenvironment(theMaasaiculturalpractices,thenon-bioticresourcesandecologicalprocesses,andthelandscape).

ThisCulturalandNaturalResourceConservationActionPlan(CNR-CAP)isthusmadewiththeconsiderationthatathrivingMaasaiCultureisasimportantfortheGreaterMaraEcosystem(GME)aswildlifeis,soitisnecessarytoinitiatepromptactionstoconservebothandthemutuallyreinforcingrelationshipthatlinksthetwo.

1.1. Rationale

ConservanciesacrosstheMaralandscapewereestablishedbothorganicallyandindependently,althoughtheyfacefewdistinctindividualissues.Morethaninmanyotherlargeconservationareas,criticalthreatsandconstraintsaresharedacrosstheMaasaiMara,notonlyamongwell-establishedconservancies,butalsointherestofneighbouringcriticalareasthatdonothaveanyconservationmanagementregimeyet.Alltheseareasconstitutethesamelandscape,whichcanbedefinednotonlybyitsecologicalandculturalfeatures,butalsobybeingexposedtothesamepressuresandopportunities.

Asamatteroffact,themainrationalefortheestablishmentofconservanciesisthattheMasaiMaraNaturalReserve—oneofthemostimportantandfamousprotectedareasintheworld,isinsufficienttoguaranteethelongtermviabilityofitswell-knownemblematicspecies,likeelephantsandwildebeest,andtheintegrityofthewholeecosystemthatdependsonthegreatmigration.Consequently,thefutureoftheNationalReservedependsonthesuccessoftheconservancies,andthesuccessofeachindividualconservancydependsonthesuccessofthewholeconservancy-system.Forthatreasontwoverybasicpremisesshouldgoverntheconservationapproachacrossthislandscape:

Asingleconservancyisnotenoughtoensurelongtermwildlifeconservation Allandeachconservancyisonlyonepart(asignificantpart,though)ofthewholeecosystem

Inturn,thesepremisesprovidetherationaleforaconservancies-widecommonagendathatconsidersthat:

Theecosystemencompasses(anddepends)onwide-range,highlymigratoryspeciesthatrequirealargerlandscapeapproach;

Theconservancieshaveparticularthreatsandconstraints,butmostofthem(ifnottheallof

13

them)aresharedacrosstheconservanciessystem:landsub-divisionandfencing;poaching;land-conversion,amongothers;

Mostofcurrentcriticalthreatsaresystemic,thustheyrequireabroaderandmoreintegratedapproachinaddition(ifnotinstead)toasite-basedresponse;

Someneededactions(anti-poaching,monitoring)canbeexpensiveandrequireintegratedactiontoidentifytheiroutcomesoverthelargersystemtakingadvantageofeconomiesofscale.

Theneedforanintegrativeconservancies-wideapproachdefinitelyincreasesbythecriticallevelofcurrentthreatstowildlifeandtheMaasaiCulture.Newpolicieshaveradicallymodifiedthelandmanagement,encouragingfencingandthusinterruptingthenaturalmovementofspeciesthroughtheirmigrationroutes.Currentandpotentiallanduseisatriskofbecomingamajorthreatwithcatastrophicimpactsonallnaturalresourcesandlivelihoods.Poaching,inparticularelephantpoaching,isintensifyingfastaswell,butisadynamicthreatthatmovesacrossthelandscapeinoccurrenceandintensity.Itsresponseiscostlyandrisky,andrequiresnotonlycoordinatedaction,butalsosustainedsourcesoffundingtobesuccessful.

Ontheotherhand,engaginginanintegrativeplanningprocessalsoprovidestheopportunitytoredefinetheconservationparadigm,understandingtheintertwiningrelationshipbetweentheMaasaiculture,theirlivelihoods,andtheMaraecosystem,inparticularthewildlife.Itisclearthatnoneofthesepartscanprevailwithouttheother—acharacteristicthattrulymakestheMaasaiMara,aboveall,aculturallandscape.

1.2. Methodology

TheOpenStandardsforthePracticeofConservation(simplyknowastheOpenStandards—OS)wasthemethodologyusedfordevelopingtheCNR-CAP.Severalreasonsjustifiedthischoice:

1. TheOSaretheplanningmethodologyforanumberofconservationorganisationsworkingeitheracrosstheMarae.g.,WWF,orsupportingconservationinitiativesintheMarae.g.,AfricanWildlifeFoundation,TheNatureConservancy.Itisthereforelargelyacommon,sharedandknownmethodology.

2. TheOSareinspiringthenewofficialconservationplanningguidelinesoftheKenyaWildlifeService(A.Kariuki,comm.pers.).Further,applyingOSfortheMaracouldhaveadidacticpurposegiventhatotherplanningeffortswillincludeasimilarapproachinthefuture—includingtheforthcomingrequestedplans,suchastheNarokCountySpatialPlan,theGreaterMaraEcosystemPlanandtheconservancy-levelplans.

3. Science-based,theOSfocusdirectlyonimplementingactionsbasedonmeasurableoutcomesandworkinghypothesestobetestedbytheimplementationontheground.ManyconservationplansintheMarahavelackedimmediateactionplans,causingafrustratedimplementation.TheOSseekstoovercomethislimitation.

4. TheOSlevelofcomplexityforplanning(notthelevelofrigour)canvaryaccordingtotheurgencyofgettingtotheimplementationstage.A“RapidOS”varianthasbeenbroadlyusedincasesthatrequireurgentactions,or/andthatcannotcompromiseorinvesttoomuchstakeholders’timeintheplanningprocess.

5. TheOSarealsobasedontheprincipleofencouragingparticipationofmajorcriticalstakeholders.Theirviewpointsandopinionsarethemajorcomponentforthesituationanalysesthatleadstothestrategydevelopment.

6. Overtheyearsofpractice,OShassucceededinincorporatingnotonlyabiodiversityfocus,butalsoaculturalapproach,analysingtheinteractionbetweenbothnaturalandculturalconservationtargets.GiventhecharacteristicsoftheMaasaiMara,suchanapproachisappropriate.Fromsuchaprocess,aCulturalandNaturalResourceConservationActionPlan(CNR-CAP)focusedonspecifictargets(bothnaturalandcultural)couldemerge.

TheConservationMeasuresPartnership(CMP),analliancetowhichmostoftheinternationalconservationorganizationsbelong,createdtheOpenStandards.Theyassembleprovenbestpracticesforconservationprojectplanningandmanagementintheirdifferentphasesandsteps.Indeed,morethanjustplanning,theOSfocusonsoundprojectmanagement,wheremonitoring,learning,adapting

14

andsharingarekeycomponentsoftheprojectcycle.Orputdifferently,majorphasesofOSfocusonplanningtoproceedtoactionandundertakeadaptivemanagement,asshowninthediagrambelow.

Graph1:OpenStandardsProjectCycle(Source:CMP2007)

1.3. Theplanningprocess

TheinitialassessmentdevelopedinJanuary2015identifiedsomechallengesinundertakingtheintegrativeplanningapproachthatthisprocesswantedtoavoid.Forthisreason,theplanningprocessneededtobedesignednotonlytobringtogetherallcriticalstakeholdersandonthesamepage,butaswell,doingitinarapidandefficientmannersothatplanningfatigue—anundesiredeffectthathadhinderedpreviouseffortsandcouldjeopardizeeffectiveparticipationandresults,wasside-stepped.Further,theprocesswasalsodesignedforreconcilingascience-basedapproachwithdifferentparties’interests,andforfocusingonimmediateimplementation.

Withthisinmind,theplan’sprocessincorporatesthreephases:

a. FirstPhase:Planning

Methodologicalandlogisticalpreparation,comprisingselectionofbasicinformationandparticipantsforthepreparationoftheplanningworkshopagenda,materialsandlogistics

Theplanningworkshop,on-site,withtheparticipationofmorethan40attendants,conductedfrom7th–11thSeptember2015.

Analysis,writing,editingandreviewofthisCNR-CAPdocumentfromSeptembertoendofNovember2015

b. SecondPhase:

Implementationoftheimmediateactivitiesthatrequireurgentimplementation Implementationanddevelopmentofactivitiesthatcanlaunchorsustainotheractivitiesor

strategiesoverthemedium-andlong-term Endofyearreviewandassessmentofprogresstodate

15

c. ThirdPhase:

Basedonannualreview,followuponimplementationofon-goingstrategiesandactivities Basedontheplan’sprioritiesandproposedzoning,influenceonotherplanningprocessesat

lower(conservanciesandotherconservationareaswithintheCNR-CAPscopearea)andupper(thewiderCountyArea)levels.

1.4. TheScopeofthePlan

Theactionplan’sscopeistheareawherethebiodiversityorculturalfeaturesofinterestarelocatedandwherepositivechangesresultingfromourstrategiesareexpected.Mostofthestrategiesareexpectedtotakeplacewithinthegeographicalscopeofthisplan,butthisdoesnotprecludeimplementingotherrequiredinterventionsoutsideofthedefinedarea—particularlytheonesthatfocusonpolicy,fund-raisingandbuildingconservationpartnershipsandsupport.

FortheCNR-CAP,thescopecomprisestwoareas,CoreAreaandInfluenceArea,asfollows:

CoreArea:

TheCoreAreacomprisesallexistingconservanciesandsurroundingareaswherenewconservanciesorconservationareasareproposedorcouldbecreatedinthenearfuture.Thestrategiesincludedinthisplanaretobecarriedoutinthisarea.

Morespecifically,theCoreAreaisdeterminedasfollowsandasshownbelowinMap1:

WestoftheIsiriaescarpmentontotheEucleabushlandonOloiriengroupranchincludingtheproposedMaasaiMoranConservancyandcoveringtheentireextentofNyakweriforestandOloisukutConservancy,bufferingOloisukutConservancydowntotheMaraRiver.

FollowingNorththeMaraRiverallthewaytoEmartiBridgeandalltheareaswithinEnonkishuConservancy;theneastwardsalongEmorijoiHillstoNjsuanibellowLemekcentre.

ExtendingEastofthePardamathills,tothecultivatedlandandfencedlandofOlkinyei,crossingtheNarok-Sekenaniroad,nearLekangahillsextendingtotheMajimotoandParkitabohills.

ExtendingsouthwardstothewesterntipofNaikara,includingproposedOlpuaConservancy;furtherextendingalongtheOlderkesiConservancyborder,totheKenya-Tanzaniainternationalborder.

Influence(orSecondary)Area:

TheInfluenceArea(alsocalledSecondaryArea)encompassesimportantareasforconservation,easttotheCoreArea.ThiszoneispartoftheGreaterMaraEcosystemandisofcriticalimportanceforlong-termwildlifeconservation.Althoughnodirectactivitiesarecurrentlyplanned,theCNR-CAPisexpectedtohaveaninfluencethereamidrelevantstakeholderse.g.throughtheGreaterMaraEcosystemPlan,inordertoamplifythegeographicalscopeofconservationendeavours.

Thisareaincludes(asshownbelowinMap1):

TheareaadjacenttotheMagadi-LoitaecoregionincludingtheNaiminaEnkiyioforest,theplainsWestoftheforestandtheNgurmanescarpmenttotheShompoleandOlkiramatianandextendingnorth-easttotheMosiroSuswaregionunderthecoordinationoftheSouthernAssociationofLandowners(Soralo)

TheMajimoto-NarosuraplainsandthePololet-Morijoplains.

16

Map1:CNR-CAPGeographicalScope

1.5. VisionforthePlan’sScope

Thevisionisastatementthatsummarisesthedesired,idealstateorultimateconditionthatthestakeholdersinvolvedintheimplementationoftheplanwouldliketoachieve.Thevalueofthevisionresidesbothinrepresentingageneralagreementonwhichtheconservationactionsarefounded,andinbeingasourceofinspirationandcommitment.

AstheMaraisamulti-linguallandscape,threeversionsofthevisionstatementfortheCNR-CAPScopeareaweredeveloped,inEnglish,Maasai,andSwahili.

VisionStatement

“Aculturallandscapewherecommunitiesandpartnerssecurewildlifeandsustainablelivelihoodsforabetterfuture”

MaaVersionoftheVisionStatement

“Orbakuneilolkuaaknaibungateilopenyolaretokpeeeramatiinguesipeetumidupotonabikoooonkolonginaaponu”1

SwahiliVersionoftheVisionStatement

“KwaMazingirayautamaduninamaliasiliambapojamiinawashirikawanamaishaendelevukwakuulindanakuhifadhiwanyamaporikwamaishaborayabaadaye”2

1FreetranslationfromEnglishbyDanielSopia2 FreetranslationfromEnglishbyKenEssau,reviewedbyIreneAmoke

17

2. ConservationTargets

AccordingtotheOSandotherrelatedmethodologies(e.g.TNC’sConservationActionPlanning,orWWF’sProjectandProgramManagementStandards),ConservationTargetsarealimitedsetofspecies,communitiesandecologicalsystemsthatrepresentandencompassthefullarrayofbiologicaldiversityfoundintheplan’sgeographicalscopearea.

Thereasonforfocusingonselectedconservationtargetsisstrategicandmanagerial.Itrestsontheassumptionthatthereisnoprojectthatcancomprehendthefullbiologicaldiversity(ofwhichmanycomponentsareunknown),sothereisaneedtospecificallyselectthemostemblematicfeatures—ecosystemsorwildlifespecies,asreferencepointstotheothers,thatrepresentthemajorthreatsthatcriticallyaffectsomeorallofthefeatures.

Fromthisapproach,three“finefilter”conservationtargetswereselected3:ElephantandWildebeest,bothofthemimportantshapersofthelandscape,whicharethreatenedbypoaching,humanwildlifeconflictanddiversefactorsthatreducetheirrequiredspace;andLion,astheapexpredator,alsothreatenedbypoachingandhuman-wildlifeconflict.

Similarly,three“coarsefilter”conservationecosystemtargets(ecosystems)werechosenastheyrepresentthehabitatheterogeneityofthesavannahsoftheGreaterMaraEcosystem:grasslands,forests,andwoodlands.Thethreeofthemareexposedtoconflictinglanduses,suchasagriculture,humansettlementsandovergrazing.

Forsomeconservationinitiatives,suchisthecaseoftheCNR-CAP,itisalsoimportanttoconsidernon-biologicalconservationtargets.Astheacronymofthisplanstandsfor,theculturalcomponentisofparticularimportancefortheGME.Indeed,theMaasaiCultureisnotonlyconsideredasaconservationtarget,butalsoasanecessarycomponenttoachievethebiological-targets,andlong-termenduranceofthepositiveresults.

Lastly,tourismrepresentsafundamentalaspectofconservancies,whichbothsustainsandissustainedbywildlifeconservation.Itisnot,however,a“conservation”targetperse,butratherasocialtargetresultingfromtheecosystemservicesprovidedbywildlifeconservation,namelytheeducational,recreational,inspirationalandaestheticvalues.

Allthese8conservationtargetshaveacriticalimportancefortheCNR-CAPastheyrepresentthebasisforsettinggoals,carryingoutconservationactions,andmeasuringconservationeffectiveness.2.1. ConservationTargetDescription

2.1.1. Elephant(Loxodontaafricana)

TheAfricanelephantiscurrentlyfoundin37countriesinsub-SaharanAfrica(Blancetal.,2007)withindividualhomerangesvaryingfrom15to3,700km2(Douglas-Hamilton,1972).Theytendtomovebetweenavarietyofhabitatsandoverwidealtitudinalandlatitudinalranges,fromdenseforest,openandclosedsavannah,grassland,ariddeserts,mountainslopesandoceanicbeaches,andfromthenortherntropicstothesoutherntemperatezone.DespitelargetractsofcontinuouselephantrangeremaininginpartsofCentral,EasternandSouthernAfrica,elephantdistributionisbecomingincreasinglyfragmentedacrossthecontinent(Blanc,2008).TheAfricanElephantissubjecttovariousdegreesoflegalprotectioninallrangestates.Althoughupto70%ofthespeciesrangeisbelievedtolieinunprotectedland,mostlargepopulationsoccurwithinprotectedareas.Anincreasingnumberoftrans-boundaryelephantpopulationsareco-managedthroughthecollaborationofrelevantneighbouringrangestates.

3TNC’sversiónofOS,ConservationAtionPlanning,suggestthecoarsefilter/finefilterapproachforselectingconservationtargets.Coarsefiltertargetsaredefinedbyecologicalsystemsthat,whenconserved,alsoconservethespeciestheyencompass.Thefinefiltertargetsarespeciesand/orcommunitiesthatarenotwellcapturedbycoarsefiltertargetsbecausetheyfaceparticularthreatsandthereforerequirespecificattention.

18

TheAfricanelephantisthelargestlivinglandmammalwithmalesofthespeciesweighingupto6,000kg(Hanks,1969).Theirdietmayincludegrass,herbs,bark,fruitandtreefoliage.Insavannahhabitats,grassmaymakeup70%oftheelephants’dietinthewetseason,withlargerproportionsofbrowsecontributingtotheirdietasthedryseasonprogresses.Estimatesformeandailyintakerangefrom4%(Lawsetal.,1970)to7%(Ruggiero,1992)ofbodyweight,whilsttheyonlydigest40%ofwhattheyconsume.Elephantsarecapableofgreatlyaffectingthestructureofvegetationandathighdensitiesreducewoodlands,convertingthemtomoreopengrassland(Western,1989).Vegetationdamagecausedbyelephantsisanormalactivityandcancontributetobeneficialchangesinhabitatdiversityandbiomassturnover(Pooleetal.,2013).

Elephantsarenotedfortheirintelligence,closefamilytiesandsocialcomplexity(Moss,1988),aswellastheirabilitytocommunicateoverlongdistancesthroughtheuseofpowerfullowfrequencycalls(Pooleetal.,2013).

ThespeciesisknowntohavebecomenationallyextinctinBurundiinthe1970s,inTheGambiain1913andinMauritaniainthe1980s.EasternAfricawastheregionwiththelargestnumberofelephantsinthe1970s,butalsotheonethatexperiencedtheworstpoachingepisodesinthatandthefollowingdecade.TheAfricanElephantwaslistedasVulnerable(VUA2a)inthe2004IUCNRedList,priortowhichthespecieswaslistedasEndangered(ENA1b)(Blanc,2007).

Descriptionoftargetinprojectscope

GivinganaccuratefigureforthenumberofelephantspresentintheGreaterMaasaiMaraecosystemisproblematicastheelephantsmovesignificantdistancesthroughouttheirextensivehomerange,whichinthiscaseincludesmovementacrosstheKenya-Tanzaniaborder.ItispossibletoeithergiveafigureforthenumberofindividualelephantsthatusetheMara,oralternativelythenumberofelephantsthatareoccupyingtheMaraataparticularpointintime(Pooleetal,2015).

Consideringhistoricalcountssince1986,itwasestimatedin2013that4,132elephantswereusingtheMarasideoftheSerengeti-Maraecosystem(Pooleetal.,2014).Populationsarenotevenlydistributed,withrelativelyhigherdensitiesfoundinthesouthernMaraandmost(60.5%)foundwithinMMNR(AerialCount2014).

IntheMaraecosystem,groupsmayvaryinsizefromonetoover300individuals.Thesedifferentgrouptypesandsizesarenotrandomlydispersedintheecosystem,ashumanactivity,togetherwithassociatedthreats,stronglyinfluencethelocationanddistributionofelephants,theirbehaviour,patternsofmovementandtendencytoaggregate(Pooleet.al.,2015).Forexample,highpressurefromlivestocktendstoincreasecompetitionforgrazingandreduceelephantgroupsize,asinthenorthernpartsoftheMaraecosystem(Pooleetal.,2015).Elephantshavealsobeenrecordedasbeingsensitivetochanginglevelsandpatternsofsecurity.Thisincludesillegalkillingofelephants,whichinfluencestheirpopulationdynamicsandmovement,suchastakingrefugeinmoresecureareasandseekingsafetyinnumbers,applyingmoreandextendedpressuretotheecosystemsinthese‘safe-havens’.Inthiscase,thecurrentimpactofelephantsintheMMNRisaproductofunsustainablelevelsoflivestockgrazingandinsecurityinthegreaterecosystem(Pooleet.al.,2015).“Unlesslivestockandotheranthropogenicactivitiesarecarefullymanagedconflictwithelephantsislikelytoincrease”(Pooleet.al.,2015).

Variousstakeholders,includingconservanciesandcommunitymembers,haveparticipatedinmonitoringofelephantmortalitysince2010,withanaimtobetterunderstandtheinteractionsanddynamicsbetweenpeopleandelephants,aswellaselephantsandtheirhabitats.TheMararesearchpartnersadoptedtheMIKE(MonitoringofIllegallyKilledElephants)protocol(Pooleet.al.,2015)anddatacollectedfromtheMaraecosystembetween2010and2014showsthatincidencesofillegalkillingoccurredpredominantlyoutsidetheMMNRwithcomparativelyhigherPIKE(ProportionofIllegallyKilledElephants)valuesthaninsidetheReserve,whereonly30%ofelephantmortalitieswereattributedtoillegalkilling(Map2).InsomeareasthePIKEisextremelyhigh(e.g.SianaConservancyrecordedaPIKEof93%)andareamongthehighestlevelsofillegalelephantkillingrecordedinKenya.TheareacoveredbyestablishedMaraconservancieshadthelowestPIKEfiguresofanyareaoutsideoftheMMNR,at70%.“AnelephantpopulationisdeemedtobeindeclinewhenaPIKEof54%andaboveisrecorded”(Pooleet.al.,2015).WhetherinsideoroutsideoftheReserve,inthecaseofinjury(physicalwoundsordeath),theKWSveterinariansimmediatelyprovidetreatmentand,whenever

19

necessary,tusksareremovedfromacarcass(Obandaet.al.,2008).However,theneedtostrengthenmanagementstrategiesespeciallyoutsidetheMMNRwherePIKEfiguresarefarhigherthanthesustainablelimitispertinent.

Map2:ElephantmortalitybycausesanddistributionofcarcassesintheMaraecosystemfrom2010to2014.Anarbitraryzoning(boldorangepolygons)oftheMaraecosystemhasbeendoneforpurposesofcomparingaveragePIKEvaluesbetweenareas.ThePIKEvalueswereabove54%exceptforMaasaiMaraNRindicativeofapopulationindeclinefromillegalkilling.(ElephantVoices&SaveTheElephants,inPooleetal.,2015)

Rationaleasaconservationtarget

Asakeystonespecies,elephantsplayacrucialecologicalrole,maintaininglinkagesinthefoodweb,actingasagentsofseeddispersal(Alexandre1977),increasinghabitatmosaicinforests(Kortlandt1984)anddiversifyingmammaliancommunities(Western1989).Theirexterminationfromsomehabitatsmaycauseacascadeofchangeorextinctionsinecosystems(Western1989).Additionally,elephanttourisminKenyaaloneisworthanestimatedUS$200millionannually,witheachelephantbeingworthUS$14,375peryearandalmostUS$900,000overalifetime(DiSilvestro,1991).Duetothehighprofileoftheelephantspeciesandtheinternationalpoachingcrisis,protectionauthoritiesaremandatedtopursueandfollowuponelephantpoachingincidents,translatingtoincreasedsecurityforallotherwildlifeintheecosystem,aswellasfortourism(T.Caro,pers.obs.).Aselephantsareundertremendouspoachingandconflictpressure(Douglas-Hamilton,2009;Ferreira&Okita-Ouma,2012),whilstbeingbothenvironmentallyandeconomicallyimportant,wehaveamoralresponsibilitytoprotectthem.

