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AGILE TRAINING:
AN INNOVATIVE PEDAGOGICAL PROCESS
FOR EDUCATORS
A Masters Thesis
Presented to the
School of Public Administration,
College of Information Science and Technology,
And the Faculty of the Graduate College
University of Nebraska
In Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Public Administration
Master of Science in Management Information Systems
University of Nebraska at Omaha
By
RJ Redden
May, 2012
Supervisory Committee
Dr. Peter Wolcott
Dr. Gary Marshall
Dr. Ilze Zigurs
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AGILE TRAINING: AN INNOVATIVE
PEDAGOGICAL PROCESS FOR EDUCATORS
RJ Redden, MPA, MIS
University of Nebraska, 2012
Advisor: Dr. Peter Wolcott
Abstract
Information technology (IT) plays a vital role in the growth of small businesses. Many
businesses unfamiliar with technology tools risk being left behind in the so-called digital
divide, rendering them unable to compete in today's business environment. Efforts to
train owners of microenterprises often employ plan-driven training, which emphasizes
structure and linear learning with pre-defined learning objectives. Plan-driven training
has been effective to a point, but it is sometimes insufficient to help microenterprises to
cross the so-called digital divide. How can an effective pedagogical method be
developed for training microenterprises to use Information Technology? This study
develops an alternative educational method known as Agile Training. Agile Training is
adapted from the Agile method of information systems development. It is an iterative
method, designed to produce a demonstrable set of valuable technical skills on a short
timetable. This study uses action research methodology to study the development of the
Agile Training process with twenty microenterprises (including nonprofit organizations)
in the Council Bluffs/Omaha area. The findings of the study reveal that the Agile
Training method produces significant effects for microenterprises, including a 95%
skill/concept retention rate.
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Acknowledgements
I wish to acknowledge the many individuals whose invaluable assistance and cooperation
were vital in the completion of this thesis.
I would like to thank my committee Dr. Peter Wolcott, Dr. Gary Marshall, and Dr. Ilze
Zigurs for their support and guidance throughout this project.
I would like to thank Dr. Angela Eikenberry for inspiring me to explore my research
interests. Her support and encouragement have been invaluable from the first graduate
class I attended.
I am extremely grateful to the Iowa West Foundation for funding the grant that made this
study possible. This project would only be an idea, were it not for their involvement.
The twenty microenterprises that opened their doors to me were patient, kind, andgenerous with their time. Their trust in me was humbling, and will always be
remembered.
Without the invaluable assistance of Andrew Lescelius, the project could never have
happened. Andrew provided much more than research support for the project, and his
contribution was instrumental.
To the many friends and family who have only seen me through the back side of my
laptop for about three years, thank you for your tireless support. Special mention goes to
Rhonda Noel-Hurst, Shawn Steiner, Beth Colaric, Alyssa Gilliland, Rena Toomey,
Sabrina Howes, Annette Beers, Rene Neun, Rochelle Cripe, Brad Cripe, Mary Ensz, and
Jennifer Jahn. From the other end of the couch, Jazz the Dog closely supervised much of
the writing of the thesis, and for her companionship I am very grateful.
It is difficult to tie a final bow on a thesis and send it out into the world, but it must be
done. This thesis is dedicated to everyone who helped me through this process. It is my
hope that all these efforts will result in more good being done in the world.