2.1.2. Africanlion(Pantheraleo)

TheAfricanlionisthelargestofallAfricancarnivores.Themainperiodofgrowthisinthefirstthreeyearswithmalesattainingmaximumweightat7yearsold(190kg)andfemalesat5to6yearsold(126kg)(Skinner&Smithers,1990).Unlikeotherfelids,lionsaresocialbeingsandliveinfission-fusiongroups,thefoundationofwhichisagroupofrelatedfemalesandtheiroffspring(Packeretal.,1990).Meanpridesizevariesandappearstobepositivelycorrelatedwithabundanceofpreyduringtheperiodofleastabundance(Bygottetal.1979).Liondensitiesaredirectlyrelatedtopreybiomass(Haywardetal.2007),andasinglelionpridemayrequirearangeofupto1,000km2overthecourseofoneyear(Funston,2011).Dispersalinlionsissex-biasedassub-adultmalesalwaysdisperse,whilefemalesrarelydo(Pusey&Parker,1987).Theageofdispersalishighlyvariable(20-42months),while

20

thetimingofdispersalishighlycorrelatedtopridetake-overs(Elliotetal.2014).Ataround4to6yearsold,malecoalitionsstarttochallengeforpridetenure,withtheirreproductivesuccessdependingontheoutcome.Ifincomingmalesdefeattheresidents,theywillkillallcubssoastobringthefemalesintooestrus(VanderWalletal.,2009)andchaseawayallsub-adultmalesandfemalesthataretooyoungtobreed(Hanby&Bygott,1987,Elliotetal.,2014).Maleswilltypicallyholdtenureoffemalepridesfornomorethantwoyearsbeforeincomingmalesdisplacethem(Bygottetal.1979).Twoyearsisalsotheinterbirthintervalforfemales,shouldtheircubssurvive(Packeretal.,1988).Pridesdefendtheirterritoriesandareabletoidentifythenumbersandidentitiesofotherlionsbytheirroars,therebyfacilitatingterritorialboundaries(Packeretal.,1990).

Theirdietusuallyconsistsofthemostlocallyabundantmediumtolargeungulatessuchasbuffalo,zebraandwildebeest(Mills&Shenk,1992)andpreferentiallypreysuponspecieswithinaweightrangeof190–550kg(Hayward&Kerley,2005).

LionsonceoccurredwidelyinEurope,theMiddleEast,AsiaandAfrica.TodaytheyareextinctinEuropeandtheMiddleEastwiththelastindividualsexterminatedinGreeceabout100ADandinPalestineinthe12thCentury(Skinner&Smithers,1990).ThereisonesmallpopulationofthesubspeciesP.leopersicaremainingintheGirForest,India.OntheAfricancontinenttheyarenowextinctinthenorth,disappearingfromTunisiaandAlgeriainabout1891andfromMoroccoin1920.IntherestofAfricatheirrangehasshrunkwiththeencroachmentofhumansandtheyprimarilyoccurinNationalParksandGameReserves.Thecurrentextentoffree-ranginglionisaround3.4millionkm2,whichrepresentsa75%rangereductioninthelast100years(Riggioetal.,2012)

TheAfricanlionpopulationhasalmosthalvedinthelast3decadesandcontinuestodecline.In1980therewereanestimated75,000lions(Ferreras&Cousins,1996),whiletodayitislikelythatthereisamaximumof35,000freeranginglions(Riggioetal.,2012).EastAfricarepresentsacrucialregionforthelions’persistenceasitcurrentlyholdsaround57%ofAfrica’sremaininglions(Riggioetal.,2012).However,thepreybaseoflionsisalsoindecline,havingaknockoneffectonthisapexpredator.


Estimationsofanimaldensitiesandabundancearecentraltoeffectivemanagementandconservation(May,1999).However,obtainingaccurateestimatesisnotoriouslydifficultforrareandcrypticcarnivores(Ogutuetal.,2006).In1992,22lionpridesweredocumentedintheMMNRandtheimmediatesurroundings,with484lionsincludingcubs,averaging22lionsperpride,plus74nomads(78%ofwhomweremales),givingatotalof558lionsatadensityof0.30/km2(Ogutu&Dublin,2002).LiondensityintheMarareserveatthistimerankedamongthehighestrecordedinAfricansavannahs(Ogutu&Dublin,2002).

From1982to1988,individuallionswerefoundin7pridesinsideand6pridesoutsidetheMarareserve.Overthese7years,thepopulationremainedstableinsidebutdecreaseddramaticallyoutsidethereserveinpastorallandswhereMaasaipastoralistshadestablishedpermanentsettlementsby1982–83(Ogutuetal,2005).

Inthe2002MaraCount,itwasreportedthatlionshaveastrongpreferenceforprotectedsavannah(Reidetal,2003).InOgutu’s2002count,therewasnochangeinthenumberoflionsfoundinsidetheReservecomparedwith1991,butitwassuspectedthatlionpopulationshavedeclinedovertimeoutsidetheReserve,supportingtrendsacrossthecontinent(Bauer&VanDerMerwe,2004)andsignalsaseriousthreattotheirlong-termpopulationviability(Ogutuetal.,2005).Thisdeclineisprobablyowingtoconflictswithpastoralism,necessitatingurgentconservationinterventionsthatintegratepastoraleconomicwelfarewithlargecarnivoreconservationgoalstofosterlong-termviabilityoflionpopulationsinthepastoralsystems(Ogutuetal.,2005).ThemostrecentpublishedestimateoflionsintheMaraecosystemis286individuals(Baueretal,2015)–51%ofthe1992estimate.However,thatfigureactuallycomesfroma2005wholecountsurveythatwascarriedoutoverawholeyear.Itshouldbenotedthatthesurveymethodsusedvaried,notablythefigurespresentedbyOgutuwereestimatedusingcall-insurveys,whilethefigurespresentedbyBaueretal.(2015)wereobtainedfromawholecount.Bothmethodshaveassociatederrorsandinaccuraciesanditisthereforedifficulttodrawinferencesfromthem.Morerecently,theMaraLionProjecthasstartedtointensivelymonitorthelionpopulation.Theyhavedevelopedaspatiallyexplicitmark-recapturemethodologythatwillallowforaccurateandbiologicallymeaningfultrendstoberevealed.

21

Theirinitialsurveyhasshownaliondensityof15.15lionsper100km2,overtheirstudyarea,whichencompassestheMaasaiMaraNationalReserve,OlareMotorogi,Naboisho,Lemek,OlChoro,MaraNorthandOlKinyeiconservancies(Elliot&Gopalaswamy,inprep.).


In Africa, wildlife-viewing preferences of tourists of all nationalities, budgets and experience, arenarrow and exacerbated by the perceived importance of the so-called ‘big five’, themost popularspecies(Lindseyetal,2007).Withoneofthehighestremainingliondensitiesintheworld,200,000to300,000 tourists flock to theMaasaiMaraannually to see thisemblematic species. The fascinationthat lions exert on the general public is exemplified by economic estimates of their value for thetourism industry: in the 1980s, a single lionPanthera leoL.in Amboseli National Park, Kenya, wasvaluedatUS$128,750peryear(citedinSergioetal.,2006).Sincetourismandthebenefitsitbringsare frequently lauded as the only reason for communities to conserve wildlife, reductions in lionpopulationsandthereforetourismcouldhavealsoanegativeeffectontheecosystemmorewidely.In terms of ecological importance, these apex predators are necessary for ecosystem integrity andstabilityand,as indicatorspecies,declines intheirnumberscanbesymptomaticofwiderproblemsthat need to be addressed. By ensuring lions are conserved, thewider ecosystem and communitystandstobenefit.

2.1.3. Wildebeest(Connochaetestaurinus)

FormerlywildebeestdistributionspannedfromsouthernKenyasouthwardstonorthernandeasternNamibia,Botswana,theOrangeRiverinSouthAfrica,andMozambique(East,1999;Estes,2013),withintroductionstoregionsoutsidetheirformerdistributionrange,suchastheEasternHighlandsofZimbabwe(East,1999).Populationdensitiesestimatedbyaerialsurveysrangefromlessthan0.15/km²incentralandsouthernKalaharitoashighas34.0-35.0/km²intheSerengetiandNgorongoroCrater(IUCN,2008).Somewildebeestpopulationsarenaturallyrelativelysedentaryand/ortheirseasonalmovementsaregenerallyaccommodatedwithinprotectedareas.

Fivesubspeciesofwildebeestarerecognized:WesternWhite-beardedWildebeest(C.t.mearnsi);EasternWhite-beardedWildebeest(C.t.albojubatus);NyassaWildebeest(C.t.johnstoni);Cookson’sWildebeest(C.t.cooksoni);andBlueWildebeest(C.t.taurinus).

Wildebeestarepuregrazers,showingapreferencefortheshort-grassplainsborderingAcaciasavannah,openbushlandandwoodlandindrierareas(IUCN,2008).Serengetiwildebeestthriveonshortgrasslandsinalkalineandvolcanicsoilsduringtherainyseason,andwithdrawtolongergrasslandsinareasofhigherrainfallandpermanentwaterduringthedryseason.Theyarerarelyfoundabove1,800-2,100m(e.g.,theNgorongoroCrater).CommonWildebeestrequirewateratleasteverydayortwointhedryseason(Estes,2013).

ThemostrecentestimateofthetotalpopulationofCommonWildebeestisaround1.55millionacrossitsfullrange,largelyduetotherecoveringoftheSerengeti-Marapopulationtoabout1.3million(havingdroppedbelowonemillionfollowingthesevere1993drought)(Hopcraftetal.,2013).However,somesubspecies’populationsareinsteepdecline,suchasthewildebeestpopulationthatmigratesannuallybetweentheMaasaiMaraNationalReserveandtheLoitaPlains,whichhasshrunkbymorethantwo-thirdsfrom1977to2009duetotheexpansionofagriculture(Bedelian,2013;Ogutuetal.,2011).


TheMarawildebeestpopulationcomprisesbothmigratoryandresidentpopulationsoftheWesternWhite-beardedWildebeestsubspecies(C.t.mearnsi).TheEastAfricansavannahsarehighlyvariableecosystems,somigrationenableswildebeesttotrackspatiallyandtemporallyvaryingresourcesacrossthelandscape.WildebeestmigrateintoandoccupytheMMNRandsurroundingconservanciesfromtheSerengetiandLoitaplainstoaccessdryseasongrazingbetweenJulyandOctober(Ogutuetal.,2011).Theyalsomigratetoaccessbreedinggrounds,toreducetherisksofpredationanddisease,andtoenhancetheirgenetichealth(Bolgeretal.,2008).Thisgivesmigratorywildebeestpopulationsanadvantageoverresidentpopulations,allowingthesepopulationstorisetoveryhighabundances(Bedelian,2013;Hopcraftetal.,2013).

TheSerengeti-Marawildebeestpopulationofwildebeestincreased6foldbetween1963and1977

22

followingtheeradicationofrinderpest,beforestabilizingatitscurrentpopulationofapproximately1.3million(Hopcraftetal.,2013).Themammalmigrationistheworld’slargestandmostspeciesdiverse,comprising1.3millionwildebeest,0.6millionzebrasandThomson’sgazelle(Hopcraftetal.,2013)coveringadistanceof1,500kilometreseveryyear.WhilsttheSerengeti-Marapopulationhasremainedlargelystablesince1977,precipitousdeclinesofatheLoitapopulation,residentintheMaraecosystem,of70%,fromapproximately113,000in1977to35,000by2009haveoccurredandthispopulationcontinuestodeclinetodate(Ogutuetal.,2011).Thesepopulationdeclineshavebeendirectlyattributedtothepervasiveexpansionofmechanizedagriculture,increasinghumanpopulationdensitiesandlivestockincursionsinprotectedareasthathaveoccurredacrosstheregion,aswellaslandsubdivision,settlements,fencing,roadsandotherinfrastructure(Bedelain,2013).Theseprocessesfragmentthelandscapeandobstructmigratoryroutesandthereforeaccesstodryseasongrazingandwateronwhichthepopulationsarecriticallydependent(Ogutuetal.,2011).Climatechangewillexacerbatethisthreatastheincreasedfrequencyandseverityofdroughtsandfloodsthatisexpectedtooccur(IPCC,2012)willmodifyvegetationgrowthandhencefoodavailabilityforthemigratinganimals.Theabilityofmigrantstorespondtochangingclimaticconditionsislikelytobeimpairedbysuchman-madethreatsashabitatlossandfragmentation(Ogutuetal.,2011).

ThehomerangesizeofwildebeestintheMararangesfrom8.5km2to13,277.6km2,andtheymovethroughouteachoftheconservancies,(exceptfortheEnonkishuconservancy),spendingmostoftheyearintheseareas,outsideoftheMMNRboundaries.Thishighlightstheimportanceoftheconservanciestowardsthelong-termsustainabilityofthismigratoryungulate(Stabach&Boon,2014).

Map3:SerengetiandLoitaWildebeestMigrations.Source:MMWCA(2015)

23


TheiconicwildebeestmigrationsofEastAfricaplayavitalroleinecosystemfunctionduetotheirdirecteffectonpredatorpopulationsandgrassfoodresourcesrequiredbyotherwildlifespecies(Sinclairetal.,2008).Economically,themagnificentannualmigrationmakestheMMNRandsurroundingareasoneofthepremiertouristattractionsinKenya(Ogutuetal.,2011).TourismgeneratedanestimatedUS$1.2billionrevenueinKenyain2012(KNBS,2013inBedelain,2013).Anylossofwildlifemigrations,ortheirhabitats,willcontributetobiodiversitydeclineandunderminesomeofEastAfrica’skeytourismproducts,withsignificantimpactsonnationaleconomies.Urgenteffortsneedtobemadetoprotectwildebeestmigratorycorridorsanddispersalareas,includingtheMaraConservancies,toensurethesegreatmigrationsforthefuture(Bedelain,2013).

TheIUCNcurrentlylistswildebeestasaspeciesofLeastConcernwithastablepopulation(IUCN,2013).However,thisdesignationrelatesmostlytotheSerengeti-Marapopulation(Stabachetal.,2015),whilstforotherpopulations,suchastheLoita-Marapopulation,widespreadandprecipitousdeclineshavebeenrecorded(Ogutuetal.,2013).

2.1.4. Grasslands,ForestsandWoodlands

ThevegetationoftheGMEisamosaicofhabitatsthatcomposethesavannah,rangingfromdenseforestsandwoodlandsthroughtoopengrassland,beingthelaterthematrix4.ForacomprehensiveoverviewofthevegetationoftheGMEseeBennett(2002).

Globallysavannahhabitatsarefoundintemperate,borealandaridenvironments.Manyofthesearetypesofgrasslandwithvaryingdegreesoftreecoverandtreespeciescomposition,whichhavebeenconvertedtoagriculturalfarming.Alargeproportionoftheworld’ssavannahgrasslandsarefoundinthedrytoaridzoneswith68%foundindevelopingcountries(Boval&Dixon,2012).Savannahsareclassifiedasagrasslandecosysteminterspersedwithtreessufficientlywidelyspacedtomaintainanopencanopy(Menaut,1983).Peopletraditionallyinhabitingthearidtosemi-aridgrasslandsaregenerallynomadictosemi-nomadicpastoralistswhodependheavilyonextendedpasturestosupportnotonlytheirlivelihoodbutalsotheirculturalvalues(Ayantundeetal.,2011;DeFries&Rosenzweig2010).Inareaswhereclimaticconditionsandsoilqualityarenotsuitableforfoodcropproductiongrasslandsremainasgrazinglands,notonlyforlivestock,butalsovastnumbersofwildherbivores.

Grasslands

EasternAfricaisrenownedasacentreofgeneticdiversityoftropicalgrassesandthecentreofgreatestdiversityofcultivatedgrassspecies(Boonman,1993).ThePoaceaeformthemainvegetationlayer,interspersedwithfewannualsandperennials,andoccasionaltreesandshrubs,mostlyAcaciaspp.(Bussmanetal.,2006).Themedatriandraisoneofthemostwidespreadgrassspeciesinsub-SaharanAfrica.Thespeciesisveryvariableandshowswideadaptationtogrowthinboththehighlandregionsandthelowlandsavannahs.IntheMaraT.triandraconstitutesapproximately50%ofthegrasscoverinlighttomoderategrazedsites,withaseverereductioninpresenceinareaswhichhaveheavylivestockgrazing/corralpresence.OthergrasslandspeciescompositionthroughouttheMaraisvariable,linkedtodifferingenvironmentalparameters.Forexampleandbywayofcontrast,Bussmanetal.,(2006)locatedatotalof155plantspeciesbelongingto52familiesintheSekenaniValley,with267speciescollectedfromtheLoitaHills.

Forests

Forestsaredefinedasvegetationofcontinuoustreecoveratleast10mtallwithover-lappingcanopies(Menaut1983).‘Forest-savannah’mosaicsarehighlydynamicecosystemsandsupporthighlevelsofspeciesrichnessduetotheircomplexstructuraldynamics.‘Grassandshrubsavannahs’tendtobesituatedontheborderbetweendesertandwoodlandsavannahsandaredrierinclimateasaconsequence,especiallytothenorth(Shorrocks&Bates,2015).‘Treeandshrub’savannahdescribes

4Inlandscapeecologythematrixinalandscapemosaicisdefinedas“thebackgroundcovertypeinalandscape”(Turner,etal.2001)

24

acontinuousherbaceouslayerinterspersedwithtrees;thedominantvegetationspeciesinanyoneoftheseareasoftenformamorespecificclassification.

Woodlands

Woodlandsaredescribedasmoreopenareasoftreecover,withtrees8-20meterstallandcanopycoverofapproximately40%.Theavailablelightreachingthegroundlayerallowsfortheestablishmentofasparseshrublayerandagroundlayerdominatedbygrasses.Thegrassdominatedgroundlayeractsasfuelforfire,whichisoftenthebiggestfactoraffectingwoodlandsavannah.

Rationaleasaconservationtargets

ThethreemajorhabitatsoftheGMEsavannahswereselectedasconservationtargets,giventhattheyrepresenttheSerengeti-Maraecosystemspatialheterogeneity,oneofthemostimportantfactorsindrivingecosystemprocesses,whichresultsintheseasonalmovementsofvastnumbersofwildlife(Thirgoodetal.,2004).Theheterogeneityhypothesissuggeststhat‘simple’ecosystems(homogenoushabitats)arelesslikelytosupportlargeassemblagesofbiologicalspeciesthan‘diverse’ecosystemswherehabitatheterogeneityishigh(Diamond1988;Fryxelletal.,2005;Cromsigtetal.,2009).Severalstudiessuggestthatincreasedhabitatheterogeneityinsmallareaswillsupportmorediversespeciesassemblagesandprovideincreasedresiliencetotemporalvariationsthanlargeareaswithminimalspatialvariation(Fryxell,etal.,2005;Báldi,2008).Reedetal.,(2009)conductedastudyexaminingthespatialdistributionofvegetationtypes(habitats)inrelationtorainfallandtopographicreliefintheSerengeti-Maraecosystemfromsatelliteimagery.Intandemwithpriorresearch(Sankaranetal.,2004;Urban&Keitt,2001)topographyandclimatewerefoundtobeimportantdriversinthedistributionandspeciescompositionofhabitatpatchesinalandscape.Concurrently,resultsfromReedetal.,(2009)indicatedthatintheSerengeti-Maraecosystem,vegetationdiversityanddistributionisheavilyinfluencedbyannualrainfallandthehydrologicalconditionofthesoil.

2.1.5. Water

Waterconstitutesacriticalaspectthatdeterminesnotonlythelong-termviabilityoflivelihoodsandwildlife, but also represents a vital element for the annualmigration ofwildebeest during the dryseason.

TheMaraRiveristhemostimportantsourceofwaterintheplan’sgeographicalscopeandtheGME.With a length of 395 km, the Mara River is a principal perennial source that rises in the MauEscarpment flowing down through theMMNR and crossing part of the Serengeti National Park inTanzania before disemboguing in LakeVictoria (MMNR, 2009). TheMara River has four perennialtributaries:theAmalaandNyangoreRiversdrainingfromthewesternMauescarpment,andtheSandand Talek Rivers,which rise in the Siana and LoitaHills respectively. Overall, theMara River Basincoversapproximately13,750km2,ofwhich65%arelocatedinKenya(LVBC&WWF-ESARPO,2010)

Rationaleasconservationtarget

TheGMEriversareofcritical importance insupportingpeople, livestockandwildlife,particularly indryseason.Theyholdafundamentalimportanceinthegreatmigrationdynamics,andtheaccesstothesewater sources by resident andmigratorymammals is imperious at critical times of year. Asstated intheMMNRManagementPlan(MMNR,2009—notyetapproved)thewildebeestmigrationwillbeunabletosurviveinitscurrentmagnitude,residentwildlifespecieswillbeseriouslyimpacted,andthearea’secologycouldbedisturbedifthemainwatersourcesareseverelyaltered,inquantity,quality and seasonability. In 1993, for instance, a severe short-term drought caused the death ofaround400,000wildebeest.

Anecdotalevidenceindicatesthattherivers’flowisdeclining,particularlyduringthedryseason.Thechanging landusepatterns (settlementsandagriculture), increasedeffluentdischargesandclimatevariabilityareaffectingwatervolumes.

2.1.6. MaasaiCulture

TheMaasaitribeofKenyaandTanzaniaarerenownedfortheircolourfulandproudculturalheritage,centredontheirtraditionalsemi-nomadiclifestyleandstrongcommunalsocialorganization.Therearingoflivestockinsharedgrazingareashasbeenpracticedformanycenturies,whilstlivinginsemi-permanentandeasilyremovabledwellingsmadefromnaturalmaterials.Traditionaldress,

25

language,musicanddanceareallinstantlyrecognizableas“Maasai”,andtheage-oldritualsformimportantpillarsintheidentityandwellbeingofthesecommunities.

MaasaiCultureintheGreaterMara

IntheGreaterMara,theMaasaicommunities’semi-nomadicculturefocusedonlivestockrearingandsemi-permanentfamilyvillagesconstructedfromnaturalmaterialhasmaintainedanopenlandscapewherepeople,livestockandwildlifearefreetoroam.Indeedtraditionalbeliefstowardswildlifehavefurtherenhancedagenerallypeacefulandmutuallybeneficialco-existencebetweenpeople,wildlifeandtheland.

Whilstthesepositiveculturalpillarshavemostlyenduredtheonslaughtofoutsideinfluences,therecentdevelopmenthistoryoftheGreaterMarahasbroughtsomesignificantthreatstotheMaasaiculture.RapidlyexpandingpocketsofurbanisationarechangingandfragmentingthelandscapeandbringingwiththemawaveofWesterncultureandinfluence.Thepopulationexplosionandscarceresourcesarealsopushingthecommunitytowardsalternative,non-communallanduses.Fenceshavebecometheoutwardevidenceoftheshiftingvaluesawayfromthetraditionofasharedandopenpastureland.Theresultantindividualisticlifestylehasleadtorisinginequalitiesandalossofthesenseofcommunityandtogetherness.

Thebreakdowninelder-ledtraditionalgrazingrotationschemesandplanninghasalsoincreasedconflictwithinthecommunityandaddedthepressuretofenceoffgrassbanksbyindividuallandowners.