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Table of Contents
1.0: Introduction........................................................................................................................... 1
2.0: Research Question ................................................................................................................ 3
3.0 Background ............................................................................................................................ 33.1: Mental Models .................................................................................................................. 3
3.2: Agile Education ................................................................................................................ 9
3.3: Agile Training................................................................................................................. 14
4.0 Process ................................................................................................................................. 26
4.1: Methodology ................................................................................................................... 26
4.2: Impact ............................................................................................................................. 33
4.3: Technical Walkthrough of an Agile Training Process .................................................... 34
5.0: Results................................................................................................................................. 41
5.1: Evolution of the Agile Training Method ........................................................................ 50
5.2 Discussion ........................................................................................................................ 52
5.3: Limitations, Contribution to Knowledge ........................................................................ 53
6.0 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 55
Appendices................................................................................................................................. 56
Appendix A: Initial Interview Questions ............................................................................... 56
Appendix B: Mental Model Survey ....................................................................................... 57Appendix C: Twelve underlying Agile Manifesto principles. ............................................... 65
Appendix D: Breakdown of specific skills learned within an actual session......................... 66
References.................................................................................................................................. 67
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Table of Figures
Table 1: Mental Models ...................................................................................................... 7
Table 2: Values for an Agile Pedagogy (Stewart et al., 2009) ......................................... 13
Table 3: Agile Training Principles .................................................................................... 15
Table 4: Microenterprise Demographic ............................................................................ 27
Figure 1:Boyd's OODA Loop, adapted by William P. Hall ............................................. 23
(Reprinted from William P. Hall, Organizational Autopoiesis and Knowledge
Management, 2003, 5)..................................................................................................... 23
Figure 2: Mental Model Survey Results Over Time ......................................................... 30
Figure 3: Total Skills Learned During Sessions ............................................................... 43
Figure 4: User Retention of Skills Over Time .................................................................. 44
Figure 5: Importance Score Tabulation ............................................................................ 46
Figure 6: Second Order Effects: Time Savings (hours per week) .................................... 47
Figure 7: Second Order Effects: Money Savings ............................................................. 48
Figure 8: Second Order Effects: Contact Base Growth .................................................... 49
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1.0: Introduction
Microenterprises are a significant part of the economy in the United States. According to
the Association for Enterprise Opportunity, microenterprises are defined as businesses
with fewer than ten employees (Association for Enterprise Opportunity, 2011). These
businesses constitute a vital part of a regions economy, providing not only jobs, but the
innovation and entrepreneurial dynamic that benefit communities as a whole (Williams,
2011).
Many businesses unfamiliar with technology tools risk being left behind in the so-called
digital divide, rendering them unable to compete in today's business environment.
Discovering more efficient processes for keeping microenterprises abreast of technology
skills and tools will help ensure that more businesses will be able to compete in the
marketplace, thus sustaining and growing local economies.
Information technology (IT) plays an important role in the growth of small businesses by
increasing efficiencies, providing access to new markets, and fostering the development
of new products and services. Microenterprises often face great challenges in using IT
effectively. They may suffer not only from a lack of resources and skills, but also the
awareness, knowledge, and confidence needed to adopt technology successfully (Kamal,
2009).
In the field of technological instruction, plan-driven training has been effective to a point,
but it is sometimes insufficient to help microenterprises to cross the digital divide
(Wolcott, Kamal, & Qureshi, 2008). In this context, plan-driven training refers to
instruction in technology skills, with little attention paid to psychological factors (Kamal,
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2009). Traditional education uses a plan-driven approach, documented through a course
syllabus and training material prepared ahead of time. Technical training programs that
are part of microenterprise development programs typically involve courses or workshops
with well defined, but previously determined, learning objectives and pedagogical
methods (Edgcomb, 2002). Even in more customized technical assistance, the training
process typically begins with an interview of the subject, in which the technical needs of
the subject are taken into account. Information from the interview is used to devise a
technical instructional plan for the subject. Each instructional session is intended to move
the subject closer to the overall goal of the plan. This is a linear process with prescribed
goals that is difficult to adapt to changing circumstances. While such training often
produces positive results, in other cases, the impact has been negligible. The elements
that separate a high impact interaction from a low impact interaction are not well
understood; however, psychological factors may play a role in the impact of the
interaction (Cohen & Nycz, 2006; Kamal, 2009).
This paper reports on research in progress to make technical training and assistance more
effective in an unconventional educational setting, such as that of microenterprises.
Through the use of Agile Training methods, participants (hereafter, called users) are
expected to overcome the barriers to learning that arise from gaps between learning
objectives and prior knowledge, skills, abilities, and perceptions (Cohen, 2009). The
thesis is outlined as follows: a research question is proposed. A discussion of the
background of Agile Training follows, including mental models and Agile principles in
education. Agile Training methods are then introduced, along with a strategic toolkit and
a model of the process. Next, the methodology for the study is outlined, impact is
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discussed, and a sample technical walkthrough of the process is included. The results of
the study are presented, accompanied by a section regarding the evolution of the Agile
Training method. Limitations of the study are then discussed, along with potential
contributions to knowledge, followed by a conclusion.
2.0: Research Question
How can an effective pedagogical method be developed for training microenterprises to
use Information Technology (IT)?
The goal of this research is to cultivate just such a method. Evidence of the efficacy of
the Agile Training process will be presented in terms of effects on the individual, effects
on the organization, and effects on the community. These effects will be measured both
quantitatively and qualitatively, using surveys and interviews administered throughout
the process. The purpose of this research is not to compare the effectiveness of Agile
Training and plan-driven training. Rather, it is about the development of tools and
techniques that will assist microenterprises to learn and use information technology. The
comparative study of the effectiveness of Agile Training vs. plan-driven training is
beyond the scope of this study, and is perhaps a question for future research.
3.0 Background
3.1: Mental Models
What is Information Technology? Perhaps a definition could best be found by dividing
the question in two: What is Information? What is Technology?
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Websters defines information as news, advice, or knowledge, communicated by others
or obtained by personal study and investigation; intelligence; knowledge derived from
reading, observation, or instruction (Information, 2012). Information is something that
humans have had to collect and process since the dawn of time. Where is a fruitful place
to hunt? What might the weather do? What should we do for different sicknesses? The
need for accurate, up to date information is not new.
What is technology? According to Websters, technology is the application of
knowledge for practical ends (Technology, 2012). Though technology is commonly
perceived as inextricably connected to computers and the Internet, the term has actually
been in existence long before the first computing machines were invented. In its purest
sense, technology is what we do with the information we have at hand. If information
consists of the knowledge of the size of a harvest, then a clay tablet is an example of the
technology used to store that information.
What is new, then? Websters defines Information Technology as The branch of
engineering that deals with the use of computers and telecommunications to retrieve and
store and transmit information (Information Technology, 2012). The Internet allows
individuals access to information in ways that were undreamed of even ten years ago.
Information is stored, accessed and transformed at a rate that is difficult to comprehend.
The role of information in a microenterprise is much broader than decision making.
Microenterprise owners use information to create processes, design products, and interact
and communicate with other businesses. Consequently, if microenterprise owners do not
have access to current information, they risk making business decisions based on
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incorrect or outdated information. Enough decisions made on outdated information, and
the entire business may be threatened.
This problem would seem to be solved by teaching microenterprises skills to connect to
the information they need: tax information, supplier information, or zoning information.
It seems only natural that if enough technical skills were presented to microenterprise
owners, then making business decisions based on outdated information would happen
less often.
However, simply presenting microenterprise owners with technical skills has produced
mixed results (Kamal, 2009). Just as business decisions are sometimes made based on
outdated information, decisions about technology are made based on so-called mental
models.
Peter Senge's work with the concept of mental models led to many advances in the field
of organizational theory. Mental models are the deeply held internal images of how the
world works, images that limit us to familiar ways of thinking and acting (Senge, 1990).
Individuals use mental models to comprehend and simplify complex situations in their
environment (Malan, Erwee, & Rose, 2009). Mental models influence individual thinking
processes, including decision making (Senge, Lichtenstein, Kaeufer, Bradbury, &
Carroll, 2007). If a business owner has deeply ingrained beliefs about themselves using
technology and how technology works in general, he/she takes actions based on those
beliefs. When those beliefs are based on negative information, the business owner is
likely to achieve negative outcomes.
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problem(s) with mental models lie not in whether they are right or wrong. It
is when they exist below the level of our awareness Because we remain
unaware of our mental models, the models remain unexamined. Because they are
unexamined, the models remain unchanged. As the world changes, the gap widens
between our mental models and reality, leading to increasingly counterproductive
actions (Senge, 1990).
Within the study, four mental models (fear, frustration, confidence, and empowerment)
are examined. These four mental models emerged out of multiple years of experience
with microenterprises. During training sessions, certain statements cropped up repeatedly,
statements such as "I never get this right" or "The system just won't let me do anything.
Researchers noticed that microenterprises with positive results also tended to make
positive statements (reflecting confidence and empowerment), and vice versa with
negative statements (reflecting fear and frustration).
A clear understanding of mental models is essential for effecting change (Senge, 1990).