RationaleasaConservationTarget

TheGreaterMara’swildlife,landandpeoplehavealwaysbeeninter-dependentoneachother.Asuccessfulmodelofcommunity-basedconservationisessentialifthelongevityoftheecosystemistoberealized.ThereisanextremelystrongdesirefortheMaasaicommunitiestomaintaintheirpositiveculturalpillarsfortheircommongoodandwellbeing.Interestingly,theseculturalpillarsdoaligninmanycaseswiththestrategiesneededtoprotectwildlifeinanopenlandscapeandbuildaworld-classecotourismdestinationonthebasisoftherichwildlifediversityandthefamousMaasaiculture.

2.1.7. WorldClassTourismDestination

Thehighvaluetravelleroftodayisseekingmemorabledestinationswithanenriching,experientialtravelexperience.Tobeatrulyworldclasstourismdestination,theremustthereforebeastrongidentityaroundthethemesofexclusivity,authenticityandsustainability.Thegroundworkforsuchadestinationmustincludehighqualityoperationalstandardsandacommonethosandsetofethicsacrossoperators.Thedestinationmarketingshouldresultinabrandthatinstantlyrecognizableinthetourismmarketforitsexceptionaloffering.

MaasaiMaraConservanciesasaWorldClassTourismDestination

Overthepastfewdecades,Kenya’simageintheworldtourismsectorhasbeenentrenchedasahighvolumeandlowvaluetourismdestination.TheMaasaiMaraNationalReserve,asthenation’smostpopularsafariarea,reflectsthistrendwithover5,000bedsaccessingthe1,500km2reserve.Thelackofplanningandpoorenforcementoflimitsonnewconstructionhasfuelledthismasstourismmodel.Theresultisagenerallylow-end,overcrowdedsafarithatisnolongerattractivetohighvaluetravellersseekingaqualityexperience.CompetitivesafaridestinationsinAfrica,suchastheOkavangoDelta(Botswana)andtheSerengeti(Tanzania)arethereforewidelyregardedaspreferableoptions,despitetheunparalleledwildlifeviewingandrichMaasaicultureonofferintheMaasaiMara.

TheconservanciessurroundingtheMaasaiMaraNationalReservedohoweverhaveagrowingreputationforaverydifferentandhighvaluetouristexperience.Thisispredominantlybasedonthelowtouristdensities,controlledbynumberofbedsperhectare,andstrictcodeofconductsforoperatorsregardingkeyelementsofaguestexperience,suchasqualityofsafarivehiclesandguidetraining.Generallyhigherstandardsofeco-friendlymethodologiesandtourisminfrastructurealsoreinforcethesepositiveelements.

Thegainsmadeintheseareasarehoweverfragmented,withtheneedtofurtheralignstandardsoftourismoperationsandcontrolsacrossneighbouringconservancies.Thereisalsoverylittle

26

destinationmarketingbeingdoneatconservancy-widelevel,orindeedevenatanindividualconservancylevel,withthevastmajorityofthemarketingbeingundertakenbytheindividualcamps.

Thetourisminvestmentmodelinconservanciesisunderurgentneedofre-invention.Thecurrentprevalentmodelfeaturesafixedmonthlyfeepayablebytourismpartnersperbedoperatedintherespectiveconservancies,withtheintentionofthismonthlycommitmentcoveringvirtuallyallconservancymanagementcostsandleases.ThetourismdownturninKenyahasinturnplacedseverepressureonthetheseoperationstothepointwheremanyareunderthreatofcollapseandpaymentstotheconservancy,andinturnlandownersormanagers,arefrequentlydelayed.Thislackoffinancialstabilityisthreateningthefutureofthesetourismoperationsandassuch,theconservancies’primaryfundingsource.

Uncontrolledorunmanagedgrazingfromsurroundingcommunitieswithintheconservancieshasthepotentialforconflictaswellasseriouslyaffectingtheguestexperience.Unplannedsettlementswithintheboundariesoftheconservancies,withinsightoftheguestactivitiesorblockingcrucialwildlifecorridorsarealsomajorthreatstothequalityofthedestination.Bothoftheabovecanbelinkedtotheadditionalthreatofcompetingandincompatiblelandusewithinconservanciesorthesurroundingareas.

RationaleasaSocialTargetresultingfromConservation

Theconservancyfinancialmodelisextremelyreliantonastableandindeedsuccessfultourismmodel,asthechiefeconomicdriverfortheforeseeablefuture.Theroleoftourismrevenuesincludesthefinancingofconservancyleases,themanagementofconservanciesandtheprovisionofemploymenttothepartnercommunities.Indeedtheprotectionofthegeographicalscopearea’sbiodiversityandrichculturalheritageisundeniablyinter-dependentwithsustainingathrivingecotourismdestination.

2.2. ConservationTargetViabilityAnalysis

Theviabilityanalysisisusedtoassessthecurrentstatusof“health”ofourconservationtargets.Manytimes,particularlyinstartingprojectsorfirstOSiterations,theresultsoftheseanalysesarenotassatisfactoryasonewouldlikethemtobe,althoughhavingageneralapproachonthetargetviabilityisnecessaryinordertodefineconservationgoalsandprioritiseinterventions.Moreover,viabilityanalysesareoftenagoodtooltoalsounderstandtheresearch,dataandinformationneeds.

Therearetwoapproachesfortheviabilityanalysis:thesimpleapproach,andtheKeyEcologicalAttribute(KEA)approach.Theformerismostlybasedontheexpertknowledgeandavailableinformationfromtheworkingsessionsorworkshops,whereeachtargetisratedaccordingtothis4-levelscale:

VeryGood-Ecologicallydesirablestatus;requireslittleinterventionformaintenance.Good-Withinacceptablerangeofvariation;someinterventionrequiredformaintenanceFair-Outsideacceptablerangeofvariation;requireshumanintervention.Poor-Restorationincreasinglydifficult;mayresultinextirpationoftarget

TheKEArequiresmoreanalysis.EachconservationtargetneedstobeassignedwithatleastoneKEA,whicharedefinedbytheneededecologicalconditionsthatthetargetrequiresforitslong-termpersistence.KEAcouldimplysizee.g.populationsize,habitatsize,area;conditioni.e.ratiobetweenfemalesandmales,adultsandjuveniles;ecosystemstructure,orlandscapecontexti.e.connectivityofhabitat,andneedtohaveatleastoneindicatori.e.specimenspersquarekilometre,foraspeciesdensity.TheindicatorisusedtodefinethresholdsofacceptablerangeofvariationthatdefinethestatusfromVeryGoodtoPoor.

Forspeciesandecosystems,someKEAsweredeterminedtoprovidebasicnotionsofthecurrentstatusofeachtarget.TheseKEAs,however,wereonlyusedasaguideforapreliminaryanalysis,butwerenotconsidereddefinitive.Hence,thesimpleviabilityanalysisforspeciesandecosystemswaspreferredforthetimebeing.KEAdefinitionforeachoneofthe7biologicaltargetsisatopresearchpriority,asmentionedinpoint2.3,below.

Fornon-biologicaltargets,suchasMaasaiCultureandWorldClassTourismdestination,theKeyAttributesweredeterminedthroughathoroughdescriptionofwhatdefinesaviabletarget.

Theresultsofviabilityanalysisarepresentedinthefollowingtables:

Table1.a:Resultsoftheviabilityanalysisforbiologicaltargets

Viabilityanalysisforspecies

Item ViabilityMode Status Sources Goals

Elephant Keyattribute Good Expertknowledge MaintainthestatusofGOODbyconservingtheirhabitat,movementspaceandgrassavailability

Lion KeyAttribute Good Expertknowledge MaintainthestatusofGOODbyconservingtheirhabitat,improvingconnectivitywithintheecosystemandconservingtheirpreybase

Wildebeest KeyAttribute Fair Roughguess RaisethestatustoGOODbyconservingtheirmigrationroutesandcalvingareaaswellasimprovinggrassqualityandavailability

Viabilityanalysisforspecies

Item ViabilityMode

Status Sources Goals

Forests Simple Poor Roughguess NonetlossofallkeyhabitatsintermsofareatheGMENonetreductioninconnectivityindicesforallkeyhabitatsNonetlossoflandscapeheterogeneityintheGMEMaintainboththespeciesandstructuraldiversityrepresentedwithinthewoodland,forestandgrasslandhabitats.

Grasslands Simple Fair Roughguess

Woodlands Simple Fair Roughguess

Water Simple Fair Roughguess RaisethestatustoGOODbyimprovingwaterqualityRaisethestatustoGOODbymaintainingminimumflowsindryseason

28

Table1.b:Resultsoftheviabilityanalysisforculturalandsocialtargets

Viabilityanalysisforculturalandsocialtargets

Item ViabilityMode----

ΔIndicator

Status TargetViabilityRating

Source Goal

Poor Fair Good VeryGood

Maasaiculture KeyAttribute Fair RaisetothestatusofGOOD

KA:Communallanduse

ΔPercentageofunfencedland

Fair <75% 76-80% 80-94% 95% NotSpecified RaisetothestatusofGOOD

KA:Livestockkeeping

ΔPercentageofhouseholdsinsustainablerange(50-100)

Fair <60% 61-70% 71-94% >95% RoughGuess RaisetothestatusofGOOD

KA:LanguageandDressing

ΔPercentageofpeoplespeakinglanguage/wearingdressing

Good <50% 51-60% 61-80% >80% ExpertKnowledge RaisetothestatusofGOOD

Worldclasstourismdestination

KeyAttribute Fair RaisetothestatusofVERYGOOD

KA:Tourismdensity

ΔBed/acre Good <250 250-299 300-350 >350 ExpertKnowledge RaisetothestatusofVERYGOOD

KA:Bedoccupancy

Δ%occupiedannually

Fair ExpertKnowledge RaisetothestatusofVERYGOOD

KA:Ecologicalfootprint

Δ%offacilitieswithSilverESOKratingorhigher

Fair <50% 50-69% 70-89% >90% ExpertKnowledge RaisetothestatusofVERYGOOD

2.3. ResearchNeeds

Asmentionedabove,viabilityanalysisservetoidentifycriticaldataandinformationgapsthatneedtobefilledbyresearch.Clearly,agooddefinitionofKeyEcologicalattributesforeachoneofthebiologicaltargetsshouldbethenumberoneresearchpriorityaccompanyingtheCNR-CAP.Thislistcouldinclude,butnotlimitedto:

Elephantandwildebeestpopulationsanddensities Movement/migrationroutesforelephantsandwildebeest Spatialdistributionanddensitiesofcarnivores,particularlylions Preybaseforcarnivores Savannahmosaiccompositionandstructure(asrelatedofits3maincomponents:grasslands,

woodlandsandforests) Minimumdynamicareasforwoodlandsandforests,consideringthelandscapeheterogeneity Suitablevolumeofgrassestosustainwildlifeandlivestock Structureanddynamicsofgrasslands Waterquality,quantityandseasonabilityindicators Climatechangeeffectsonecosystemsandkeyspecies(particularlytargetspecies) Animalunitcarryingcapacityinthegeographicalscopearea Threatrelatedindicators:e.g.percentageofplotsfencedinthegeographicalscopearea.

3. DirectthreatstoConservationTargets

Directthreatsaretheproximateactivitiesorprocessesthathavecaused,arecausingormaycausenegativeimpactstotheconservationtarget’sviability(TNC,2007).Generallyspeaking,directthreatsarelimitedtohumanactivities,suchasunsustainablegrazing,incompatibleagriculture,roadsorlogging,anddonotincludenaturaldisturbancesunlesstheyarealtered(e.g.,irregularprecipitationregimescausedbyglobalwarming)oraggravatedbyhumanactivities(increaseoffireoccurrencesbecauseofslash-and-burnagriculture).

3.1. Threatdescription

3.1.1. Fencing

Landsub-divisionandprivatizationinKenyahasresultedinincreasedfencingacrosstheGME,withtheconsequentexclusionofwildlife.Theuniquepastoral/wildlifesystemthathascharacterisedtheMaracouldshortlybelostunlesslandholdingscanbemanagedtomaintainthefreemovementoflivestockandwildlife(Lampry&Reid204).Theimplicationsoflandsubdivisionandfencingtobiodiversityconservationandlivestockproductivityarebecominganimportanttopicinacademicliterature.KimaniandPickard(1998),forinstance,statethat“[land]sub-divisionwillthreatencontinuedextensivenomadiclivestockproductionbydecreasingmobilityandthecarryingcapacityofgroupranchland,increasethepotentialforlanddegradationandcropfailures,andinterferewithtraditionalwildlifemigrationpatterns.”

Fencinganditsrootcausesfragmentthelandscapeandobstructmigratoryroutes,theaccesstodryseasongrazingareasandwateronwhichmanymammalpopulationsarecriticallydependent(Ogutuetal.,2011).ThegreaterMaraisnotonlyintegraltotheannualMara-Serengetiwildebeestmigration,butalsotothe“internal”migrationofthemajorityofungulatespeciesastheymovebetweenpreferentialfeedingareasandwatersources(e.g.zebra,topi,Thompson’sandGrant’sgazelles).OftencitedintheliteraturearethenegativeimpactsoffencingtotheAfricanelephant,akeystonespeciesintheAfricansavannah.Negativeimpactssurroundrestrictingtherangeoftheelephant,whichinturnleadtodisruptionofecosystemstructureandfunction(Guldemond&vanAarde,2008;Shrader,Pimm&VanAarde2010;Valeixetal,2011;Asner&Levick2012).Additionally,concernscontinuetoelevatesurroundingthecontinuedcompressionofelephantintoever-decreasingamountsofprotectedarea(vanAarde&Jackson,2006;Valeixetal,2011;Young&vanAarde,2011).Restrictingthemovementofungulatespeciesalsoimpactsuponpredatorswhomustbeableto“follow”theirprey.Previousauthors(Estesetal,2011)haveindicatedalikelyconsequenceofthiswillbeanalterationtopopulationdynamicswiththepossibilityoftrophiccascades,leadingtolossofbothecosystemfunctionandbiodiversity.

30

Perhapsthelargest,butasyetmostpoorlyunderstoodimpactoftheincreasedamountoffencinglinkstoclimatechangeanditsimpactuponanimalmovementpatterns.ThiswasraisedbyWoodroffeetal.(2014)whoconcludedthat,asclimatechangeincreasesthensodoestheimportanceofwildlifemobilityandlandscapeconnectivity,notingthatfencingofwildlifeshouldbecomeanactionoflastresort.Untilwearemuchmoreconversantwiththerelationshipbetweenclimatechangeandanimalmovementpatternsinsavannahecosystemsthentheprecautionaryprincipleofverylimited/zerofencingshouldprevail.

Fencingalsolimitsmovementandaccesstotraditionalpastoralists.Anumberofstudies(BehnkeandScooners,1993;Ellisetal.,1993;Swallow1994)arguethatsemi-nomadicandnomadicpastoralismisthebestuseofsemi-aridareas,as[unlikesedentarylivestockproduction]“itallowspasturetobeusedopportunistically,makingmoreefficientuseofenvironmentalvariationsinpastureproductivitywhicharecommoninsemi-aridareas”(KimaniandPickard,1998).

3.1.2. Agriculture

LandconversiontoagricultureintheNarokCounty(bothforintensiveandsubsistenceagriculture)hasbeendocumentedsincethelate1980s(SerneelsandLambin,2001a,2001b).Amongthemanyfactorscausinglandconversiontoagriculture,sourcesparticularlyconcurontwo:accessibilitytomarketsandlandtenure(SeneelsandLambin,2001b).Thusfar,theformerhasbeenthecauseforagriculturalexpansionattheedgesoftheMaasaiecosystemandinad-hocplotsofland.Ifcommunicationsaretobeimproved,landconversionwillexpandaswellinotherareas.Asseenabove,agriculturalexpansionisamongthemajorcausesoftheLoitawildebeestpopulationdecline.

Landprivatisationhasbeenamajorcauseforagriculturalexpansion,particularlyforsubsistenceagricultureheldbynon-MaasaimigratingtotheMara.Asitoccurswithlivestock,smalllandholdingsforsubsistencefarmingarenotabletosustainfamiliesoverthelongterm(ConnellyandChaiken,2000),creatingmorepressureonthenaturalresourcebase.SenoandShaw(2002)assertthat“cultivationisfarlesscompatiblewithwildlifethangrazing[andthat]anychangestowardcultivationwillhavesignificantimplicationsforthewildlifethatutilizethereserveandadjacentgroupranches.”AtthesametimeHomewoodetal.(2002)reportthatlandtenure(explicitlystate/communalversusprivate)agriculturalpolicyandmarketconditionsaremorethecauseofrapidland-coverchangeanddeclineofwildlifethanhumanpopulationdensityandgrowthratesandlivestockpopulationtrends.

3.1.3. Poaching

Poaching,localconsumptionofbushmeatandthewidespreaduseofsnaresarealsoaseverethreattowildebeestpopulations,accountingforapproximately70,000-129,000deathsperyearintheMara-Serengetiecosystem(RentschandPacker,2012).Asforelephants,poachingforivoryhastraditionallybeenthemajorcauseofthespecies’decline.Between2010and2014,uptothreequartersofannualelephantdeathswerereportedbyMEPasanimalskilledillegallyintheMara(MEP2015).ThedeathshaveoccurredparticularlyinPardamatandSiana,andasmentionedintheconservationtargetdescription,thereisacorrelationofavoidanceofpoachingeventsandincreasedlevelsofareamanagement.

3.1.4. HumanWildlifeConflict

Arapidlygrowinghumanpopulationandresultingnewsettlementshavebroughtlionsincloserproximitywithhumansresultinginhighratesoflivestockpredationandsubsequentretaliatoryandpreventativekillingsoflions(WoodroffeandFrank,2005).

Currentlythemostimportantperceivedthreatisthelossandfragmentationofhabitatcausedbyon-goinghumanpopulationexpansionandrapidlandconversion.Aspecificmanifestationofthistrendisthereportedincreaseinhuman-elephantconflict,whichfurtheraggravatesthethreattoelephantpopulations.Elephantsareknowntoforagewidelybeyondtheboundariesofprotectedareasandenterintocultivatedcropfarms.Thiscrop-raidingbehaviourisariskfactor(Chiyoetal.2011),whichfrequentlycausesconflictsandresultsinelephantinjuryordeath(Mijeleetal.2011).Itisthesehabitatrequirementsthatmakethisspeciesparticularlyvulnerabletoconflict(Kangwana1993;Kiiru1994).

31

3.1.5. UnplannedSettlementsandUrbanisation

Theexplosionofscatteredandunplannedperi-urbancentresintheGreaterMarahasbeendrivenbydemandforservicesbyanincreasinglocalpopulationandthoseemployedintourismorindeedtouriststhemselves.Ribbondevelopmentsalongthemainroadsthroughthegeographicalscopeareacanclearlybeidentified.Theincreaseinalternativelandusehasadditionallyledtotheneedforcertainspecializedindustryservicestobeprovidedinacentrallocation.Investorsandentrepreneursfromwithin,butsignificantlyalsofromoutsidethelocalcommunity,haverespondedtothedemandfortheseservicesandwithnorural-urbanplanninginplace,thishasledtoadisorganizedflurryofdevelopmentintheperi-urbanpockets.Theserural-urbansprawlsdetractfromtheopenlandscapeneededforwildlifeandasthebasisforthetraditionalMaasaiwayoflife.ThereisalsoagrowingWesterninfluenceemanatingfromthesedevelopments,mirroringtheurbancultureandlifestylesfoundinotherpartsofKenyaanderodingthestrengthofMaasaiidentityofthecommunityasiseasilyidentifiedbythedecreaseintraditionaldressandlanguageinthesecentres.

3.1.6. Uncontrolled/UnsustainableGrazing

Therehasbeenwidespreadcollapseinthetraditional,elder-ledgrazingsystemintheMaasaicommunities,predominantlycausedbythesub-divisionoflandandadrifttowardsanindividualisticmindset.Poorqualitybreeds,populationincrease,cashsaleofsmallstockandalackofeducationonalternativeinvestmentshavealsomeantthatthereissevereover-stockinginthescopearea–particularlyofsheepandgoats.Thissituationhasbeenaggravatedbyverylittleclarityonareasonablestockingrate,whichalsoneedstoincorporatethegrazingneedsofthenon-domesticungulatepopulation.

Thisover-stockinghasdevelopedinamannerinwhichthenumberoflivestockownedbyeachfamilyunitisdrasticallyinequitableinitsdistribution.Cattlebarons,withgoodaccesstograssandthecapitalrequiredtoinvest,havethousandsofcattle,goatandsheepwhilstotherfamiliesinthecommunityowneithernoneorfewlivestockunits.TheimpactonthesefamilieswithnolivestockintermsofwellbeingintheMaasaicultureissignificant.

Currently,thetotalnumberoflivestockunitsinthegeographicalscopeareaiscausingunsustainablepressureontheavailablegrasslands,dependeduponbybothwildanddomesticanimals.AlthoughtheMarahasshownextraordinaryresilienceinmaintaininghugepopulationsofdomesticandmigratorywildherbivores(LampreyandReed,2004),theincreasingovergrazinganditslong-termeffectscouldleadtothelossofnativevegetationcover.Reportedeffectsofovergrazingincludeadecreaseofherbaceousvegetationcoverinhighlivestockdensityareas(Lamprey1984,citedinLampreyandReed,2004).Otherperceivednegativeimpactsofovergrazinginvolvechangesinvegetationstructureandcomposition(Fynn,2012;Treydteetal.,2013)thatimpairsthefunctionalcharacteristicsanddynamicsofgrasses(Kiokoetal.,2012),encroachmentofwoodyvegetation(Talbot,1986)andincreasingincidenceoferosionandpoorqualityofsoils(Kiokoetal.,2012).Desta(n/d)determinesthatoverstocking,overgrazingandpoorlivestockmanagementasanimportantfactorforlanddegradationinEasternAfrica.Similarly,otherstudiesconcludethattheresourcepartitioningbetweenlivestockandwildlife,specificallywildebeestandzebra,haveastrongpotentialforcompetitionbetweencattleandthenativespecies(wildebeest,zebraandotherungulates),especiallyinperiodsoftimewhenquantityorqualityofgrassesarescarce(VoetenandPrins1999).

Uncontrolledgrazingalsoleadstoadisruptioninthequalityofecotourismexperienceinthescopearea,aswellasbringingrelatedsecurityconcernsrelatedtotheunmonitoredmovementofherdersincloseproximitytounfencedtourismfacilities,whichcouldpotentiallyleadtoincidentsoftheft.

3.1.7. CharcoalBurningandLogging

Firewoodandparticularlyitsby-productcharcoalarethemainsourceofenergyinKenya,andeveninthebestcase,agreatproportionofthepopulationwillkeeprelyingonwoodfuelsfordecades(Neuberger,2015,Kalenda,n/d).Thesupplyoffirewoodandproductionofcharcoalrepresentanenormousandgrowingthreattowoodlands,forestsandtheirbiodiversity,notonlybecausetheyarebasedonlocalneedsanddemands,butalsobecausetheyrepresentalucrativebusinesswhichdonotonlyincludethosedirectlycollectingandburningwood(Rowan,2009).InareasliketheGME,charcoalisalsoknowntobethealternativesourceoflivelihood,supportingpeopleduringfamineanddroughtdisasters(Kalenda,n/d).

32

Both,forestsandmainlywoodlandsfaceeminentenvironmentalthreatfromunsustainablecharcoalproduction,athreatthatwilllastandincreaseunlessdeliberateeffortsinorganizingthatpracticeareundertakentopromoteitinasustainablemanner.

Otherrootcausesofwoodextractionfromwoodlandsandforestsinthescopeareaincludehousebuildingmaterialsandfencing.Somespecificspeciesarespecificallyaffected,suchastheCedar(JuniperusProcera,Höchst;alsoknownasAfricanjuniper),theonlyjunipernaturallyoccurringsouthoftheEquator,whichisdemandedgiventhedurability,robustness,andresistancetotermitesandweatherofitswood(Maunduetal.2001).

3.1.8. LossofMaasaiCulture

ThetraditionalMaasailifestylehasbeenoneofsemi-nomadismortranshumancebasedprimarilyontherequirementsoftheirlivestock,andadaptationtotheannualvariationsintherainregimeandgrassavailability.Thatway,inwetseasonstheMaasaimovewiththeirlivestocktotheopenplains,whererainhasprovidedabundantgrassandsurfacewater.Duringdryseasonstheyoccupythemorehillyormountainouswoodedareas,wheredry-seasongrazingandpermanentwater(intheformofeitherperennialriversorwaterholes)areavailable.Livestock,particularlycattle,formthebasisofthetraditionalMaasaicultureandeconomy(Talbot,1986).

Landsubdivisionisradicallychangingthewaythelandscapehasbeentraditionallymanagedbythesemi-nomadMaasai,whichrepresentsatremendousshiftintheirculture,asitisleadingtotheendofthetraditionalpastorallife(Tallisetal.,2008).Asmostgrasslandsintheworld,theMaasaiMarahasalwaysbeenaculturallandscapewherehumanlivelihoodswascompletelyintegratedintheecosystemdynamics.SomescholarsmayarguethattheMaasaigrasslandecosystemexistsbecause,andnotdespitetheinterrelationsbetweentheMaasaipeople,wildlifeandtheirenvironment(theMaasaiculturalpractices,thenon-bioticresourcesandecologicalprocesses,andthelandscape).Thesecharacteristicsarewellunderstoodbylocals—mainlybyelders.However,thisunderstandingiscurrentlybeingerodedamongtheyoungergenerationsbyfalseconceptionsofmodernity,newvalues,increasingpovertyandrecently,bylandsubdivision.Thecombinationofallthesefactorsisdisastrousforthelocalcultureand,consequently,forwildlife—aslocalculturebrutallytransformsitself,itsvaluesfor,understandingtoandcloserelationwithnaturemutateaswell.ThePardamatlocalresidentsinterestedinestablishinganewconservationareaintheirlands,clearlystatedthat“weneedtounderstandthatthe[Maasai]Marahasalwaysbeenafree-roamingspaceforwildlife,livestockandpeople,”(comm.pers.)aclearperceptionofthewildlife-humaninteraction.Indeed,thesymbiosisbetweentheMaasaiandtheirenvironmentandwildlifeissocrucialfortheirculturethateldersliterallyandrepeatedlymentionedthattheculturalchangesfosteredbylandsubdivisionmeanthe“endoftheworld”(comm.pers.)Thisdelicate,intertwiningrelationshipbetweentheMaasaiculture,theirlivelihoodsandtheMaraecosystem,inparticularthewildlife,needstoberecognizedasthemajorconditionforlongtermconservation.Itisclearthatnoneofthesepartscanprevailwithouttheother—acharacteristicthattrulymakestheMaasaiMara,aboveall,aculturallandscape.

AsmentionedintheMMNRManagementPlandraft(MMNR,2009),overthelong-term,theMaasaiculture,withitsaffinityandtolerancetowardsnatureandwildlife,hasbeenamajorfactorinensuringthecontinuingabundanceofwildlifeandtheirhabitatsintheGreaterMaraEcosystem.Itsdegradationandlostwillcontributeandaggravateotherthreatstowildlife

3.1.9. Infrastructure

Infrastructuremaybeanindicatorofhumandevelopment.However,whenitispoorlyplannedandimplemented,orbuiltinsensitiveareas,itrathercausesnegativeeffectsonhumanwellbeing,theenvironmentandwildlife.Inthecaseofthisplangeographicalscopearea,twomajorfactorstriggerfastandpoorlyplannedinfrastructure:humansedentarisationandtourism.

Sedentarisationleadstounplannedsettlements,andconsequentlytothedemandofservices,suchashealth,education,andtradefacilities,amongothers.Oncetheseservicesareprovidedsettlementsbecomethemselvesincentresthatcallmorepeopletosettle-in,sometimesalsoattractedbyworkopportunitiesthattourismmayprovide.Tourisminturn,useslandresourcesforaccommodation,tourismfacilitiesandotherinfrastructureprovision.Toughthemajorimpactofsedentarisationandtourismisthedevelopmentofroadnetworks.

33

Roadsseverelyinterferewithmigratoryroutes,causedirectwildlifemortalityduecollisions,andincreasesecosystemfragmentation.Theyalsoenableeasyaccess,andforthatreasontheyopennewareasforhumanmigration,developmentandincompatiblelanduseswithwildlife(Bedelain,2013).AsmentionedintheAgriculturesectionofthischapter(3.1.2.,above),easyaccesstomarketshasbeenanimportantcauseforagriculturaldevelopment.Forthatreason,theprojectoftarmackingtheroadfromNaroktowntotheMMNR’sSekenanigateisofmajorconcern.

3.1.10. SandExtractionandPollution

TheharvestingofsandfromtheMarariversisasignificantissueinsomeareasofthegreaterMaraecosystem,namely;Naikarra,Siana,MajimotoandasmallsectionofTalek.ThesandisusedfortheconstructionofhousesinthenearbyregionaltownofNarokandmorerecentlyisbeingtransportedformarketinNairobi.Additionally,KWShasidentifiedadirectlinkbetweensandharvestingandthepoachingofwildlife,withbushmeatbeingfoundinlorriescarryingsandandallegationsthatthetransporterlorriescanalsobeusedtocarryivoryandforestproductslikeCedar(Juniperusprocera),Sandalwood(Osyrislanceolata)andOleaAfricana(Oleaeuropaeasubsp.africana).

Theextractionofsandisanincreasinglyimportantissue,especiallywithinthecontextofchangingweatherandrainfallpatterns,asthesandinriversholdswaterduringthewetseasonthatisslowlyreleasedduringthedryseasons.Further,theremovalofsanddestroystheriverinevegetation,whichinturncausesinstabilitytotheriverbanks,thesiltationofriversanddamagetorivercrossingpoints.

InothercountiesinKenya,especiallyKajiadoandMachakos,theyhaveimposedabanonsandharvestingandMachakosisdevelopingabilltomanagetheharvestingofsand,asavaluableresource.

Pollutionismainlyassociatedwithpesticideuseonfarms,andisprobablyresponsibleforthedisappearanceofpartoftheflora,butalsothedisappearanceofinsectsandbirds.Somepeoplehavereportedakindofskindiscolorationamonghipposinriverswherethecurrentislow(AssociationTendua,n/d).However,pollutionisalsovisibleintowns,villagesandtheysurroundingareaswherepoorornodisposalandmanagementofwastearenotonlydegradinghumanhealth,butalsodeterioratingwaterquality,wildlife,land,cultureandscenicvalues.

3.1.11. ClimateChangeeffectsasnewthreat

ClimatechangeisnotnecessarilydeemedasathreatinOS-basedconservationplans,althoughitisconsideredastherootcauseoflocaleffectsthatdorepresentseriousthreatstowildlifeandecosystems.Thereisanincreasingcorpusofscientificliteraturedocumentingclimatechangeeffectsandforecastingscenarios(Galvin,2009),howevermoreresearchneedstobeundertakeninordertoclearlydefinewhatclimatechangeeffectsneedtobeconsideredasthreatsanddesignpropermitigationoradaptationstrategies.

InrecenttimestherainfallpatternsoftheMarahavebecomeincreasinglyerratic,anddroughtisapronouncedconsideration,withmoreregularperiodsofdroughtofincreasingdurationinrecentyears.TheElNiñoSouthernOscillation(ENSO)forcesrainfallpatternsoutofphaseandconsequentlyisincreasinglycitedasbeingofmajorconcern,primarilybecauseboththewildanddomesticanimalsareheavilyreliantonthenaturalcycleofwateravailabilityandaswell,therecentdroughtshaveresultedinmajoreconomicandecologicalchange.Areductioninsurfacewateravailabilityhasdirectimpactsforbothwildlifeandlivestockpopulationsalike.Firstly,itsubstantiallyelevatesmortalityratesandsecondlydroughtwillresultinthemorerobustagegroupssurviving,producinganunnaturalskewinthepopulationdynamics(Serneelsetal.,2001).FuturechangesinrainfallpatternandperiodicitywilllikelyhavesevereimplicationsforthewildlifeoftheGME.ForexampleMdumaetal.(1999)foundthatwildebeestnumbersaresignificantlyaffectedbyrainfallinthedryseasonasitdirectlyaffectsfoodavailability,whichinturnwilldirectlyaffectpredatornumbersandsurvivalrates.

Climaticerraticpatternswillalsoaggravateotherthreats.Habitatfragmentationduetolandusechangeslimittheaccesstodryseasongrazingandwateronwhichthecattleandwildlifearecriticallydependent(Ogutuetal.,2011).Climatechangewillexacerbatethisthreatastheincreasedfrequencyandseverityofdroughtsandfloodsthatisexpectedtooccur(IPCC,2012)willmodifyvegetationgrowthandhencefoodavailabilityforthemigratinganimals.Theabilityofmigrantstorespondtochangingclimaticconditionsislikelytobefurtherimpairedbysuchman-madethreatsashabitatloss

34

andfragmentation(Ogutuetal.,2011).

ThisCNR-CAPhasnotyetdesignedstrategiesonclimatechangeadaptationandmitigation,althoughitproposestorapidlyinitiatestudiesleadingtounderstandtheeffectsanddefineinterventionsaccordingly.

3.2. Threatanalysisandrating

Thethreatanalysisconsistsnotonlyinassessinghoweachdirectthreatnegativelyaffectseachtarget,butalsoinhavingabetterunderstandingofhowdifferentthreatsaffectonetarget,andhowtheensembleoftargetsisaffectedbyonesinglethreat.Attheendofthisanalysis,onealsohasamoreaccurateperceptionofhowallthreatsareimpactingtheensembleoftargets,inotherwords,theoverallchallengethattheplanisaimingtoundertake.

Ratingthreatsisalsoimportantfromastrategicperspective,asithelpstofocusactionsontheonesthataremostimportanttoaddress.Again,itisimportanttoconsidertheentiresetofdirectthreatsandnotlimittheanalysistothethreatsthattheconcernedorganisationshavetheexpertiseorresourcestoaddress(CMP,2013).

Thereareanumberofthreatratingtoolsforthepurposeofanalysingandratingthreats.Thisprocessusedtheonebasedonrankingtheseverity,scopeandirreversibilityofeachthreat,asfollows:

Severity:Thelevelofdamagetotheconservationtargetthatcanreasonablybeexpectedwithin10yearsundercurrentcircumstancesi.e.,giventhecontinuationoftheexistingsituation.

• VeryHigh:Thethreatislikelytodestroyoreliminatetheconservationtargetoversomeportionofthetarget'soccurrenceatthesite.

• High:Thethreatislikelytoseriouslydegradetheconservationtargetoversomeportionofthetarget'soccurrenceatthesite.

• Medium:Thethreatislikelytomoderatelydegradetheconservationtargetoversomeportionofthetarget'soccurrenceatthesite.

• Low:Thethreatislikelytoonlyslightlyimpairtheconservationtargetoversomeportionofthetarget'soccurrenceatthesite.

Scope:Mostcommonlydefinedspatiallyasthegeographicscopeofimpactontheconservationtargetatthesitethatcanreasonablybeexpectedwithin10yearsundercurrentcircumstancesi.e.,giventhecontinuationoftheexistingsituation.

• VeryHigh:Thethreatislikelytobewidespreadorpervasiveinitsscopeandaffecttheconservationtargetthroughoutthetarget'soccurrencesatthesite.

• High:Thethreatislikelytobewidespreadinitsscopeandaffecttheconservationtargetatmanyofitslocationsatthesite.

• Medium:Thethreatislikelytobelocalizedinitsscopeandaffecttheconservationtargetatsomeofthetarget'slocationsatthesite.

• Low:Thethreatislikelytobeverylocalizedinitsscopeandaffecttheconservationtargetatalimitedportionofthetarget'slocationatthesite.

Irreversibility:Thedegreetowhichtheimpactofasourceofastresscanberestored.

• VeryHigh:Thesourceproducesastressthatisnotreversiblee.g.,wetlandsconvertedtoashoppingcentre.

• High:Thesourceproducesastressthatisreversible,butnotpracticallyaffordablee.g.,wetlandconvertedtoagriculture.

• Medium:Thesourceproducesastressthatisreversiblewithareasonablecommitmentofresourcese.g.,ditchinganddrainingofwetland.

• Low:Thesourceproducesastressthatiseasilyreversibleatrelativelylowcoste.g.,off-roadvehiclestrespassinginwetland.

35

Table2:ThreatRating5

Threats \ Targets Maasai culture Woodlands Water

sources Elephant Lion Forests Grasslands Wildebeest Summary

Threat Rating

Fencing High Medium Medium Medium Medium High

High Scope High Medium High Medium High High

Severity High Medium High Medium High High

Irreversibility Medium Medium Low Medium Low Low

Uncontrolledgrazing/Overgrazing Medium Medium High High High High

High

Scope High Medium High High High High

Severity Medium Medium High High Medium High

Irreversibility Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium

Unplannedsettlementsandurbanisation High Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium High High

High Scope High Medium Medium High Medium Medium High High

Severity High Medium Medium Medium High Medium High High

Irreversibility Medium Medium Medium High High High High High

5ThreatratingexcludesWorldClassTourismDestinationinitsanalysis.Asitimpactedbyhowallthreatsaffecttheothertargetsitdependsupon,itisnotdirectlyaffectedbyanyoftheidentifiedthreats.However,theoverallrateof“High”couldbeconsideredasasurrogateofthelevelofthreatoverthetarget.

36



Threat Rating

Infrastructure Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium High

High Scope Medium Medium Medium Medium High High

Severity Medium High Medium Medium Medium High

Irreversibility High High High High High High

Charcoal(Logging/burning) High High

High Scope High High

Severity High High

Irreversibility Medium Medium

Human-wildlifeconflict High High Low Medium

High Scope High High High High

Severity High High Medium Medium

Irreversibility Medium Medium Low Medium

Agriculturelanduse Medium Medium Low Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium

Medium Scope Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium

Severity High Medium Medium High Medium High Medium Medium

Irreversibility Medium High Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium

37



Threat Rating

LossofMaasaiculture Medium Low Medium Low Low High Medium

Medium Scope Medium Low High High Medium High High

Severity Medium Low Medium Low Low High Medium

Irreversibility High Low Medium Medium Medium High High

Poaching Medium Medium High

Medium Scope Medium Medium High

Severity High Medium High

Irreversibility Medium Medium Medium

Pollution Low Medium

Low Scope High Medium

Severity Medium Medium

Irreversibility Low Medium

Sandextraction Medium

Low Scope Medium

Severity Medium

Irreversibility Medium

SummaryTargetRating High Medium Medium High High Medium High High High

38

3.3. TheContext:CausesandEffectsofThreatstoConservationTargets

Inthescopearea,alternativeandcompetinglandusesrepresentasawholethemajorthreatfortheconservationofecosystems,wildlife,aswellasfortheMaasaiculture.Thisisaggravatedbyfocusedthreatstowildlifetargets,suchaspoachingandhuman-wildlifeconflictsituations.ThehighlevelofthreatsisaffectingconsiderablytheMaasaiMaraConservanciespursuitofbecomingaworld-classtourismdestination.

Diagram2showsthefactors(yellowboxes)thatleadtodirectthreats(pinkboxes),interconnectedonewitheachotherinaweb-kindofrelationship.Structuralproblems(populationincrease,poverty)arecertainlythebaseseriesoffactors,thoughland-subdivisionisplayingacriticalroleinspillingoverunprecedentedlevelofthreats.Landsub-divisionofcommunalland(previouslyknownas“groupranches”)hasindeedledtotheabilityforeachlandownertomakeindividualchoicesonhowthelandwillbeused.Commercialandsubsistencefarming,aswellasurbanlanduses,currentlystandoutastheleadingalternatives.Onfacevaluethesealternativesoftenprovideacompellingimprovementofreturnsforlandownerswhencomparedtotraditionallanduses,whicharefarmorecompatibletoconservation,ecotourismandthepreservationoftheMaasaiculture.Pooraccesstolivestockmarketsandlowqualitybreedshaveaddedpressuretoseekalternatives.Itistheprolificincreaseoffencingoflandthatisthemostobvioussymptomofthisthreat,closingoffopenspaceandcorridorsforwildlifeanddividingthecommunity.

Aggravatingtheimpactsofpoachingandhumanwildlifeconflict,habitatmodificationrepresentsachangethatresultsinthehabitatbecominglesssuitablethanitwaspreviouslytowildlife(Reidetal.,2004)andpeopleaswell.IntheMarathisreflectsconditionsinareasthatareheavilygrazedbylivestockbutcouldstillbeutilisedbywildlifesuchasintheheavilyusedareasintheformergroupranches(Prins1992).Fragmentationisthe‘breakingupintosmallerpieces’ofsuitableareasinalandscape(Reidetal.,2004).Bothhabitatlossandmodificationcancontributetofragmentationandtheseverityoftheeffectishighlydependentonthescaleofthechangeandthetargetspecies.

Habitatloss,contractionandfragmentationresultingfromthedirectthreatstoecosystemtargetshaveallbeensuggestedasprevalentcausesinthedecreaseofwildlifenumbersinareasthathistoricallysustainedlargenumbers(seeOgutuetal.,2011;Ogutuetal.,2010;Ogutuetal.,2009;Fryxelletal.,2005;Sinclairetal.,1995).Reidetal.,(2004)describetheprincipalprocessesofhabitatchange,allofwhichcanbeattributedtoincreasedhumanactivityinthecontextoftheMaraecosystem.Habitatloss,orconversion,directlymodifiesthecompositionofalandscapebytransforming‘suitablehabitat’intoahabitatthathasreducedinqualitytonolongerbe‘entirelysuitable’.IntheMarathisisattributedtoexpandingpermanentsettlementsandtradingcentres,conversionofrangelandtocropland,andtheerectionofimpenetrablefences(Reidetal.,2004).Inareaswheretheincidenceoflivestockgrazingishigh,wildherbivores,whichvarybetweengrazers,browsersandmixedfeeders,oftendiminishinnumbersasaresultofdisturbanceandcompetitionforfood(Riginos&Young2007).Inaddition,intensivelivestockgrazinghasfrequentlybeenlinkedtoshrubencroachmentinsub-SaharanAfrica(Scholes&Archer1997;Asneretal.,2009;Roquesetal.,2001;Cabraletal.,2003;Sankaranetal.,2008);whichresultsinadecreaseinpalatableherbaceousvegetationandanincreaseinunpalatablewoodyvegetation(ScholesandWalker,1993).

Ashumanpopulationsgrow,sotoodoestheirdemandforland,increasingfragmentationandisolationofwildlifepopulations.Inthelast100yearslionshavelost75%oftheirformerrangeduetoprogressiveintensificationoflanduse,sedentarisation,diversificationoflivelihoodsandlandfragmentationthroughprivatizationoflandtenuredrivenbydynamicsocio-political,demographicandeconomicprocesses(Riggioetal.,2012).Theconfinementandconcentrationofelephantsindecliningrangeswithreducedallowanceforseasonalmigrationiscausingelevateddensitiesandhabitatdestructionthatcanbedetrimentaltospeciesdiversityandtoelephantsthemselves.

39

Diagram1:ScopeAreaConceptualModel

40

DefinitionoftheboxesandovalsinDiagram2

Causalorcontributingfactors(yellowboxes):Contextualfactors,usuallynegativefactors,thatcauseathreatoranothercausalfactor,orcontributetotheirexistence.

Directthreatonconservationtargets(pinkboxes):Theproximatehumanactivitiesorprocessesthathavecaused,arecausingormaycausenegativeimpactstotheviabilityofconservationtargets.Theyshouldnotbeconfusedwith“stressors”(forinstance,fragmentation),whicharetheeffectofathreatinatarget.

Conservationtargets(lightgreenovals):Biologicalfeaturessuchasspecies,communitiesandecologicalsystemsthatrepresentandencompassthefullarrayofbiologicaldiversityfoundintheplan’sgeographicalscopearea,and/ornon-biologicalelementsthatareworthytoconservebecauseoftheirintrinsicvaluesandrelationwiththebiologicalconservationtargets,suchastheMaasaiCulture,inthiscase.

Socialtargetsresultingfromconservationtargets(brownoval):AlsoknownasHumanWellbeingTargets,aspertheOSjargon,theyrefertonon-biologicaltargetsthatresultfrombiologicaltargets’conservationviatheecosystemservicesthatthelaterprovide.

Planscope(darkgreenbox):Theareawherethebiodiversityorculturalfeaturesofinterestarelocated,wheremostofthestrategiestakeplace,andwherepositivechangesresultingfromthestrategiesareexpectedtohappen.

Strategy(lightyellowhexagons):Interventionsaimedtoachieveconservationobjectivesandgoals,orsupportotherstrategiesimplementation.Thehexagonsandrespectivearrowsinthisdiagramrefertotheinterventionentrypointsthatwereidentifiedtodesignstrategiesupon.

4. Stakeholderanalysis

ThemostimportantstakeholdersrelatedwiththecontextofthescopeareaappearontableXX.Stakeholdersaresocialgroups,agencies,organizations,orindividualswhoareplayingaroleinthecurrentoverallsituationthataffectstheconservationtargets,andmayhaveadirectorindirectinterestorroletoplayintheplan’simplementationandexpectedresults.

Thetablebelowshowsforeachstakeholderidentifiedwhattheircurrentsituationisvis-à-visthecontextdepictedintheConceptualModel.Somestakeholdersbenefit(+),someothersarenegativelyaffected(-),whereasinsomecasestheybothbenefitandarenegativelyaffected.Thesecondcolumnreflectswhatistheircurrentcontributioninsolvingthenegativefactorsthataffectconservation.Asusualinthisplan,theratingisbasedonthe4-levelscale,fromLowtoVeryHigh(includingMediumandHigh).Byrecognisingtheircurrentroleinconservationandtheirlevelofpower,theirexpectedroleinthisplanwasassessed,aswellastheoverallimportance.

Basedonthisanalysis,onecaneasilyidentify3groupsofstakeholders

a) Stakeholdersmostdirectlyimplicated:

ThisgroupencompassesthestakeholderswhohaveanoverallimportanceratedasVeryHigh.Theycurrentlyplayimportantrolesincoordinationandplanningparticipation,and/orwillhaveacriticalparticipationintheplan’simplementationandsupport.Notallofthemhaveacurrentactivepositiverole.Non-conservancylandowners,forinstance,donotprovideanycontributiontoconservation,althoughitisexpectedtheywilljoinconservanciesand/orundertakeconservation-relatedconservationinitiatives.Thestakeholdersinthisgroupintegratethe3majorsocialsectorsrelevantforthisplan:communities(conservancyandnon-conservancylandownersandtheirfamilies);tourism(tourismpartners),andconservationparties,thelatterincludingdirectimplementerson-the-ground(MMWCA,conservancymanagers),orsupportingagenciesatlocal,countyornationallevels(KWCA,NEMA,MinistryofTourismandWildlife,KWS).