Making decisions based on fear and frustration about technology leaves the typical small
business owner mired in inefficiency. Attempting to teach individuals with undiscovered
mental models leaves the trainer mired in inefficiency; as well. Consequently, a survey
tool for measuring mental models is used in order to discover mental models both before
the sessions begin and two months after the sessions have ended. Scores from both
surveys are compared, in order to determine if mental models have shifted as a result of
the interaction. (See Appendix B for a copy of the administered survey.)
A literature review of the fear mental model reveals that the subject of Computer Anxiety
(CA) has been studied numerous times over the years. CA has been defined as fear of the
consequences of computer usage (Sievert, Albritton, Roper, & Clayton, 1988). CA can be
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influenced by both psychological and environmental factors (Thatcher & Perrewe, 2002).
Also evidenced in the literature is fears relationship with the confidence mental model.
Individuals who have more confidence in their capabilities tend to demonstrate lower
levels of CA (Thatcher & Perrewe, 2002). These two mental models measure how an
individual feels about him/herself working with computers.
How an individual feels about the system itself is also important. Experience with
microenterprises suggests that the frustration mental model can be just as damaging
(Kamal, 2009). Frustration statements abound in sessions with microenterprises, both
singularly and combined with fear statements. Together, the frustration and
empowerment mental models form the continuum that measures how individuals feel
about computer systems (Table 1). They provide a fuller picture of the microenterprise
owners range of mental models.
Table 1: Mental Models
Positive Negative
Self-Perception Confidence Fear
System Perception Empowerment Frustration
The following are four scenarios which illustrate how the four mental models influence
decision-making in organizations. All four scenarios have been taken from data collected
during the study. The names and occupations of the users have been altered.
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3.1.1: Confidence: I can do this.
Sabrina had been getting instruction on a marketing campaign. One of the sessions
was dedicated to teaching her how to design brochures for her scrapbooking store,
using Microsoft Word. Two weeks passed, and when RJ and Andrew returned,
Sabrina proudly showed them her new business card. She had taken the design
principles she had learned from making the brochure, and transferred them to
designing a business card using Vistaprint. It was a bit of a different format, but I
knew that I could give it a try. And look how these came out! Im proud to give them
out to my customers.
3.1.2: Fear: If I try to do this, something bad will happen.
Steven, a massage therapist with a private practice, was interested in moving his
business from paper to paperless. Ive always wanted to do this. I know that keeping
everything on paper is killing me, but Im afraid that if I change the way I do things, I
will lose all my data. I mean, the way I do things now is not how I would prefer to do
it, but losing my data would force me to close my doors. I dont want that.
3.1.3: Empowerment: I wonder what else the system will let me do?
Harold was interested in a strategy/marketing campaign. Late one night, he found
himself working on a presentation in the Prezi format. He wanted to embed one of the
videos from his website (designed by outside contractors), but the permissions had
been restricted. Harold looked on his hard drive for an original copy of the video. He
found one, and uploaded it to YouTube. He then edited the video to match the one on
his website and embedded it into the Prezi he had been working on. Im sure I could
have just waited and called the contractors the next day. But we had talked about
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YouTube quite a bit, and when it came down to it, I wanted to see what the system
would allow me to do. And now I dont need to be dependent on anyone else.
3.1.4: Frustration: The system wont let me do anything!
Jennifer needed help with her basic understanding of computers. She was not of the
generation that grew up with a cell phone in their hand. She had always run her
business on paper, but she was realizing the importance of being able to handle
clients efficiently through email, calendars, and tasking. During the session focusing
on email, Jennifer got very agitated. This was expressed in her tone of voice, and her
statements of I dont see where to do that, Its not here, and I dont understand
what I am supposed to be looking at. In many cases, Jennifer had actually clicked
the correct button, but was not pausing long enough for the computer to complete the
operation. When subsequent buttons were clicked, the program stopped responding.
It always does this. It never seems to work right.
3.2: Agile Education
What does a software development method have in common with pedagogy? Educators
have extracted principles from the Agile software development method and adapted those
principles for use in traditional classroom learning situations (Stewart, DeCusatis,
Kidder, Massi, & Anne, 2009).
In the history of software development methods, the Agile method is a relative
newcomer. Software development methodologies began in the 1960s with the Systems
Development Life Cycle, or SDLC (Elliott, 2004). At that time, systems development
was focused on large corporations. Functions of these large scale systems included
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activities such as basic data and transaction processing (Elliott, 2004). Given the large
scale of these systems, the needed development method would be highly plan-driven,
sequential, and heavily documented. The SDLC was designed to fit this methodological
need.