41

b) Relevantstakeholders:

Thisgroupincludessurroundingcommunitiesonwhichtheplanexpectstohaveanimpacton,andinstitutionsororganisationsthatcanhaveacriticalroleinsupporting,contributingorimplementingdifferentactivitiesofthisplan,suchastheCountyGovernment,conservationNGOs,academiaandresearchers,churchesandreligiousorganisations.

c) Otheraccompanyingstakeholders

Thethirdgroupincludesotherstakeholdersthatcansupportsomeactivitiesorprocessesneededfortheplan’ssuccess.Itincludes,butisnotlimitedtotheNationalGovernmentandotherNGOs.

Table3:StakeholderAnalysis(explanationsforcolumnsfollowthetable)

Stakeholder

Curren

tsituation*

Contrib

ution*

*

Currentroleinconservation

Curren

tlev

el

ofpow

er**

*

Expectedorpotentialroleintheplan O

verall

impo

rtan

ce

MMWCA (-) M>H CoordinationStakeholdermobilizationImplementationFundraisingPublicawareness

M>H PlanningFundraisingProgrammemgt.Lobbying

VH

Conservancylandowners

(+)(-)

M>H ConservancyplanningAwarenessCoordinationInfluencingProvisionoflands(Setasidelandsforconservation)PlanningOperationGovernance

VH OwnershipInfluence,implementationofplans,monitoring,accountability,decisionmakingProvisionoflandsOperationGovernancePlanimplementation,Influencingdecisionmakingonpolicies

VH

Tourismpartners

(+)(-) VH FinancingEmployingPlanningMarketingCSR/TrustInvestmentTourismproductdevpt.ImplementationOperationsSecurityBringincome,fundraising

H PlanningImplementationEngagementContinuingexistingroleMarketing,funding

VH

Conservancymanagers

(-) H Mediation,policing,security,settlementplanning,grazingplanning,employment

H Responsibilityofplanningimplementation,existingrole

VH

Non-conservancylandowners

(+) L None VH JoinconservanciesConservationsupport

VH

KWCA (-) L PolicyAdvocacy

VH PolicyAdvocacyFundraising

VH

42

Stakeholder

Curren

tsituation*

Contrib

ution*

*

Currentroleinconservation

Curren

tlev

el

ofpow

er**

*

Expectedorpotentialroleintheplan O

verall

impo

rtan

ce

NEMA (-) L QualitycontrolLicencing

VH Improvecurrentrule VH

CountyMinistryofTourism&Wildlife

(=) L None H RegulationLegislation,Implementation

VH

KWS (-) L>M Oversight M>H Lawenforcement,security

VH

Surroundingcommunities

(=)/(+)

M Hostingwildlifeandconservancylandowners,charcoal,poaching,human-wildlifeconflict

M Participation,conflictmanagement,benefitsharing,visionownership

H

CWCCC (-) L>M Payingcompensation,arbitration,conflictresolution,policydialogue

M Conflictresolution H

Churches/Religiousorganisations

(+) L>M Spiritualnourishment VH Positiveinfluenceonconservation

H

ConservationNGOs

(-)(+) M Facilitationplanning,expertise,fundingFundraising,projectsupport

L>M Capacitybuilding,lobbyingFundraising,technicaladvise

H

CountyGovernment

(+) L>H Revenuecollection,licencing,security,regulationGovernance

H>VH Spatialplanning,infrastructure,supportoftheCAPfunding

H

Academiaandresearchers

(-)(+) L Datacollection,monitoring,analysing,communication

L Ecologicalmonitoring,research

H

NationalGovernment

(+) L Policy,regulation,security,licencing

H Funding,marketing M

OtherNGOs (+) L>M Economicdevelopment M CoordinatewithMMWCA

M

*Currentsituation:Determinestheeffectofcurrentsituationinparticularstakeholders.Someofthemmaybenefit(markedwitha(+)symbol,e.g.byusinglandornaturalresources;obtainingfinancialgains;gainingpower;increasingtheirinstitutionalpresence.Someotherstakeholdersmaybenegativelyaffected(markedwitha(-)symbol),e.g.bysufferingeffectsofnaturalresourcesmisuseorbynotachievingtheirinstitutionalobjectives.Insomecases,stakeholdersmaybothbenefitandbeaffectedatthesametime.Thiscaseincludes,forinstance,thosestakeholderswhogainaregionalinstitutionalpresencebuthavedifficultiesinachievingtheirinstitutionalgoals.Afourthcase,markedwitha(=)symbolincludesthosestakeholderswhoplayaratherneutralroleinthecurrentcontext.**Contribution:Referstothecurrent(notexpected)contributionofthestakeholdersinsolvingthepresentsituation.***Currentlevelofpower:Showstheperceivedlevelofpowerofagivenstakeholderforcriticaldecision-making.

43

5. Theconservationstrategies

Conservationstrategiesaretheresponsetothemostcriticalthreatsidentified.Throughthemanagement,reductionorabatementofthesethreats,itisexpectedtoimprovetheviabilityofconservationtargets.

Conservationstrategiesaredesignedtakingasstartingpointtheconceptualmodel(Diagram1),wherestrategic“entrypoints”forinterventionareidentified.Negativefactorsarethentransformedintopositiveresults,towhichotherpositive,necessaryresultsareaddedinordertocreatea“resultchain”thatdepictsthegeneralworkingassumptionofthestrategy.TheseresultingdiagramsareshowninAnnex1.Theworkingassumptionstatements,calledTheoriesofChange,areatthebeginningofeachconservationstrategydescription.

5.1. Strategy1:LandUsePlanningforaLong-TermFunctionalEcosystem

5.1.1. Theoryofchange

IfweestablishandimplementaCNR-CAPzone-wideecosystemmanagementplan,integratingtogetherthemanagementplansoftheindividualconservancies,aswellasdevelopingplansforexistingareasnotcoveredbyconservancies,informedbytheCNR-CAP,aswellasembeddedwithintheNarokCountySpatialPlan;Andif,theseplansgazetterural/urbanplanningguidelinesthatintegrateculturalaspectsandareimplementedwithin3kmborderoftheMMNRandtheconservancies

Andif,theseplansintegrateoptimalandequitablebenefitsharingandincentivesforlandownersandtheirfamilies,includingincome-generatingenterprisesforcommunities;

Andif,registeredleasesaremaximisedandsecureland,forthepurposeofconservation

Andif,landsalesforincompatiblelandusesareminimisedinsideandoutsideofConservancies,withfencingminimisedthroughmaximisingcommunallanduseandmanagement

Thenwewillexpandlandssuitableforconservationandsustainablelandmanagement,minimisingincompatiblelandusesandunsustainablepractices,reducingtherateandextentoffencing,allowingdegradedareastoberestoredandincreasinglandresilienceaswellasconnectivityacrossthelandscape,therebymakingtheGreaterMaasaiMararegionalong-termfunctionalecosystem.

5.1.2. Objectives,generalactivitiesandactiontoimplementinthefirstyear

ObjectiveLUP1:Bymid-2016,theCNR-CAPfortheMaasaiMaraconservancieshasbeenapproved;itsimplementationhasstartedandisinformingplanningprocessesatconservancy,GreaterMaraEcosystemandNarokCountylevels.

Generalactivities ActionstoimplementinYear1(2016)

Responsibleperson/otherstakeholdersinvolved

LUP1.1FinalisetheCNR-CAPdocumentbyDecember2015

Finalisethevision,targets,strategies,threats&challengesfortheConservationActionPlan

FinalisetheCNR-CAPgeographicalzoningplan

KeystakeholdersandMMWCAboardvalidatetheCNR-CAP

DistributionofCNR-CAPtoauthoritiesandotherparties

MMWCA&TNC,w/keycontributingparties

LUP1.2UpdateorfinalisemanagementplansineachindividualMaraconservancy

Identifythestatusofexitingconservancymanagementplans

DevelopastandardMaraconservancymanagementplanformat,basedonthe2013WildlifeActguidelines,existing

MMWCAwithindividualconservanciesanda

44

conservancyplansandcriticalissuesidentifiedintheCNR-CAP

Assistindividualconservanciestoeitherfinaliseordeveloptheirrespectiveplans

Identifycostsandfundingforformationofindividualmanagementplans

consultant

LUP1.3DevelopecosystemplanfortheGreaterMaraEcosysteminformedbytheCNR-CAPandclusterofMaraconservancies’plans

DevelopanactionplanwithKWS Bringtogetherplansfrom2-3conservancies

inageographicalcluster,intoamacroconservancyplan,e.g.,withinthecentralsectionoftheMara,incorporatingthewedgesbetweentheconservanciesandneighbouringunprotectedareas

RaisematchedUSAIDfundsfordevelopmentofmacro-conservancyplansandforundertakingtheecosystemplan

MMWCA,w/AWF&KWSw/planningexpertise

LUP1.4Plansdevelopedfornon-conservancyareasor/andconservanciesindevelopment

Identifyunprotectedareas,orconservanciesindevelopmentforplandevelopment

Developplansforareaswithfundsalreadyavailable

MMWCApluskeypartnerslikeWWF

LUP1.5MonitorandassistthedevelopmentoftheNarokCountyspatialplan

MonitortheprogressoftheSpatialPlanandassistaspossibleinrelationtothesectionforthegreaterMaraecosystem

MMWCAplanningrelatedexpertise

ObjectiveLUP2:ByDecember2017,developandgazetterural/urbanplanningguidelinesthatintegrateculturalaspectsandimplementwithin3kmborderoftheMMNRandconservanciesareas(SharedwiththeObjectivePMC2,inthePreservingMaasaiCultureStrategy)



LUP2.1/PMC2.1DevelopRural/urbanplanningguidelines

Rural/urbanplanningguidelinesdeveloped Awarenessandlobbyingforrural/urban

planningguidelineswithin3kmofReserveandconservancies

TBD

LUP2.2/PMC2.2ImplementRural/urbanplanningguidelines

Assistcountygovernmentindevelopingrural/urbanplanningframeworkfor3kmoutsideofMMNRandconservancyboundaries

TBD

ObjectiveLUP3:ByDecember2018,benefitsfromconservanciesareoptimalandequitableforlandownersandtheirfamilies,includingincome-generatingenterprisesforcommunities(SharedwithObjectiveFIS5fromFinancialSustainabilityStrategy)



FIS5.1/LUP3.1IdentifytheMaraequitableandoptimalbenefitmodel

Buildonworktodate,undertakenbyAWF EngageacrossMarastakeholdersand

undertakeprocesstogainagreementonthekeypointsofamaximisedbenefitmodel

MMWCA&AWF

45

FIS5.2/LUP3.2Establishoptimalandequitablebenefits

Compareexistingbenefitswiththeoptimalmodel–developanactionplanforthewayforward

MMWCA&AWF

FIS5.3/LUP3.3Progressconservationsensitiveincome-generatingbusinesses

Identifyviablebusinessinitiatives Developbusinessandactionplansfor

priorityinitiatives

MMWCAw/AWFandotherkeyMarastakeholders

FIS5.4/LUP3.4Implementconservancies’benefitcommunicationcampaign

Developformalcampaignforroll-out,buildingonworktodate

Rolloutcampaign

MMWCA-Communications-OOMT

ObjectiveLUP4:ByDecember2017,90%oflandleasesareregisteredaslandunderconservation,acrossalloperationalconservanciesandcomplianceisenforced.



LUP4.1Registerofleasesforlandunderconservation,acrosstheMaraconservancies

Continueadministrationandprocessingoflandleases,X%peryear(tobedefined)acrossalloperationalconservancies

EngageMinistryofLands/Landsofficetoagreetoanefficientandcost-effectivewayofregisteringlandacrossthegreaterMaraecosystem

RaisematchedUSAIDfundsforleaseregistrationfeesandassociatedcosts

MMWCAw/individualconservancies

LUP4.2EstablishFundforconservanciesandconservancylandowners,tofundadditionallandpurchasesforconservanciesandstoplandbeingsold

FundestablishedwithUSAIDfunding RaisematchedUSAIDfundsforpurchaseof

land

MMWCAw/keypartners

LUP4.3Earlyrenewofconservancylandagreementsacrossconservancies

Ideafloatedduring2016,toseewhattimelineisfeasible


ObjectiveLUP5:ByDecember2018,landsalesforincompatiblelandusesareminimisedinsideandoutsideofConservancies,andbyDecember2019theareaunderfencingisminimisedthroughmaximisingcommunallanduseandmanagement(SharedwiththeObjectivePMC3,inthePreservingMaasaiCultureStrategy)



LUP5.1/PMC3.1Undertakelandusevaluationstudy

Initiateandundertakevaluationstudy Outreachcommunicationstodisseminate

resultsofstudy Agreementacrossthemultipleagents,about

theoptimal,sub-optimalandworselanduses

MMWCAw/AWFandMMU(w/internationaluniversity)

46

Disincentivesagainstfencingandotherincompatiblelandusesdeveloped

LUP5.2/PMC3.2Buildonthe2015fencingresearch,mapandevaluatelanduseacrosstheregion

MapthelandusesoftheMaraecosystem,buildingontheworkdonetodateforKoyaiki(Totalarea,numberofplots)

MMWCAw/keypartners,e.g.,OOMT

LUP5.3/PMC3.3EstablishConservationAreasacrossbroaderareaaspertheagreedCNR-CAPgeographicalzone

CNR-CAPgeographicalzoningplanfinalised(asabove)

MMWAw/keypartners

LUP5.4/PMC5.4RegulatelandsalesacrosstheMaraconservanciesandneighbouringareas

AnacrosstheMaraconservancieslandadministrationprocessestablished

Afundsetup(asperpointLUP4.2)throughwhichtokeep/buylandintheConservancies,establishedthroughUSAIDfunds

RaisematchedUSAIDfundsforpurchaseofland

MMWCA

ObjectiveLUP6:ByDecember2018,theareasunderprotectionor/andsustainablelandusehaveincreasedby100%,fromtheexisting1,000km2(outsidetheReserve)to2,000km2(oftheproposed3,000km2fortheCNR-CAPgeographicscopearea)



LUP6.1PrioritiseareasforexpansionofconservanciesandconservationareasacrosstheunprotectedGreaterMaraEcosystem

Mapallunprotectedareas,withintheCNR-CAPagreedzone,identifyingallmigratoryroutesandcorridors,areasandfeaturesofspecificnaturalresourceimportance,etc.

Identifyexistinglanduse,categorisingifcompatibleorincompatibletolandresilienceandconservation

MMWCAw/expertise

LUP6.2Engagelandowners Engagelandownerswithinpriorityareas Identify,assessandagreeonthebestland

use Raisefundsfortheoperationof

ConservationAreasintheseexistingunprotectedareas

Continuedevelopmentofprioritisedareas:Siana,Pardamat,escarpmentregion

MMWCAw/expertise

47

5.2. SustainableGrazingandBeefProduction

5.2.1. TheoryfChange

IftheconservanciesandsurroundingareasacrosstheCNR-CAPzoneimplementsustainablegrazingplanswhichincorporatesustainablestockratesandtakeintoaccountbothwildlifeandlivestockgrazing,

Andif,weincreasereturnsfromcommunitycattlethroughbettermarketsdemandinggoodqualitylivestockfromMaralandownersandcommercialisedmarketpracticebytheMaasaialongwithimprovedanimalhusbandrywithinacontextofconservationconditionality

Andif,cattlebusinessplanswithsufficientinvestmentstoenablesustainablecommercialcattleproductionpracticesacrosstheconservanciesandsurroundingareasoftheCNR-CAPzoneareagreedandimplemented;

ThenwewillincreasetheresilienceoftheMara’srangelands,thevalue,productivityandincomegeneratedbylivestock,whilereducinglivestockstockrates,unsustainablelanduses,andimpactsonwildlife


ObjectiveSGB1:ByDecember2017,sustainablegrazingplansforconservanciesandcommunityareaswithsustainablestockingrates,aredevelopedandimplementationhasstarted



SGB1.1Establishoptimallivestock(cattleandshoat)densityperhectareacrosstheMararegions,consideringwildlifegrazingneeds

IdentifylandcarryingcapacityforvariousregionsofMara(incorporatingrainfall,qualityofsoils,etc.),takingintoaccountwildlifeandlivestockgrassconsumptionneeds

Developandinitiategrasslandsmonitoringsystem

MMWCAw/keypartners,includingconservanciesandexistinglivestockplayers

SGB1.2ImplementedguidelinesforsustainablegrazingplansacrossMaraconservancies

SignoffondevelopedguidelinesacrossallMaraconservanciesor/andcompatibleadaptedversions

ImplementacrosshalfoftheMara’soperationalconservancies


SGB1.3Implementedguidelinesforsustainablegrazingplansacrosscommunityareasoutsideofconservancies,butwithintheCNR-CAPgeographicalscope

Designaprogramthatfacilitatescommunitylivestocktobemanagedinasustainablewayacrosscommunityareasoutsideofconservancies

ObjectiveSGB2:ByDecember2017,increasereturnsfromcommunitycattlethroughbettermarketsandmarketpracticebytheMaasai,qualitybreedsandfatteningpractices,withinthecontextofconservationconditionality



SGB2.1Identifyandestablishaccesstomultiplelivestockmarkets,with

Buildingonworkundertakenduring2015:

Baselinesurveyonexistingmarketprices

TBD–toincludeexistinglivestockrelated

48

higherreturnoninvestmentthanexistingmarkets

Identificationofmarketswithhigherreturnoninvestment

Developmechanism/entitytoorganisebulksalesoflivestocktogainhigherbargainingpower

Makeagreementswithidentifiedmarketoutletsprovidingbestreturnonmarket

playersintheMara

SGB2.2Establishanimalhusbandryandqualitybreeding


Finaliseanoutreachprogramtoenablethecommunitycattletobeupgraded,includingasrequiredabreedexchangeprogram

TBD–toincludeexistinglivestockrelatedplayersintheMara

SGB2.3Implementconservancyor/andconservancyneighbouringlandscattlefatteningprogram


Finaliseaprogramtoenablethecommunitycattletobefattenedinsideconservancies


SGB2.4ImprovemarketpracticebytheMaasailivestockowners


Communityoutreachcampaigndesignedandstartup


ObjectiveSGB3:Bytheendof2016,cattlebusinessplansfortheconservancieswillbefinalisedandfundsforinvestmentwillbesecured



SGB3.1Developcattlebusinessplansfortheconservancies

Buildingontheworkundertakenduring2015,asuitablespecialisthiredasrequiredtofinalisebusinessplansforoneordifferentscenariosacrosstheMara

Approvebusinessplanforimplementationacrossatleast2conservancies

MMWCAw/keypartners&individualconservancies

SGB3.2Raiseinvestmentfundsforthecattlebusinessplans

Onthebackofthebusinessplans,developsuitableinvestmentproposals

Identifyandsubmitproposalstosuitabledonors

Securesuccessfulfunds

MMWCAw/keypartners&individualconservancies

SGB3.3Implementbusinessplanmodelthroughinvestmentfunds

Startimplementationoftheadoptedbusinessplan

TBD

ObjectiveSGB4:ByDecember2020,majorityofhouseholdskeepsustainablelivestocknumbersrelativetoavailablegazingrange



SGB4.1Gainagreements Achievein1-2conservancies MMWCAw/

49

frombothconservancyandnon-conservancylandownerstokeepsustainablelivestocknumbersbasedoncarryingcapacityandimprovedbreedsw/higherROI

individualconservancies

SGB4.2Rolloutoutreachcommunicationscampaignforsustainablenumbers

Developcommunications’campaignstrategyandstartrollout

MMWCAw/keypartners

SGB4.3PutNarokCountyGovernmentpolicyandlegislativeframeworkinplacetosupportsustainablepractices

Identifyexistingrelevantpolicyandlegislativeframework

MWMCA

50

5.3. PreservingtheMaasaiCulture

5.3.1. TheoryofChange

IftheMaasaicommunityremainsproudoftheirculturalpillars,therespectfulrelationshipwiththeirnaturalenvironmentisrevitalised;

Andif,compatiblerural/urbanplanningisimplementedacrossthegreaterMaralandscape;

Andif,communallanduseandsustainablelivestockraisingarepromoted;

ThentheMaasaiCulturewillbepreservedanditsrelationwithwildlifeandenvironmentwillagainbeharmonious


ObjectivePMC1:ByDecember2016,theprincipleMaasaiculturalpillarsaredefinedandtheMara-wideculturalpridecampaignisunderway



PMC1.1IdentifyandclearlydefinetheprincipleculturalpillarsoftheMaasaipeopleandtheirrelationwiththeenvironment

Identifykeystakeholderstoparticipateinthisprocess(elders,communityleaders,anthropologists,etc.)

Designtheprocess(Interviews,workshops,validationmeetings)todefinepillarsanddisseminatetheresults

Createabaselineandactionplanonculturalawarenessandpride,withindicatorstomeasuresuccess

Iniciateamobileculturalpridecampaignteam,thatrotatesindifferentcommunities(e.g.betweenweeklymarketsandcommunitygatherings)withaninnovative«story-telling»approachofre-inforcingpositiveculturalpillars

MMWCA

PMC1.2DesignandimplementaCulturalPrideCampaign

Identifykeylocalandexternalpartners(localgovernment,educationinstitutions,RARE)

Designconceptofthecampaign Developactionplan,includingrequired

resourcesandkeyplayers Getsupportofnationalandcounty

governmentandinstitutions Linkbehaviourchangestoconservation

outcomesontheground(i.e.fencing,grazing,etc.)

MMWCA

PMC1.3CreateaMaasaiCulturalInterpretationCentreandrelatedwebsite

DesignconceptoftheCentre&website MMWCA

51

ObjectivePMC2:ByDecember2017,developandgazetterural/urbanplanningguidelinesthatintegrateculturalaspectsandimplementwithin3kmborderoftheMMNRandconservanciesareas(SharedwithObjectiveLUP2,fromLandUsePlanningStrategy)



LUP2.1/PMC2.1Developrural/urbanplanningguidelines

Rural/urbanplanningguidelinesdeveloped Awarenessandlobbyingforrural/urban

planningguidelineswithin3kmofReserveandconservancies

TBD

LUP2.2/PMC2.2Implementrural/urbanplanningguidelines

Assistcountygovernmentindevelopingrural/urbanplanningframeworkfor3kmoutsideofMMNRandconservancyboundaries

TBD

ObjectivePMC3:ByDecember2018,landsalesforincompatiblelandusesareminimisedinsideandoutsideofConservancies,andbyDecember2019theareaunderfencingisminimisedthroughmaximisingcommunallanduseandmanagement(SharedwiththeObjectiveLUP5,LandUsePlanningStrategy)



LUP5.1/PMC3.1Undertakelandusevaluationstudy

Initiateandundertakevaluationstudy Outreachcommunicationstodisseminate

resultsofstudy Agreementacrossthemultipleagents,about

theoptimal,sub-optimalandworselanduses

Disincentivesagainstfencingandotherincompatiblelandusesdeveloped

MMWCAw/AWFandMMU(w/internationaluniversity)

LUP5.2/PMC3.2Buildonthe2015fencingresearch,mapandevaluatelanduseacrosstheregion

MapthelandusesoftheMaraecosystem,buildingontheworkdonetodateforKoyaiki(Totalarea,numberofplots)

MMWCAw/keypartners,e.g.,OOMT

LUP5.3/PMC3.3EstablishConservationAreasacrossbroaderareaaspertheagreedCNR-CAPgeographicalzone

CNR-CAPgeographicalzoningplanfinalised(asabove)

MMWAw/keypartners

LUP5.4/PMC5.4RegulatelandsalesacrosstheMaraconservanciesandneighbouringareas

AnacrosstheMaraconservancieslandadministrationprocessestablished

Afundsetup(asperpointLUP2.2)throughwhichtokeep/buylandintheConservancies,establishedthroughUSAIDfunds

RaisematchedUSAIDfundsforpurchaseofland

MMWCA

52

ObjectivePMC4:ByDecember2020,positivechangesregardingculturalawarenessandpride,andarereported



PCM4.1Annuallytrackmonitoringindicators

Endofyearmonitoring TBD

PCM4.2Linkbehaviourchangestoconservationoutcomesontheground(i.e.fencing,grazing,etc.)

Incorporateindicatorsintoannualmonitoring

TBD

53

5.4. HarmoniousCoexistenceofPeopleandNature

5.4.1. TheoryofChange

IfweimproveourunderstandingoftheMara’swildlifepopulationdynamicsanddistributionpatterns,itsroleintheGME,theexternalfactorsthatimpactit,anditsinfluencesinthesurroundinghumanpopulation;

AndIfweunderstandtheMara’shumanpopulationdynamicsanditsimpactsoncurrentandfuturelivelihoods,engagingcommunitiestoacceptandpracticepopulationcontrol;

Andif,weempowercommunityrangersandenhanceappreciationofwildlifebycommunities;

Andif,weembracegoodnaturalresourcemanagementandsustainableuseforcharcoalproduction,forestcover,surfacewaterandsoils

Andif,wehaveabetterunderstandingofclimatechangeimpactsinordertoundertakeadaptationandmitigationmeasures

ThenwewillmaintainstablewildlifepopulationsanddistributionacrosstheGreaterMaasaiMaraecosystem,andwewillreducethehumanfootprintontheenvironmentandwildlife,creatingaharmoniousco-existenceofpeopleandnature,forthebenefitofwildlife,communityandlivelihoods.


ObjectiveHPN1:ByDecember2017,thenumberoffamiliespracticingfamilyplanninghasdoubledcomparedtotheearly2016baselineandbyDecember2020populationgrowthrateacrosstheMarahasstabilisedtothenationalaverageof2%



HPN1.1Collectandanalysepopulationdatatodeterminewayforward,buildingontheexistinganalysisforthecentralKoyiakiregion

ReplicateexistingstudytoeasternandwesternsectionsoftheMararegion

Identifycausesandmeansofstoppinghighpopulationgrowthrate

Starttoputintoactionidentifiedwaysforward

MMWCAw/OOMT

HPN1.2Developandimplementafamilyplanningprogramme

Engagefamilyplanningspecialistsanddevelopanactionplan

Engageandsensitisecommunities Distributefamilyplanningmethods

TBDw/healthauthorities,localclinics&hospitals

ObjectiveHPN2:ByDecember2018,thenumberofillegalactsconcerningwildlifeisreducedby60%comparedtotheearly2016baseline



HPN2.1Ensuretheenforcementoflawsandregulationbyappropriateauthorities

Engagelawenforcementagencies Continuedoutreachtrainingandinformation

ontherelevantlawsandregulations

TBD

HPN2.2Buildthecapacityofcommunitiesandcommunityrangerstomanageandsecurewildlife

TrainandequipexistingcommunityrangersthroughUS-INLfunds

Sensitisecommunitymemberstotheimportanceoftheworkbythescouts

Undertakeexchangeswithotherareasfacing

TBD

54

similarchallengestoplanandworkjointly,andtobemoreeffectiveandsuccessfulontheground

HPN2.3Putinplacecompensationandinsurancewithchecksandbalances

AssessexistingschemesacrosstheMara(andconservanciesinKenya)toidentifyrecommendationsonthebestwayforward

Investigateinsuranceoptionsinthemarketplace

TBD

HPN2.4Revitaliseandinsomecasesdeveloptheappreciationofwildlifebycommunities

Developoutreachcommunicationscampaignandstartroll-out

MMWCA

ObjectiveHPN3:ByDecember2018,reducedependencyoncharcoalby40%andencouragetheuseofalternativeenergysources(climatemitigationandadaptation)



HPN3.1ImplementsustainablecharcoalproductionandenergyprojectsinatleastfoursitesinNyakweriandLemekfordemonstrationpurposes

Showcaseefficientcharcoalproductiontechniquesandalternativeenergyintwosites(oneineachlocation)

UndertakeexposuretourforopinionleadersofeachcommunitytoKakuziSosambuanddeveloprecommendationsonwayforward

TBD

HPN3.2CreatecharcoalassociationsinNyakweriandLemek

Mobiliseopinionleadersineachcommunityaroundthecreationofanassociation

RegistertheAssociation

TBD

HPN3.3Makeavailablesubsidisedalternativecookingmethodsandmaterials

Establishmicro-business(es)withfocusonalternativeenergy

Doexposuretoursforentrepreneurialindividualstorelevantstudysites

TBD

3.4UndertakeanoutreachHPNcampaigntospreadtheuseofalternativeenergysources

Developoutreachcampaignandstarttorollout

TBD

ObjectiveHPN4:By2020,forestsnetlossinareaandvolumeisreducedby60%comparedto2015baseline(climatemitigationandadaptation)



HPN4.1Ensuretheenforcementoflawsandregulationbyappropriateauthoritiesinforestprotection

Engagelawenforcementagencies Outreachtrainingandinformationonthe

relevantlawsandregulations

TBD

55

HPN4.2Establishcommunityforestassociation

BringKFStoinitiateCFAformation,incorporatinglearningfromsuccessfulCFAsacrossKenya

UndertakebasictrainingfortheCFAtoenableitsfunctioning

TBD

HPN4.3Promoteuseofalternative/sustainableconstructionmaterialsinfuturestructures

Identifyalternativebuildingmaterials Exploresubsidiesforalternativematerialsto

encourageuse

TBD

HPN4.4Developacarboncreditbushlandsandforestsprogramme(seeFIS5below)

ResearchthepotentialoftheMaralandscape(inparticularthisforestedarea)forestablishingacarboncreditprogram,buildingonworkundertakentodate

TBD

HPN4.5Establishnaturebasedenterprisesacrossconservancies

Identifysuitablenaturebasedenterprises Producebusinessplansinorderofpriority

andlinktonationalfundsandmicro-financeinstitutions

TBD

ObjectiveHPN5:ByDecember2018,specificmeasuresareinplacetomaintainyearroundflowofsurfacewater(climatemitigationandadaptation)



HPN5.1Developawaterallocationplanandimplementation

LinkwithLakeVictoriaBasinCommissionandChrisDutton,WRWA

Mapwaterprojects,involvedentitiesandtheirrolesandactivitiesacrosstheMaraecosystem

Developanactionplanthataimstomaintainyearroundflowofsurfacewater

MaMaSe-WWF

HPN5.2Undertakeactionstoconservesoilcover

Developanactionplanthataimstoprotectandsustainstrongandfertilesoilcover

MaMaSe–WWF

ObjectiveHPN6:By2018,understandandhaveinplacemeasurestoadaptor/andmitigateclimatechangeimpactsacrossthegreaterMaraecosystem



HPN6.1DevelopandimplementaresearchprogramontheimpactsofclimatechangeacrossthegreaterMaraecosystem

IdentifyexistingrelevantresearchforeastAfricaandinparticularMara-Serengetiecosystemtounderstandclimatechangeimpacts

Developanadaptationandmitigationprogrammebaseduponexistingandfutureimpactsofclimatechange,informedbytheCNR-CAP

MMWCAw/partners

HPN6.2ImplementclimaterelatedcomponentsoftheCNR-CAP

Implementclimaterelatedcomponents(notedabove)withintheCNR-CAP,e.g.,land-useplanning,naturalresourcemanagement:forests,woodandwater

MMWCAw/partners

56

ObjectiveHPN7:ByDecember2018,adatabankandresearchfacilityisoperationalforthegreaterMaasaiMara’swildlifepopulationdynamics,distributionpatternsandimpacts



HPN7.1Collateexistingwildlifepopulationdatatogetheranddesignawayforward,buildingonexistingdatapracticesandproposedmodels

ReviewtheexistinginformationdatabaseandtheAppliedResearch&InformaticsProgrammeproposaltoassessprogresstodate

Designawayforwardthatintegratesallexistingresearch,plustheMMNRandKWSrelatedinitiatives

Fullprogramfundsrequired

HPN7.2Establishregularecologicalandwildlifemonitoring(includingindicatorspecies)acrossMaraconservancies

Identifythemostsuitablemonitoringmethodologyfortheconservationtargetsandthreats(existingandpotential)intheMaraconservancies

ImplementthemethodologyacrossinterestedMaraconservancies

Establishacentraldepositoryforthedatafromtheconservancies

MMWCAw/conservanciesandotherexpertparties

HPN7.3Establishavirtualresearchfacility

Seeksfundstoestablishanonlineresearchfacility

MMWCA,w/relevantinitiatives

ObjectiveHPN8:By2018,suitablenationalandcountypoliciesthatenablerequiredwildlifeinterventionstomanagepopulationdynamicsacrossthegreaterMaasaiMaraareinplace



HPN8.1Identifyrequiredwildlifemanagementinterventionsaswellasexistinglegislationandpoliciesandthecompatibilitybetweenthetwo

Identifyrequiredpotentialinterventions Assessexistinglegislationandpolicies Assesscompatibilityandgapsbetweenthe

two

KWCAandMMWCA

HPN8.2.Workatnationalandcountylevelstoenableapolicyorlegalframeworktoimplementrequiredmanagementinterventions

57

5.5. FinancialSustainability

5.5.1. Theoryofchange

Ifconservanciesmaximiserevenuestreamsthrough;livestockenterprise,philanthropicsupport,carboncreditsandotherpotentialsources;

Andif,conservanciesstreamlineoperationalcosts,whileinvestmentsaremadetoengenderlandscapeconservancymanagementandimprovedoperations;

Andif,benefitsfromconservanciesareoptimalandequitableforlandownersandtheirfamilies,withlandleasepaymentsatauniformandagreedratethatiscompetitivewithotherlanduses,plusotherdirectandindirectbenefits,likenature-basedincome-generatingenterprisesforcommunities;

Andif,conservanciesgainincreasedsupportfromcountygovernment,particularlyinfinancialtermsandlegislativeframework;

Andif,theconservanciestourismsectordevelopsaMara-wideconservanciestourismstrategytoelevatetheconservanciesproduct,whilemaximisingtourismincomeandmaintainingsolidconservationpractice

Thenthelong-termstabilityofconservancieswillbesecuredtherebysustaininglandunderconservation


ObjectiveFIS1:ByDecember2016,livestockenterprise(s)areestablishedwiththepurposeofraisingincomefortheConservanciesinthemedium-term



FIS1.1Establishlivestockenterpriseandrelatedprojects

Individualor/andacrossconservanciescattleenterprisemodeldevelopedandagreed,withallkeystakeholders

Raiseinvestmentfundsforcattleenterprise Determinewayforwardforshoat

enterprises(ifany)

MMWCAw/conservancies

ObjectiveFIS2:ByDecember2018,thepotentialoftheMaraEcosystemforests,bushlandsandgrasslandswillbeassessedinordertodevelopinitiativesbasedoncarboncredits



FIS2.1AssessthepotentialoftheMaralandscapeforestablishingcarbon-basedprojects,includingbutnotlimitedtoREDD+

Undertakepre-investmentresearch:valueofforests,bushlandsandgrasslandsforcarbonsequestration

Raisefundsforthispre-investmentresearchorfindalternativesystem

MMWCAw/partners

FIS2.2Establishpartnershipstodevelopatleastonecarbonbasedinitiative

Identifyandcontactkeypotentialpartners Undertakepre-investmentphases Advocateforinitiative DevelopMoUforacarbonbasedinitiative

fortheMara

MMWCAw/partners

58

ObjectiveFIS3:ByDecember2016,achievefinancialsupportfromphilanthropicfundingsourcesforbothindividualconservanciesandcross-conservanciesinitiatives,e.g.,costsofconservancymanagement



FIS3.1Securefundingandothernon-financialsupportfromphilanthropicsourcesandalliances

Sourcepotentialfundersandsubmitapplicationsforsupport

Developfundraisingcommunicationscampaignandstartroll-out

Holdmeetingsandeventsasrequiredtoconfirmfundingsources

MMWCAw/CommunicationsandFundraiserOfficer

ObjectiveFIS4:Bymid-2017,allconservancieshavestreamlinedtheiroperationalcostswithinvestmentsmadetoengenderlandscapeconservancymanagementandimprovedoperations



FIS4.1AnalysecurrentcostsandpotentialeconomiesofscaleacrosstheMaraConservancies

Analysisofexistingcosts Analysisofpotentiallysharedcostsacross

conservancies Identificationofotheropportunitiesfor

economiesofscale

MMWCAw/AWF

FIS4.2Realiseeconomiesofscaleandotherefficiencies

Developandpresentmodel Validateandagreeonmodelfor

implementation

MMWCAw/AWF

FIS4.3Investintoconservancies

IdentifyinvestmentneedsofMaraconservanciesanddevelopproposalsforinvestmentoffunds

MMWCAw/AWF

ObjectiveFIS5:ByDecember2018,benefitsfromconservanciesareoptimalandequitableforlandownersandtheirfamilies(SharedwithObjectiveLUP3fromLandUsePlanningStrategy)



FIS5.1/LUP3.1IdentifytheMaraequitableandoptimalbenefitmodel

Buildonworktodate,undertakenbyAWF EngageacrossMarastakeholdersand

undertakeprocesstogainagreementonthekeypointsofamaximisedbenefitmodel

MMWCA&AWF

FIS5.2/LUP3.2Establishoptimalandequitablebenefits

Compareexistingbenefitswiththeoptimalmodel–developanactionplanforthewayforward

MMWCA&AWF

FIS5.3/LUP3.3Progressconservationsensitiveincome-generatingbusinesses

Identifyviablebusinessinitiatives Developbusinessandactionplansforpriority

initiatives

MMWCAw/AWFandotherkeyMarastakeholders

FIS5.4/LUP3.4Implementconservancies’benefit

Developformalcampaignforroll-out,buildingonworktodate

Rolloutcampaign

MMWCA-Communications

59

communicationcampaign OOMT

ObjectiveFIS6:ByDecember2017,achievecountyor/andnationalgovernmentfinancialsupportandlegislativeframeworkforconservancies



FIS6.1AdvocatetoauthoritiestoagreetheirfinancialsupportandlegislativeframeworkfortheMaraconservancies

Developcommunicationscampaignandstartroll-out

PublicallypresentCAPandgaininprincipalagreementsforframework

LearnlessonsfromNRTonachievingfinancialsupport

WorkwithKWCAtoidentifylegislativeframeworkwayforward


ObjectiveFIS7:By2020,theconservanciesareimplementingaMara-wideconservanciestourismstrategytomaximisetourismincomewhilemaintainingsolidconservationpractice



FIS7.1Determineandfacilitateoptimalbeddensityrange

Identifycurrentbeddensities Identifycriteriaonwhichoptimalbed

densitiesaredetermined Determineoptimalbeddensityrangeacross

theMaraconservancies

MMWCAw/AWFandtheindividualconservancies

FIS7.2DevelopandimplementaMara-wideconservanciestourismstrategy

DeveloptheframeworkforaMara-wideconservanciestourismstrategy,emphasisingconservancy-wideoperationalstandardsandastrongdestinationmarketingcomponent

MMWCAw/AWF

FIS7.3Increaserevenuesfromtourismbystrengtheningthedestination’simageinkeymarkets,growingdirectmarketingchannelsandaddressingpotentialover-relianceonthird-partyagents

Developactionplanonhowtodothis TBD

60

5.6. Risksandpotentialnegativeimpactsassessment

Theplanningprocessincludedariskandpotentialnegativeimpactassessmentexercise,carriedoutwiththeaimofidentifyingandproposingpreventionandmitigationmeasurestobedirectlyincludedinthestrategydesign.Althoughthisshouldbeanimportantcomponentofsoundplanning,riskandnegativeimpactassessmentseldomisincludedinthestrategymakingprocess.Thisassessmentwasmadethoughtheresultchainanalysis,usingthemethodologySBIA(Maldonado,Panfil&Richards,2010).Theresultsareshownintable4.

Table4:Risksandnegativeimpacts

Resultwhereriskorpotentialnegativeimpactwasfound

Riskorpotentialnegativeimpact

Strategy

affected

Po

ssibility

Mag

nitude

Proposedpreventionormitigationmeasures

Waypreventionormitigationwas

includedintheCNR-CAP

Tourismincome Tourismincomenotreachingcommunities(Negativeimpact)

All L H Transparencyagents,audits,accountabilityVariableportionoflicensefees

Transparencyneedstobepartofperiodicreportingbackoftheplan'sprogress

Incomefromgrazingaccess

Poorincomeformgrazing/livestockpractices(Negativeimpact)

All/SGB

H M Rangelandqualitymanagement

AccesstomarketsandvaluechainsincludedinSGBstrategy

Improvedfinancialsustainability

Lackofpublicfunds(Risk)

FIS H M Countygovernmentengagement

Countygovernmentengagementincludedinseveralstrategies(LUP,SGB,FIS)

Settlementplan Lackofpoliticalsupport(Risk)

LUP M M Politicalgoodwill Sameabove

Sustainablelivestockindustry

Overstockingtoexploitthemarket(Negativeimpact)

SGB H H Spatialplanning Specificstrategyonthesubject

Increasedlivestockinfrastructureandfencing(Negativeimpact

SGB M H Cappinggrazingaccess

Grazingplanning(includedinSGB)

CNR-CAPimplementation

Inadequate/insufficientfunding(Risk)

All H H Investmentmodels Specificfundingstrategy

Landunderconservationincrease

Degradationofunconservedareas(Negativeimpact)

LUP H H Strengtheninglivestockassociations

LivestockassociationsincludedinSGB

CountySpatialPlan DelayedSpatialPlanning(Risk)

LUP H H PushCAPtobeincorporated

EngagecountygovernmentconsideredinLUP

Enforcementoflawandregulation

Weakenforcementofregulation(Risk)

HPN H H Lobbyinglawenforcementagencies

ConsideredinLUP

Familyplanning Oppositionfromculturalandreligiousgrounds(Risk)

HPN M H Trainingsandcampaigns

ConsideredinHPN

61

6. MonitoringPlan

Objective Indicator(s) TypeDoesitexistdata?

MethodWhois

responsible?Whereto

collectdata? FrequencyEstimated

cost

ObjectiveLUP1:Bymid-2016,theCNR-CAPfortheMaasaiMaraconservancieshasbeenapproved;itsimplementationhasstartedandisinformingplanningprocessesatconservancy,GreaterMaraEcosystemandNarokCountylevels.

CNR-CAPvalidatedbykeystakeholdersandMMWCAboard

OP Yes CNR-CAP,Y1workplanandzoningproposalapproval

MMWCA MMWCA December2015

N

Updatedmanagementplansforconservanciesimplemented

OC Yes(partialplan)

UpdatedplanspresentedtoMMWCA

Conservancymanagers

Conservancies 2016and2017(fornewplans)

L

Workplansbasedonmanagementplans

Conservancymanagers

Conservancies Annually L

GMEplanconsideringCNCAPzoningproposalfinalised

OC No Gazettepublication MMWCA,KWS,otherconservationorganisations

NarokCounty Whengazetted,beforeendof2018

L

NarokCountySpatialplanconsideringCNR-CAPzoningproposalfinalised

OC No Gazettepublication MMWCAandNarokCounty

NarokCounty Whengazetted,beforeendof2018

L

ObjectiveLUP2(PMC2):ByDecember2017,developandgazetterural/urbanplanningguidelinesthatintegrateculturalaspectsandimplementwithin3kmborderoftheMMNRandconservanciesareas

Guidelinesgazetted

OP No Gazettepublication TBD NarokCounty End2017 L

Areacoveredbysatisfactoryguidelineimplementation

OC No Fieldcheck TBD Field(3kmaroundMMNRandconservancyareas)

Annually,startingin2018

M

ObjectiveLUP3(FIS5):ByDecember2018,benefitsfromconservanciesareoptimaland

Incomerealisedbyhousehold

IM No,baselineTBD

Survey MaraTrust Field(fullscope) Annually M

62


Method Whoisresponsible?

Wheretocollectdata? Frequency Estimated

cost

equitableforlandownersandtheirfamilies,includingincome-generatingenterprisesforcommunities

Sourceofincome

IM No,baselineTBD

Survey MaraTrust Field(fullscope) Bi-annually M

NumberofhouseholdsandpeopledirectlybenefitingofIGB

IM No Survey MMWCA Field(Fullscope) Annually M>H

Peoplereachedbycampaign

OC No Survey(andothers) MMWCA(comms.)

Field(Fullscope) 2*year M>H

ObjectiveLUP4:ByDecember2017,90%oflandleasesareregisteredaslandunderconservation,acrossalloperationalconservanciesandcomplianceisenforced.