The SDLC was the reigning systems development method for many years. However, the
rigidity of the SDLC was problematic, and often caused projects to surpass both time and
budget limits. Over time, the need for more adaptive development methods arose (Elliott,
2004).
The Agile software development method was devised as an alternative to heavyweight,
inflexible software development methods. The principles underlying Agile software
development were expressed succinctly in the Agile Manifesto:
We are uncovering better ways of developing software by doing it and helping
others do it. Through this work we have come to value:
Individuals and interactions over processes and tools
Working software over comprehensive documentation Customer collaboration over contract negotiation Responding to change over following a plan
That is, while there is value in the items on the right, we value the items on the left
more (Beck et al, 2001).
The Agile method is characterized by adaptive planning, customer collaboration and
rapid response to changes in the environment. This method has been successful in
delivering high quality software products, particularly in chaotic environments where
requirements change often (Satzinger, Burd, & Jackson, 2005).
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The success of Agile methods in software development has inspired Agile principles to
be adapted for the field of project management (Fernandez & Fernandez, 2008). In the
last few years, the discipline of project management has sought to redefine itself in
todays knowledge economy. Projects are increasingly defined by complexity,
uncertainty and change (Fernandez & Fernandez, 2008). Agile Project Management
(APM) was created from the need for a more adaptive system of project management, as
opposed to the rigid command and control approach. APM takes its underlying
principles directly from the Agile Manifesto and the Declaration of Interdependence
(Anderson, 2005). APM has been successful in a paradigmatic transformation of the
discipline of project management (Koskela & Howell, 2002).
Agile principles have also been adapted for education (Stewart, DeCusatis, Kidder,
Massi, & Anne, 2009; Kussmaul, 2005). As in the software development and project
management examples, Agile Education has evolved out of a need for a more adaptive
method. Traditional educational methods are plan-driven and sequential, which resembles
the SDLC system of software development. The syllabus is the foundation for the
overwhelming majority of todays educational experiences. The syllabus sets the
educational plan for the semester. Learning goals are predetermined by the instructor,
along with the schedule. Though the schedule is somewhat subject to change, it is
normally adhered to as much as possible.
From an instructors perspective, the waterfall model has a lot of appeal.
It is easy to describe and easy for students to understand. It fits well with the
traditional academic model of assignments with due dates. This makes it simple to
give all groups the same task (such as completion of the requirements
specification) even though they are working on different projects.
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From the students perspective, however, the waterfall model makes less
sense. They dont see the value of many of the tasks, and they are anxious to start
the real work of coding. The waterfall model also has the same drawbacks here
as it does in industry: requirements change, it is hard to estimate task duration,
schedules slip, and testing suffers as a result if the project is completed at all
(Hanks, 2007).
However, according to Stewart, et al., it is not just the software community that has
grave concerns that their methodology is too heavy-weight; the academic community has
been working on developing techniques to increase student participation, rather than
using planned curricula based on instructor lectures (Stewart et al., 2009). In response to
these concerns, educators have begun looking toward more active and cooperative
learning methodologies (Stewart et al., 2009).
The first instances of using Agile principles in education originate in Computer Science
courses concerning the software development process (Stewart et al., 2009). Researchers
have mapped the Agile Manifesto principles to the classroom environment, using the
Manifesto as a template (Table 2).
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Table 2: Values for an Agile Pedagogy (Stewart et al., 2009)
Principles of the Agile Manifesto Principles Adapted for Use in
Traditional Classrooms
Individuals and interactions over processes andtools
Students over traditional processes andtools
Working software over comprehensive
documentation
Working projects over comprehensive
documentation
Customer collaboration over contract
negotiation
Student and instructor collaboration
over rigid course syllabi
Responding to change over following a plan Responding to feedback rather than
following a plan
As educators began teaching Agile methodology, they began to experiment with Agile as
a pedagogical method (Hanks, 2007; Razmov, 2007, Hislop et al, 2002). For example,
many software development courses are project based. Therefore, some instructors were
able to run the project as though it were an Agile project, using daily standup/status
meetings at the beginning of class and retrospectives at the end of class (Reed, 2008).