Percentageoflandleasesregistered

OC Yes Datacollection MMWCA Fullscope Annually H

Numberofleasebreaches

OC Yes Datacollection MMWCA Fullscope Annually VH

ObjectiveLUP5(PMC3):ByDecember2018,landsalesforincompatiblelandusesareminimisedinsideandoutsideofConservancies,andbyDecember2019theareaunderfencingisminimisedthroughmaximisingcommunallanduseandmanagement

Mapofoptimallandusesandvaluationstudycompleted

OC No FieldworkandGIS MMWCAw/AWFandMMU(w/internationaluniversity)

Fullscope Annually VH

Area(ha)soldforincompatibleusescomparableto2016baseline

IM Underway FieldworkandGIS TBD Fullscope Annually VH

Area(ha)undercommunallanduseandmanagement


Newarea(ha)underfencingcomparedto2015baseline


63




cost

Area(ha)werefencesareremovedcomparedto2015baseline


Totalfencedareacomparableto2015baseline


NewconservationareasacrosstheCNR-CAPscope

IM Yes Agreements,fieldwork,GIS MMWCA Fullscope Annually M>H

ObjectiveLUP6:ByDecember2018,theareasunderprotectionor/andsustainablelandusehaveincreasedby100%,fromtheexisting1,000km2(outsidetheReserve)to2,000km2(oftheproposed3,000km2fortheCNR-CAPgeographicscopearea)

Area(ha)underprotectionor/andsustainablelanduse

IM No FieldworkandGIS TBD Fullscope Annually VH

Numberofnewlandownersengagedinconservation

OC No Survey TBD Fullscope Annually M

ObjectiveSGB1:ByDecember2017,sustainablegrazingplansforconservanciesandcommunityareaswithsustainablestockingrates,aredevelopedandimplementationhasstarted

Numberofplansdevelopedandalreadyinimplementation

OC Yes Plancollectionandreview MMWCAw/keypartners,includingconservanciesandexistinglivestockplayers

Fullscope 2*year M

Area(ha)coveredbysustainablegrazingplans

OC Partial Planreview,GIS Sameabove Fullscope 2*year M

64




cost

Levelofcompliancetotheplans(i.e.optimallivestockdensityandguidelinesrespected)

OC No Planreview Sameabove Fullscope 2*year M

ObjectiveSGB2:ByDecember2017,increasereturnsfromcommunitycattlethroughbettermarketsandmarketpracticebytheMaasai,qualitybreedsandfatteningpractices,withinthecontextofconservationconditionality

Newmarketsaccessed

OC Yes Salesreportreview TBD Communitycattleassociations/Livestockenterprises

Quarterly M

Priceperkgandunit

OC Yes Salesreportreview MaraBeef Communitycattleassociations/Livestockenterprises

Quarterly M

Numberofcattlesoldviaconservancyenterprises

OC No Salesreportreview MaraBeef Communitycattleassociations/Livestockenterprises

Quarterly M

Incomeperhouseholdfromcommunitycattle

IM Yes Survey MMWCA Conservancies,communities

Annually H

Increaseofincomeperhouseholdbycommunitycattle

IM Yes Survey MMWCA Conservancies,communities

Annually H

65




cost

Revenueperconservancy(perha)

IM Yes Revenuereportreview Conservancies Conservancies Annually M

ObjectiveSGB3:Bytheendof2016,cattlebusinessplansfortheconservancieswillbefinalisedandfundsforinvestmentwillbesecured

Numberofconservanciesimplementingcattlebusinessplans

OC Yes Collect,reviewcattlebusinessplans

Conservancies,MMWCA

Conservancies End2016 L

ObjectiveSGB4:ByDecember2020,majorityofhouseholdskeepsustainablelivestocknumbersrelativetoavailablegazingrange

Numberofagreementsfrombothconservancyandnon-conservancylandownerstokeepsustainablelivestocknumbers

OP Yes Collectagreements Conservancies,MMWCA

Conservancies,communities

Annually M

Legislativeframeworkinplacetosupportsustainablepractices

OP Yes Gazettereview MMWCA/NarokCounty

Gazette Whengazetted

L

Percentageofhouseholdskeepingsustainablelivestocknumbers

OC No Survey MMWCA Communities Annually H

ObjectivePMC1:ByDecember2016,theprincipleMaasaiculturalpillarsaredefinedandtheMara-wide

Keyculturalpillarsidentifiedandvalidated

OP Partial Research MMWCAandothersTBD

Communities 2016 M

66




cost

culturalpridecampaignisunderway

Percentageofpeoplepracticing/awareofpillars

OP No Surveyandresearch MMWCAandothersTBD

Communities 2016andthenannually

M

Culturalcampaignproject

OC No Projectreview MMWCAandothersTBD

Communities 2017 L

Culturalcampaignworkplan,supportandfunds

OC No WorkplanreviewPartners’MoUsreviewBudgetreview

MMWCAandothersTBD

MMWCA 2017 L

Culturalcampaignevents

OC No Workplanreportreview MMWCAandothersTBD

Communities Annually L

Culturalinterpretationcentreandwebsitefunctioning

OC No Sitevisit,activityreportcheck,visitreports

MMWCAandothersTBD

CulturalinterpretationcentreCommunities

Bi-monthly L

ObjectivePMC2:(SeeLUP2) ObjectivePMC3:(SeeLUP5) ObjectivePMC4:ByDecember2020,positivechangesregardingculturalawarenessandpride,andarereported

Positivechangesonculturalpillarsreported

IM No Pre-test,post-testandfollowupsurveys

MMWCAandothersTBD

Communities Annually H

ObjectiveHPN1:ByDecember2017,thenumberoffamiliespracticingfamilyplanninghasdoubledcomparedtotheearly2016baselineandbyDecember2020populationgrowthrate

PopulationdynamicsknownforcentralKoyiaki,easternandwesternsregionsoftheMararegion

OP Partially(onlyKoyiaki)

Research TBDw/healthauthorities,localclinics&hospitals

EasternandwesternsregionsoftheMararegion

2017 H

67




cost

acrosstheMarahasstabilisedtothenationalaverageof2%

Numberofhouseholdsimplementingfamilyplanning

OC No ActivityreportsSurvey

TBDw/healthauthorities,localclinics&hospitals


MonthlyAnnually

M>H

Communitiesandareacoveredbyfamilyplanning

OC No Survey TBDw/healthauthorities,localclinics&hospitals


2*year M>H

Pregnancyspacingincrease

IM No Survey TBDw/healthauthorities,localclinics&hospitals


Annually M>H

ObjectiveHPN2:ByDecember2018,thenumberofillegalactsconcerningwildlifeisreducedby60%comparedtotheearly2016baseline

Numberofactivecommunityrangersperconservancyorconservationarea

OC Yes Rangerrosterreview TBD Communities,conservancies

2*year L

Numberofillegalactsreported

IM Yes Rangerreports TBD Communities,conservancies

Monthly L

Amountpaidincompensation

OC Reports TBD CWCCC,MMWCA,othersTBD

2*year L

Levelofappreciationofwildlifebycommunitymembers

OC No Survey MMWCA Communities 2*year M

68




cost

ObjectiveHPN3:ByDecember2018,reducedependencyoncharcoalby40%andencouragetheuseofalternativeenergysources(climatemitigationandadaptation)

Numberoffunctioningcharcoalassociations

OC Partial Survey,desksurvey KFS,MMWCA Communities,NGOs

2*year M

Annualconsumptionofcharcoalperhousehold

OC No Survey KFS,MMWCA Communities(samplegroups)

2*year M

Numberoffamiliesusingalternativecookingmethodsandmaterials

OC No Survey KFS,MMWCA Communities(Samplegroups)

2*year N

ObjectiveHPN4:By2020,forestsnetlossinareaandvolumeisreducedby60%comparedto2015baseline(climatemitigationandadaptation)

Numberofcommunitieswithforestassociation

OP No Survey,desksurvey TBD Communities,ONGs,KFS

2*year H

Wooduseperhousehold(m3)

OC No Survey TBD Communities,ONGs,KFS

Annually H

Numberoffamiliesusingalternativematerials

OC Survey TBD Communities,ONGs,KFS

Annually H

Forestandwoodlandnetloss(haandm3)

IM No GISanalysis TBD Communities,ONGs,KFS

Annually H

69




cost

ObjectiveHPN5:ByDecember2018,specificmeasuresareinplacetomaintainyearroundflowofsurfacewater(climatemitigationandadaptation)

Mapwaterprojects,involvedentitiesandtheirrolesandactivitiesacrosstheMaraecosystem

OP Yes Desksurvey MMWCAMaMaSe-WWF

ONGs Early2016 L

ActionplantomaintainyearroundflowofsurfacewaterincorporatedtoCNR-CAP

OP No CNR-CAPwithactionplanincorporated

MMWCAMaMaSe-WWF

CNR-CAPupdatedversion

2018 L

ActionplanthataimstoprotectandsustainstrongandfertilesoilcoverincorporatedtoCNR-CAP

OP CNR-CAPwithactionplanincorporated

MMWCAMaMaSe-WWF


2018 L

ObjectiveHPN6:By2018,understandandhaveinplacemeasurestoadaptor/andmitigateclimatechangeimpactsacrossthegreaterMaraecosystem

ActualimpactsofclimatechangeacrosstheGMEareknownanddocumented

OP Yes ImpactsofclimatechangeintheGMEreport

MMWCAandpartners


Once,endof2016

L

SpecificmitigationandadaptationplanisdevelopedandaddedtoCNR-

OP CNR-CAPwithactionmitigationandadaptationplanincorporated

MMWCAandpartners


Once,endof2017

L

70




cost

CAPObjectiveHPN7:ByDecember2018,adatabankandresearchfacilityisoperationalforthegreaterMaasaiMara’swildlifepopulationdynamics,distributionpatternsandimpacts

Biologicalmonitoringplaninplaceforeachoneofthebiologicalconservationtargets

OC Partial Monitoringreportsreview MMWCA MMWCA Annually M

NumberofusersofvirtualresearchfacilityfortheMM

OC No Usercounting MMWCA MMWCA Quarterly L

ObjectiveHPN8:By2018,suitablenationalandcountypoliciesthatenablerequiredwildlifeinterventionstomanagepopulationdynamicsacrossthegreaterMaasaiMaraareinplace

Numberofwildlifemanagementinitiativesaccompaniedbyanenablingpolicy

OC No Wildlifemanagementinterventionreports

MMWCA MMWCA Annually M

ObjectiveFIS1:ByDecember2016,livestockenterprise(s)areestablishedwiththepurposeofraisingincomefortheConservanciesinthemedium-term

Numberoflivestockenterprisesestablished

OP Yes Desksurvey MMWCAandpartners

Conservancies,communities

2*year L

IncomeprovidedbylivestockenterprisestoConservancies

IM Yes Budgetandfinancialreportreviews


MMWCA,conservancies,Livestockenterprises

Annually L

PercentageofCNR-CAPcoveredbylivestockenterprises



MMWCA&conservancies

Annually L

71




cost

ObjectiveFIS2:ByDecember2018,thepotentialoftheMaraEcosystemforests,bushlandsandgrasslandswillbeassessedinordertodevelopinitiativesbasedoncarboncredits

PotentialofMaralandscapeforCO2assessed

OP No Reportapproval MMWCAandpartners

MMWCA End2016 L

Atleastonecarbonbasedinitiative

OC No Carbonbasedinitiativeapproval

MMWCAandpartners

MMWCA 2017 L

ObjectiveFIS3:ByDecember2016,achievefinancialsupportfromphilanthropicfundingsourcesforbothindividualconservanciesandcross-conservanciesinitiatives,e.g.,costsofconservancymanagement

Fundssecuredfromphilanthropicsources

OC Yes Budgetandfinancialreportreviews


MMWCA&conservancies

Annually L

PercentageofCNR-CAPcoveredbyphilanthropicsources



MMWCA&conservancies

Annually L

ObjectiveFIS4:Bymid-2017,allconservancieshavestreamlinedtheiroperationalcostswithinvestmentsmadetoengenderlandscapeconservancymanagementandimprovedoperations

Percentageofreductionofoperationalcosts

IM Yes Financialreportreview Conservancies,MMWCA

Conservancies 2*year L

ObjectiveFIS5:(SeeObjectiveLUP3)

ObjectiveFIS6:ByDecember2017,achievecountyor/andnationalgovernmentfinancialsupportandlegislativeframeworkforconservancies

Fundssecuredfrompublicsources

OC Yes Budgetandfinancialreportreviews


MMWCA&conservancies

Annually L

PercentageofCNR-CAPcoveredbypublicsources



MMWCA&conservancies

Annually L

72




cost

ObjectiveFIS7:By2020,theconservanciesareimplementingaMara-wideconservanciestourismstrategytomaximisetourismincomewhilemaintainingsolidconservationpractice

LevelofcompliancetotheoptimalbeddensityperConservancy

OC Partial On-siteassessment MMWCAandtourismpartners

Conservancies Annually M

Mara-wideconservanciestourismstrategycompletedandimplemented

OC No StrategyapprovalWorkplanapproval

MMWCA,AWFandtourismpartners

MMWCA 2017 L

Annuallevelofbedoccupancy

IM Yes Compilationofcampstatistics

MMWCA,AWFandtourismpartners


Incomegeneratedbytourismtoconservancymanagement

IM Yes MMWCA,AWFandtourismpartners


73

7. Zoningproposal

Inordertoachievetheobjectivesofthisplanandenhancethelong-termviabilityofconservationtargets,azoningproposalhasbeendevelopedencompassing6zones.Theirdefinition,objectivesandrelatedactivitiesaredetailedinthetable5.

Itisexpectedthattheproposeddefinitionofzonesandgeographicallocation,willbeground-truthedduringthefirstyearoftheCNR-CAPimplementation,inordertobegazettedandtoinformtheplanningprocessesatthelargerscale(namely,theGreaterEcosystemPlan,andtheNarokCountySpatialPlan).

Table5:ProposedDefinitionofZonesfortheCNR-CAP

Zonename Definition Activities/objectives Location

ßßLessprotectio

nM

oreprotectio

nàà

IntensiveProtectionZone

Criticalareasforwildlifeconservation

Managementofsensitive,endangered,endemicspeciesandcriticalhabitats

Research

EstablishedWildlifeRefuges

CoreConservationZone

Areasforconservationwheresomecompatiblehumanusescouldbeallowed(e.g.low-impacttourismfacilities)

Wildlifeconservation

Controlledhumanusewithinthecontextofamanagementplan

Conservancies

ConservationAreas

Corridors Areasdesignedforthefreemovementofwildlifeacrossthelandscape,particularlybetweentwoormorefragmentsofthehabitat

Ensuringfreemovementofwildlife

Managedhumanuseswithinthecontextofamanagementplan

Importantmigration/movementroutesinnon-protectedlands

CommunityConservationZone(“50%-50%”)

Importantareasforconservationwherehumansandwildlifecanco-exist

Reducetheimpactofhumanactivitiesonwildlifewhilesupportinglivelihoods

Humanusedareaswithmixed-usepotential(wildlifeconservationandlivelihoods)

Multiple-useZone

Areaswherehumanusesarepredominantbutpressureonecosystemsandspeciescanbereduced

Makingcurrentusescompatiblewithwildlifeandenvironmentalconservation

Intenseusedareas(e.g.areasneighbouringvillages)

IntensiveUseZones

Infrastructureareas,denselyinhabitedareas

Reducehuman-inducedimpacts

Implementinnovativeurbanplanning

Villages,roads

74

8. Bibliography

Alexandre,D.Y.(1977).LerôledisséminateurdeséléphantsenforêtdeTai,Côte-d'Ivoire.Terre&vie,32,47-72.

Asner,G.P.&Levick,S.R.(2012).Landscape-scaleeffectsofherbivoresontreefallinAfricansavannas.EcologyLetters,15,1211–1217.

AssociationTendua.(n/d).TheKenyanSavannah.TheSilentDramaoftheMaasaïMara.Retrievedfromhttp://www.tendua.org/2,002/reports,008/the-kenyan-savannah-the-silent-drama-of-the,073.html

Báldi,A.(2008).Habitatheterogeneityoverridesthespecies-arearelationship.JournalofBiogeography,35(4),675-681.

Bauer,H.&VanDerMerwe,S.(2004).Inventoryoffree-ranginglionsPantheraleoinAfrica.Oryx38:26–31.

Bauer,H.,Chapron,G.,Nowell,K.,Henschel,P.,Funston,P.,Hunter,L.T.&Packer,C.(2015).Lion(Pantheraleo)populationsaredecliningrapidlyacrossAfrica,exceptinintensivelymanagedareas.ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences.doi/10.1073/pnas.1500664112

Bauer,H.,Packer,C.,Funston,P.F,Henschel,P.&Nowell,K.(2015).Pantheraleo.TheIUCNRedListofThreatenedSpecies2015:e.T15951A79929984.

Bedelain,C.(December2013).SavingtheGreatMigrations:DecliningwildebeestinEastAfrica?UNEPGlobalEnvironmentalAlertService.Retrievedfromhttp://apps.unep.org/publications/pmtdocuments/-UNEP%20global%20environmental%20alert%20service_%20December%202013-2013GEAS-DEC2013.pdf

Behnke,R.H.andScoones,I.(1993).Rethinkingrangeecology:implicationsforrangelandmanagementinAfrica.InBehnke,R.Rh,Scoones,I,andKerven,C.(Eds.)Rangeecologyatdisequilibrium.London:OverseasDevelopmentInstitute:1-30.

Bennett,V.J.(2002).ComputermodellingtheSerengeti-Maraecosystem(Unpublisheddoctoraldissertation).UniversityofLeeds,Leeds.

Blanc,J.2008.Loxodontaafricana.TheIUCNRedListofThreatenedSpecies2008.http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T12392A3339343.en

Blanc,J.J.,Barnes,R.F.W.,Craig,G.C.,Dublin,H.T.,Thouless,C.R.,Douglas-Hamilton,I.andHart,J.A.(2007).AfricanElephantStatusReport2007:AnupdatefromtheAfricanElephantDatabase.SSCOccasionalPaperSeries:33.Gland:IUCN.

Bolger,D.,Newmark,W.,Morrison,T.,Doak,D.,(2008).Theneedforintegrativeapproachestounderstandandconservemigratoryungulates.EcologyLetters11(1):63-77.

Boonman,J.G.(1993).EastAfrica'sgrassesandfodders:Theirecologyandhusbandry.Amsterdam:KluwerAcademicPublishers.

Boval,M.andDixon,R.M.(2012).Theimportanceofgrasslandsforanimalproductionandotherfunctions:areviewonmanagementandmethodologicalprogressinthetropics.Animal,6(5),748-762

Bussmann,W.,Gilbreath,G.,Solio,J.,Lutura,M.,Lutuluo,R.,Kunguru,K.,Wood,N&Mathenge,S.G.(2006).PlantuseoftheMaasaiofSekenaniValley,MaasaiMara,Kenya.JournalofEthnobiology&Ethnomedicine,2(22).doi:10.1186/1746-4269-2-22

Bygott,J.D.,B.C.R.Bertram,andJ.P.Hanby.1979.Malelionsinlargecoalitionsgainreproductiveadvantages.Nature,282,839-841.

Caro,T.(2010).ConservationbyProxy:Indicator,Umbrella,Keystone,Flagship,andOtherSurrogateSpecies.Washington,DC:IslandPress

75

Chiyo,P.I.,Lee,P.C.,MossC.J.,Archie,A.E.,Hollister-Smith,J.A.,etal.(2011)Norisk,nogain:effectsofcropraidingandgeneticdiversityonbodysizeinmaleelephants.BehavioralEcololgy,22,552–558.doi:10.1093/beheco/arr016

Chiyo,P.I.,Lee,P.C.,Moss,C.J.,Archie,A.E.,Hollister-Smith,J.A.,etal.(2011)NoRisk,NoGain:EffectsofCropRaidingandGeneticDiversityonBodySizeinMaleElephants.BehavioralEcology22:552–558.

CMP.(2013).OpenStandardsforthePracticeofConservationVersion3.0.ConservationMeasuresPartnership.

Connelly,W.T.&M.S.Chaiken.(2000).IntensiveFarming,Agro-Diversity,andFoodSecurityUnderConditionsofExtremePopulationPressureinWesternKenya.HumanEcology,28(1):19-51

Cromsigt,J.,vanRensburg,S.J,Etienne,R.S.andOlff,H.(2009).Monitoringlargeherbivorediversityatdifferentscales:comparingdirectandindirectmethods.BiodiversityConservation,18(5),1219-1231.

Curtin,C.andWestern,D.(2008).Grasslands,People,andConservation:Over-the-HorizonLearningExchangesbetweenAfricanandAmericanPastoralists.ConservationBiology,22(4):870-877.

Dauchot,V.(2015,February1).LesMassaïsvalentmoinsqueleslions.LaLibreBelgique,pp.30-31.

Desta,Hiwot(n/d).OverviewonDegradationofLandDuetoOvergrazinginEthiopia.DipartimentodiScienzeeTechologieVeterinarieperlaSicurezzaAlimentare,UniversitàdegliStudidiMilano.Milan.http://www.mi.imati.cnr.it/sara/biodiversita/Overview%20on%20Degradation%20of%20Land%20Due%20to%20Overgrazing%20in%20Ethiopia.pdf

Diamond,J.(1988).Factorscontrollingspeciesdiversity:Overviewandsynthesis.AnnalsoftheMissouriBotanicalGarden,75,117-129.

DiMinin,E.,Fraser,I.,Slotow,R.&MacMillan,D.C.(2013).Understandingheterogeneouspreferenceoftouristsforbiggamespecies:implicationsforconservationandmanagement.AnimalConservation.16(3):249–258.

DiSilvestro,R.L.,(1991).TheAfricanElephant:TwilightinEden.NewYork:JohnWiley&SonsInc.

Douglas-Hamilton,I.(1972).OntheEcologyandBehaviouroftheAfricanElephant.PhDThesis.UniversityofOxford,U.K.

Douglas-Hamilton,I.(2009).Thecurrentelephantpoachingtrend.Pachyderm45:154–157.

Dublin,H.T.&Douglas-Hamilton,I.(1987)StatusandtrendsofelephantsintheSerengeti-Maraecosystem.AfricanJournalofEcology25(1):19-33.

East,R.(1999).AfricanAntelopeDatabase1999.GlandandCambridge:IUCN.

Elliot,N.B.,M.Valeix,D.W.Macdonald,andA.J.Loveridge.2014.SocialrelationshipsaffectdispersaltimingrevealingadelayedinfanticideinAfricanlions.Oikos,123,1049-1056.

Elliot,N.B.&Gopalaswamy,A.(inprep).Lionsinspace:aspatiallyexplicitcapture-recaptureanalysis

Ellis,E.,Coughenour,M.B.andSwift,D.M.1993.Climatevariability,ecosystemstability,andtheimplicationsforrangeandlivestockdevelopment.InBehnke,R.Rh.,Scoones,I.,andKerven,C.(eds)Rangeecologyatdisequilibrium.London:OverseasDevelopmentInstitute:31-41.

Estes,J.A.,Terborgh,J.,Brashares,J.S.,Power,M.E.,Berger,J.,Bond,W.J.etal.(2011)Trophicdowngradingofplanetearth.Science.333:301–306.

Estes,R.D.(2013).Connochaetestaurinus.In:J.S.KingdonandM.Hoffmann(Eds.),TheMammalsofAfrica(Vol.VI).Amsterdam:AcademicPress.

Ferreira,S.M.&Okita-Ouma,B.(2012).Aproposedframeworkforshort-,medium-,andlong-termresponsesbyrangeandconsumerStatestocurbpoachingforAfricanrhinohorn.Pachyderm51:52–59.

76

Ferreras,P.&S.Cousins.(1996).TheuseofaDelphitechniquewithGISforestimatingtheglobalabundanceoftoppredators:ThelioninAfrica.Unpublishedreport.Cranfield:InternationalEcoTechnologyResearchCentre,CranfieldUniversity,UK.

Fryxell,J.M.,Wilmshurst,J.F.,Sinclair,A.,Haydon,D.T.,Holt,R.D.andAbrams,P.A.(2005).Landscapescale,heterogeneity,andtheviabilityofSerengetiGrazers.EcologyLetters,8,328-335

Funston,P.J.2011.PopulationCharacteristicsofLions(Pantheraleo)intheKgalagadiTransfrontierPark.SouthAfricanJournalofWildlifeResearch,41,1-10.

FynnRWS(2012)FunctionalResourceHeterogeneityIncreasesLivestockandRangelandProductivity.RangelandEcologyandManagement65:319–329.

Galvin,K.A.(2009).PastoralistsLivingwithChange.AnnualReviewofAnthrology,39:185-186

Guldemond,R.A.R.,vanAarde,R.J.(2008).Ameta-analysisoftheimpactofAfricanelephantsonsavannavegetation.JournalofWildlifeManagement.72:892–899.

Hanby,J.P.andBygott,J.D.(1987)Emigrationofsubadultlions.AnimalBehaviour,35,161-169

Hanks,J.(1969).SeasonalBreedingoftheAfricanElephantinZambia.EastAfricanWildlifeJournal,7:167.

Hayward,M.W.andKerley,G.I.H.(2005)Preypreferencesofthelion(Pantheraleo).JournalofZoology,267,309–322

Hayward,M.W.,J.O’Brien,andG.I.H.Kerley.(2007).CarryingcapacityoflargeAfricanpredators:Predictionsandtests.BiologicalConservation,139,219-229.

Heady,H.F.(1966)InfluenceofgrazingonthecompositionofThemedatriandragrassland,EastAfrica.JournalofEcology,54:705–727.

Hoare,R.E.,&DuToit,J.T..(1999).CoexistencebetweenPeopleandElephantsinAfricanSavannas.ConservationBiology,13(3),633–639.

Homewood,K,E.F.Lambin,E.Coast,A.Kariuki,I.Kikula,J.Kivelia,M.Said,S.SerneelsandM.Thompson.(2001).Long-TermChangesinSerengeti-MaraWildebeestandLandCover:Pastoralism,Population,orPolicies?.ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,98(22):12544-12549

Hopcraft,J.G.C.,Sinclair,A.R.E.,Holdo,R.M.,Mwangomo,E.,Mduma,S.A.R.,,Thirgood,S.,Borner,M.,Fryxell,J.M.,andOlff,H.(2013)WhyarewildebeestthemostabundantherbivoreintheSerengeti?In:Sinclair,A.R.E.,Metzger,K.,Mduma,S.A.R.andFryxell,J.M.(Eds.),SerengetiIV:Sustainingbiodiversityinacoupledhuman-naturalsystem().Chicago,IL:UniversityofChicagoPress.

IPCC.(2012):ManagingtheRisksofExtremeEventsandDisasterstoAdvanceClimateChangeAdaptation.ASpecialReportofWorkingGroupsIandIIoftheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange.Field,C.B.,BarrosV.,StockerT.F.,QinD.,DokkenD.J.,EbiK.L.,MastrandreaM.D.,MachK.J.,PlattnerG.K.,AllenS.K.,TignorM.,andMidgleyP.M.(eds.);Cambridge,UK,andNewYork,NY:CambridgeUniversityPressCambridgeUniversityPress.

IUCNSSCAntelopeSpecialistGroup.(2008).Connochaetestaurinus.TheIUCNRedListofThreatenedSpecies2008:e.T5229A11120316.http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T5229A11120316.en

IUCN.(2013).IUCNRedListThreat.Species.Version2013.1.www.iucnredlist.org

Kalenda,M.,Jgaria,J.,Ng’oriarengP.C.,Simanto,O,Oduor,N.(n/d).AvailableCharcoalProductionTechnologiesinKenya.Nairobi:UNDP/KFS

Kangwana,F.K.(1993).ElephantsandMaasai:conflictandconservationinAmboseli,Kenya.PhDThesis.UniversityofCambridge.

77

Kepher-Gona,J.&Lindqvist,L.(n/d).ReportofEcoStormNo.2MaasaiMara.BasecampFoundationKenya.

Kiiru,W.(1994)Thestatusofhuman-elephantconflictInKenya.KenyaWildlifeServicereport.Typescript.

Kimani,K.andJ.Pickard(1998).RecentTrendsandImplicationsofGroupRanchSub-DivisionandFragmentationinKajiadoDistrict,Kenya.TheGeographicalJournal.164(2):202-213

Kingdon,J.(1997).TheKingdonFieldGuidetoAfricanMammals.Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress.

Kioko,J.,Kiringe,J.W.,Seno,S.O(2012)ImpactsoflivestockgrazingonasavannagrasslandinKenya.JournalofAridLand,4(1):29-35

Kortlandt,A.(1984).VegetationResearchandthe“Bulldozer”HerbivoresofTropicalAfrica.In:A.C.Chadwick&S.LSutton(Eds.),TropicalRain-Forest:TheLeedsSymposium(pp.205-226).Leeds:TheLeedsPhilosophicalandLiterarySociety

Lamprey,R.H.(1984)MaasaiimpactonKenyasavannavegetation:aremotesensingapproach.PhDThesis,UniversityofAston-in-Birmingham,UK.

Lamprey,R.H.,&Reid,R.S.(2004).SpecialPaper:ExpansionofHumanSettlementinKenya'sMaasaiMara:WhatFutureforPastoralismandWildlife?.JournalofBiogeography,31(6):997–1032.

Laws,R.M.,Parker.I.S.C.&Johnstone,R.C.B.(1970)ElephantsandHabitatsInNorthBunyoro,Uganda.EastAfricanWildlifeJournal,8:163-180.

Lindsey,P.A.,Alexander,R.,Mills,M.G.L.,Romanach,S.,&Woodroffe,R.(2007).WildlifeviewingpreferencesofvisitorstoprotectedareasinSouthAfrica:implicationsfortheroleofecotourisminconservation.JournalofEcotourism,6(1):19-33.

LVBC&WWF-ESARPO.(2010).BiodiversityStrategyandActionPlanforSustainableManagementoftheMaraRiverBasin.NairobiandKisumu,Kenya

Maldonado,O.(2015).Planningfora“free-roaminglandscape.”ReportonscopingtheneedforajointplanningeffortacrosstheMaasaiMarawildlifeconservancies.Unpublishedreport.

Maldonado,O.,Panfil,S,andRichards,M.(2011).Manuelsurl’ÉvaluationdesImpactsSociauxetsurlaBiodiversité(EISB)pourlesProjetsdeREDD+.Washington,D.C.:ForestTrends

MargjeM.Voeten,&HerbertH.T.Prins.(1999).ResourcePartitioningbetweenSympatricWildandDomesticHerbivoresintheTarangireRegionofTanzania.Oecologia,120(2),287–294.

Maundu,P.,Berger,D.J.,OleSaitabau,C.,Nasieku,J.,Kipelian,M.,Mathenge,S.G.,Morimoto,Y.,Höft,R.(2001).EthnobotanyoftheLoitaMaasai:TowardsCommunityManagementoftheForestoftheLostChild-ExperiencesfromtheLoitaEthnobotanyProject.PeopleandPlantsworkingpaper8.Paris:UNESCO.

May,R.1999.Unansweredquestionsinecology.PhilosophicalTransactionsoftheRoyalSocietyofLondonB:BiologicalSciences,354,1951-1959.

Mduma,S.A.R.,Sinclair,A.R.E.&Hilborn,R.(1999)FoodregulatestheSerengetiwildebeest:a40-yearrecord.JournalofAnimalEcology.68(6):1101-1122.

MdumaH.,MusyokiC.,MalitiKyaleD.,NindiS.,HamzaK.,NdeteiR.,MachokeM.,KimutaiD.,MutetiD.,MalobaM.,BakariS.,andKohiE.(2014)AerialTotalCountofElephantsandBuffaloesintheSerengeti-MaraEcosystem,Nairobi:WWF-WorldWideFundForNature

Menaut.J.C.(1983).EcosystemsoftheWorld:13TropicalSavannahs.Amsterdam:ElsevierScientificPublishing.

Mijele,D.,Rono,B.,Kimutai,D.,Kiambi,S.,Mutwiri,J.,etal.(2011)MovingElephants:TheNarokNorth-MaasiMaraElephantTranslocation(Report).Nairobi:KenyaWildlifeService

Mijele,D.,Obanda,V.,Omondi,P.,Soriguer,R.C.,Gakuya,F.,Otiende,M.,etal.(2013)Spatio-TemporalDistributionofInjuredElephantsinMasaiMaraandthePutativeNegativeand

78

PositiveRolesoftheLocalCommunity.PLoSONE8(7):e71179.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0071179

Mills,M.G.M.&Shenk,T.M.(1992).Predator–preyrelationships:theimpactoflionpredationonwildebeestandzebrapopulations.JournalofAnimalEcology,61,683–702.

MMNR.(2009).MasaiMaraNationalReserve.ManagementPlan2009-2019[2ndDraft].

MMWCA.(2015,July).VoiceoftheMara,p.12

Moss,C.J.(1988).ElephantMemories.NewYork:WilliamMorrow.

Neuberger,I.(2015)Policysolutionsforsustainablecharcoalinsub-saharanAfrica,Hamburg:WorldFutureCouncil

ObandaV.,Ndeereh,D.,Mijele,D.,Lekolool,I.,Chege,S.,etal.(2008)InjuriesofFreeRangingAfricanElephants(Loxodontaafricanaafricana)invariousrangesofKenya.Pachyderm,44:54-58.

Ogutu,J.O.andDublin,H.T.(2002),DemographyoflionsinrelationtopreyandhabitatintheMaasaiMaraNationalReserve,Kenya.AfricanJournalofEcology,40,120–129.doi:10.1046/j.1365-2028.2002.00343.

Ogutu,J.O.,Bhola,N.andReid,R.(2005),TheeffectsofpastoralismandprotectiononthedensityanddistributionofcarnivoresandtheirpreyintheMaraecosystemofKenya.JournalofZoology,265,281–293.

Ogutu,J.O.,Piepho,H.-P.,Dublin,H.T.,Reid,R.S.andBhola,N.(2006),Applicationofmark–recapturemethodstolions:satisfyingassumptionsbyusingcovariatestoexplainheterogeneity.JournalofZoology,269,161–174.

Ogutu,J.O.,Owen-Smith,N.,Piepho,H.P.,&Said,M.Y.(2011).ContinuingWildlifePopulationDeclinesandRangeContractionintheMaraRegionofKenyaduring1977–2009.JournalofZoology,285(2),99-109.

Ogutu,J.O.,Owen-Smith,N.,Piepho,H.P.,Said,M.Y.,Kifugo,S.C.,Reid,R.S.,...&Andanje,S.(2013).ChangingWildlifePopulationsinNairobiNationalParkandAdjoiningAthi-KaputieiPlains:CollapseoftheMigratoryWildebeest.OpenConservationBiologyJournal,7,11-26.

Ottichilo,W.K.,DeLeeuw,J.,Skidmore,A.K.,H.H.T.Prins&Said,M.Y.,(2000)Populationtrendsoflargenon-migratorywildherbivoresandlivestockintheMasaiMaraecosystem,Kenya,between1977and1997.AfricanJournalofEcology.38:202-216

Owen-Smith,R.N.(1992).Megaherbivores:TheInfluenceofVeryLargeBodySizeonEcology.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress

Packer,C.,L.Herbst,A.E.Pusey,J.D.Bygott,J.P.Hanby,S.J.Cairns,andM.Borgerhoff-Mulder.(1988).Reproductivesuccessinlions.InClutton-BrockT.H.(Ed.)ReproductiveSuccess:Studiesofindividualvariationincrossbreedingsystems(pp.363-383).Chicago,IL.:UniversityofChicagoPress.

Packer,C.,Scheel,D.andPusey,A.E.(1990).Whylionsformgroups:foodisnotenough.AmericanNaturalist,136(1):1-19.

Poole,J.H.,Whyte,I.&Kahumbu,P.(2013).Loxodontaafricana.In:TheMammalsofAfrica(volVI).Kingdon,J.,Happold,D.,Butynski,T.,Hoffman,M.,Happold,M.,Kalina,J.(Eds.).London:BloombsburyPublishing.

Poole,J.,andGranli,P.(2014)ElephantvoicesYearEndReport2013ForElephantPartners.Web.Accessed15Nov.

Poole,J.,andGranli,P.(2015).ElephantvoicesYearEndReport2014ForElephantPartners.Web.Accessed15Nov.2015.

Pusey,A.E.&Packer.C.(1987).Theevolutionofsex-biaseddispersalinlions.Behaviour,101,75-310.

Ray,J.C.,Hunter,L.andZigouris,J.(2005)SettingconservationandresearchprioritiesforlargerAfricancarnivores.Vol.24.NewYork:WildlifeConservationSociety.

79

Reed,D.N,Anderson,T.M,Dempewolf,J.,Metzger,KandSerneels,S.(2009).ThespatialdistributionofvegetationtypesintheSerengetiecosystem:theinfluenceofrainfallandtopographicreliefonvegetationpatchcharacteristics.JournalofBiogeography,36(4),770-784.

Reid,R.S.,Rainy,M.,Ogutu,J.,Kruska,R.L.,Kimani,K.,Nyabenge,M.,McCartney,M.,Kshatriya,M.,Worden,J.,Ng’ang’a,L.,Owuor,J.,Kinoti,J.,Njuguna,E.,Wilson,C.J.&Lamprey,R.(2003).People,wildlifeandlivestockintheMaraecosystem:theMaraCount2002.Report,MaraCount2002.Nairobi:InternationalLivestockResearchInstitute.

Reid,Robin(2012).SavannasofourBirth.Berkley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.

Rentsch,D.,&Packer,C.(2012).BushmeatConsumptionandLocalDemandforWildlife:WildebeestOfftakeEstimatesforWesternSerengeti(Unpublisheddoctoraldissertation).UniversityofMinnesota,Minneapolis,MN.

Riggio,J.,A.Jacobson,L.Dollar,H.Bauer,M.Becker,A.Dickman,P.Funston,R.Groom,P.Henschel,H.Iongh,L.Lichtenfeld,andS.Pimm.(2012).ThesizeofsavannahAfrica:alion’s(Pantheraleo)view.BiodiversityandConservation,22,17-35.

Rowan,A.(2009,25September).Africa'sburningcharcoalproblem.BBCNews.Retreivedfromhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8272603.stm.

Ruggiero,RG.(1992).SeasonalForageUtilisationbyElephantsinCentralAfrica.AfricanJournalofEcology,30:137-148.

Sankaran,M.,Ratnam,J.,andHanan,N.(2004)Tree-grasscoexistenceinsavannasrevisited:insightsfromanexaminationofassumptionsandmechanismsinvokedinexistingmodels.EcologyLetters,7,480-490.

Schaller,G.B.(1972).TheSerengetiLion.Chicago,IL.:UniversityofChicagoPress

Seneels,S.andE.Lambin(2001a).ImpactofLand-UseChangesontheWildebeestMigrationintheNorthernPartoftheSerengeti-MaraEcosystem.JournalofBiogeography,28(3),391-407.

Seno,S.K.andW.W.Shaw.(2002).LandTenurePolicies,MaasaiTraditionsandWildlifeConservationinKenya.SocietyandNaturalResources,15,79-88.

Sergio,F.,Newton,I.,Marchesi,L.,&Pedrini,P.(2006).Ecologicallyjustifiedcharisma:preservationoftoppredatorsdeliversbiodiversityconservation.JournalofAppliedEcology,43(6):1049-1055.

Serneels,S.,Said,M.Y.,andLambin,E.F.,(2001)LandcoverchangesaroundamajoreastAfricanwildlifereserve:TheMaraecosystem(Kenya).InternationalJournalofRemoteSensing.22,3397-3420.

Serneels,S.,&Lambin,E.(2001).Proximatecausesofland-usechangeinNarokDistrict,Kenya:Aspatialstatisticalmodel.Agriculture,EcosystemsandEnvironment,85(1),65-81.

Shorrocks,BandBates,W.(2015).TheBiologyofAfricanSavannahs.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

Shrader,A.M.,Pimm,S.L.&VanAarde,R.J.(2010)Elephantsurvival,rainfallandtheconfoundingeffectsofwaterprovisionandfences.BiodiversityandConservation,19,2235–2245.

Sinclair,A.R.E.,Hopcraft,J.G.,Olff,H.,Mduma,S.A.R.,Galvin,K.A.,Sharam,G.J.,(2008).HistoricalandFutureChangestotheSerengetiEcosystem.In:Sinclair,A.R.E.,Packer,C.,Mduma,S.A.R.,Fryxell,J.M.(Eds.),SerengetiIII:HumanImpactsonEcosystemDynamics.Chicago,IL.:UniversityofChicagoPress.

Sindiga,I.(1984).LandandPopulationProblemsinKajiadoandNarok,Kenya.AfricanStudiesReview,27(1),23–39.

SkinnerJ.D.andSmithers,R.H.N.(1990).FamilyFelidae—Cats.In:ThemammalsoftheSouthernAfricanSubregion(2ed.).Pretoria:UniversityofPretoria:391-423.

Stabach,J.A.andBoone,R.B.(2014)WildebeestCollaringAnimalSummary,LoitaPlains,NarokDistrict,Kenya.April26,2014NaturalResourceEcologyLaboratoryDepartmentofEcosystemScienceandSustainability.Boulder,CO:ColoradoStateUniversity.

80

Stabach,J.A.,Boone,R.B.,Worden,J.S.,&Florant,G.(2015).HabitatdisturbanceeffectsonthephysiologicalstressresponseinresidentKenyanwhite-beardedwildebeest(Connochaetestaurinus).BiologicalConservation,182,177-186.

Swalow,B.(1994).Therolesofmobilitywithintheriskmanagementstrategiesofpastoralistsandagro-pastoralists.GatekeeperSeriesSA47.London:InstituteforEnvironmentandDevelopment.

Talbot,L.M..(1986).DemographicFactorsinResourceDepletionandEnvironmentalDegradationinEastAfricanRangeland.PopulationandDevelopmentReview,12(3),441–451.

Tallis,H.,Kareiva,P.,Marvier,M.,Chang,A.(2008).Anecosystemserviceframeworktosupportbothpracticalconservationandeconomicdevelopment.ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,105(28),9457-9464.

TheNatureConservancy.(2007).ConservationActionPlanning.TNC/USAID

Thirgood,S.J.,Mosser,A.,Tham,S.,Hopcraft,G.,Mwangomo,E.,Mlengeya,T.,Kilewo,T.,Fryxell,J.,Sinclair,A.R.E.andBorner,A.M.(2004).Canparksprotectmigratoryungulates?ThecaseoftheSerengetiwildebeest.AnimalConservation,7(2),113-120.

Thompson,M.,&Homewood,K..(2002).Entrepreneurs,Elites,andExclusioninMaasailand:TrendsinWildlifeConservationandPastoralistDevelopment.HumanEcology,30(1),107–138.

Treydte,A.C.,Baumgartner,S.,Heitkönig,I.M.A.,Grant,C.C.,Getz,W.M.,(2013)HerbaceousForageandSelectionPatternsbyUngulatesacrossVaryingHerbivoreAssemblagesinaSouthAfricanSavanna.PlosOne,8:12

Turner,M.G.,Gardner,R.H.&R.V.O’Neil,(2001).LandscapeEcologyinTheoryandPractice.NewYork,N.Y:Springer-Verlag

Urban,D.andKeitt,T.(2001).LandscapeConnectivity:Agraph-TheoreticPerspective.Ecology,82(5),1205-1218

Valeix,M.,Fritz,H.,Sabatier,R.,Murindagomo,F,Cumming,D.&Duncan,P.(2011).Elephant-inducedstructuralchangesinthevegetationandhabitatselectionbylargeherbivoresinanAfricansavanna.BiologicalConservation,144,902-912.

VanAarde,R.J.,Jackson,T.P.,(2006).Megaparksformetapopulations:addressingthecausesoflocallyhighelephantnumbersinsouthernAfrica.BiologicalConservation,134,289–297.

VanderWaal,K.L.,A.Mosser,andC.Packer.(2009).Optimalgroupsize,dispersaldecisionsandpostdispersalrelationshipsinfemaleAfricanlions.AnimalBehaviour,77,949-954.

Voeten,M.M.&H.H.T.Prins(1999)ResourcePartitioningbetweenSympatricWildandDomesticHerbivoresintheTarangireRegionofTanzaniaSource,Oecologia,120(2),287-294

Western,D.(1989)TheEcologicalValueofElephants:aKeystoneRoleInAfrica’sEcosystems.in:IvoryTradeandtheFutureoftheAfricanElephant:Vol.2.AreportbytheIvoryTradeReviewGrouptoCITES.

White,F.(1983).ThevegetationofAfrica.Paris:UNESCO.

Woodroffe,R.andFrank,L.G.(2005).LethalcontrolofAfricanlions(Pantheraleo):localandregionalpopulationimpacts.AnimalConservation,8(1),91-98.

Woodroffe,R.,Hedges,S.&Durant,S.M.(2014).Tofenceornottofence.Science,344,46–48.

Young,K.W.&vanAarde,R.J(2011).ScienceandelephantmanagementdecisionsinSouthAfrica.BiologicalConservation,144,876–885.

81

Appendixes

Appendix1:ResultChainDiagrams

Appendix1.1:ResultChainDiagram,StrategyLandUsePlanningforaLong-TermFunctionalEcosystem

82

Appendix1.2:ResultChainDiagrams,StrategySustainableGrazingandBeefProduction

83

Appendix1.3:ResultChainDiagrams,StrategyPreservingtheMaasaiCulture

84

Appendix1.4:ResultChainDiagrams,StrategyHarmoniousCoexistenceofPeopleandNature

85

Appendix1.5:ResultChainDiagrams,StrategyFinancialSustainability

86

Appendix2:Listofparticipantsintheplanreviewworkshop

NameofOfficial Designation Institution EmailAddress

1 Amoke,Irene PKWTProjects KWT [email protected]

2 Anderson,Sean Chairman NaiboishoConservancy

[email protected]

3 Bashir,Munira CountryDirector TNC [email protected]

4 Beaton,Gerard Manager AsiliaAfrica/Naiboisho

[email protected]

5 Earnshaw,Allan CEO KWT [email protected]

6 Esau,Kenn TechincalAssistant

TNC [email protected]

7 Gibbons,Helen CEO MMWCA [email protected]

8 Heath,Justin Manager SeiyaLtd [email protected]

9 Hernadez-Salazar,Daniel

Photographer TNC/MMWCA [email protected]

10 Hoffmeyer,William Manager OlarroConservancy [email protected]

11 Kaelo,Dickson CEO KWCA dkaeolo@kwcakenya

12 Kipees,Sylvester Member OWCT [email protected]

13 Kisemei,Julius Manager LemekConservancy

[email protected]

14 LeparanKisser,Musa Alternate MMWCA [email protected]

15 Lukume,Ben Manager ParadamatConservancy

[email protected]

16 Maldonado,Oscar Consultant TNC [email protected]

17 Matthews,Sean Manager OlarroConservancy [email protected]

18 Mautai,Dominic Member NaiboishoConservancy

[email protected]

19 Monson,Greg ManagingDirector

Kicheche [email protected]

20 Mopel,John Landowner MMWCA [email protected]

21 Mopel,Johnson Chairman MaasaiMoran

22 Muchiri,Francis Warden KWSNarok [email protected]

23 Muli,Daniel HeadCommunity

MMWCA [email protected]

24 Musyoki,Kioko GeneralManager

MaraSarova [email protected]

26 Mwangi,Evans ProjectManager PREPARED [email protected]

27 Ndetei,Robert HeadofSpecies WWF rndetei@wwfkenya

28 Nkoitoi,Francis ManagerMaraNorth

MaraNorthConservancy

[email protected]

29 Nkoitoi,Simon Manager OlKinyeiConservancy

[email protected]

30 Nkuyato,Emmanuel Naturalist MaraSarova [email protected]

31 Ntutu,Mustafa Manager OlChoroConservancy

[email protected]

32 Omondi,Collins CountyWarden KWS [email protected]

33 Pye,Richard Chair OlareMotorogiConservancy

[email protected]

34 Ripau,Maias Itern OOMT [email protected]

87

35 Sengeny,John Chairman NaiboishoLandholdingCompany

[email protected]

36 Seno,Simon VCMMU MaasaiMaraUniversity

[email protected]

37 Shuuru,Benjamin Member NyakweriConservancy

[email protected]

38 Sipitiek,Johnson ChairCWCCC AfricaConservationCenter

[email protected]

39 Sopia,Daniel Chairman MMWCA [email protected]

40 Tambara,Edwin ConservationPlanner

AWF [email protected]

41 Thompson,Stewart Researcher OxfordBrookesUniveristy

[email protected]

maasai mara conservancies cultural & natural …

Documents