The standup meetings were a review of the project status, and were used in place of
traditional homework. The retrospectives gave the instructor feedback as to how well the
students understood the material presented during class, and what needed to be addressed
in the next class. Grading and evaluation also changed. While instructors still evaluated
the final project, they put much more emphasis on process evaluation, using iteration
planning and reflection documents (Hanks, 2007).
Classes so different from their plan-driven predecessors measure success with working
software delivered by students, and client satisfaction with the software. Further, the
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Agile classroom is often marked by instructor and student satisfaction with the process,
and highly motivated students (Stewart et al., 2009).
Agile Education is indeed an exciting concept for traditional education. However, a
further adaptation is needed for instructional activities in nontraditional settings, such as
the technical instruction of a microenterprise. Classrooms offer a stable environment.
Students arrive at the same time every day. The materials needed for the class are
relatively static. Instructors and students already have a good idea of what will happen in
class that day.
The environment of a microenterprise is much less stable. Work is often interrupted by
customers, calls from vendors, and unanticipated emergencies. Tasks are begun, and
deserted in favor of higher priority operations. It is an environment characterized by
chaos. Therefore, a technical training method is needed that lends itself to the chaotic
nature of the microenterprise.
3.3: Agile Training
Agile Training is a method that is proposed for technical training in unconventional
educational settings, such as the microenterprise. The table below illustrates the
adaptation of Agile principles for use outside the classroom (Table 3). As with Agile
Education, Agile principles were mapped directly from the Agile Manifesto (Beck et al.,
2001). Adaptation of the additional underlying principles can be found in Appendix C.
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Table 3: Agile Training Principles
Principles of the Agile Manifesto Principles Adapted for Use in
Training Settings
Individuals and interactions over processes and
tools
Individuals and interactions over pre-
determined methods
Working software over comprehensive
documentation
Demonstrated learning of useful IT
skills/concepts over tutorials
Customer collaboration over contract
negotiation
User collaboration over user-trainer
relationship
Responding to change over following a plan Responding to user over following a
plan
3.3.1: Mission
The mission of Agile Training is twofold: to teach skills/concepts that are useful to each
microenterprise, and to teach as many skills/concepts as possible within each session.
The determination of what is useful to each microenterprise takes place first during the
interview, and continues throughout the process. The trainers seek to determine what the
pain points are for each individual. When the pain points become apparent, the
trainers then assess what skills need to be trained next, according to the individuals
experience. At times, the skill that the individual desires to learn has a set of prerequisite
skills that must precede it. The trainers teach the entire set of skills, and proceed to the
next pain point.
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The benefit of focusing on skills that are immediately useful is that there is no time delay
between learning and seeing the benefits of learning. The individuals go into the next
lesson with a bit of positive momentum.
Agile Training also seeks to teach as many skills as possible within each session. Why all
this emphasis on quantity? Is there any reason why teaching a large number of skills
might be better than teaching a few skills thoroughly? Banduras principle of enactive
mastery helps to answer this question. Enactive mastery is the repeated successful
performance of behaviors that incite anxiety and worry (Bandura, 1997; Kim, 2005).
"... enhancing personal efficacy can help people to develop the resilient sense of
efficacy needed to override difficulties that inevitably arise from time to time. In
the enactive mastery mode, a resilient sense of efficacy is built through structured
demonstration trials in the exercise of control over progressively more
challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997)."
Enactive mastery is also the leading source of self-efficacy. According to Bandura, self-
efficacy is a persons belief in their own competence (Bandura, 1997). Repeated
successful task accomplishment gives each individual more confidence in ones own
ability. Subsequently, the more tasks the individual can accomplish within the session,
the more confidence can be gained from the experience.
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3.3.2: Model
The model of how Agile Training works is represented with a bicycle. The model was
created in order to analogize the Agile Training process and provide a roadmap for users
and future trainers. The process begins with the application of user force to the pedals.
The force transfers to the cycle of instruction. As the cycle of instruction turns, more
skills/concepts are taught. The back wheel is the cycle of assessment, allowing the
trainers to determine which skills need to be covered next, or covered again. The back
wheel drives the cycle forward. The user then steers toward the next learning goal. If the
goal is steep, the trainers teach the users how to adjust the gears, in order to get over the
hill. The mental model is the landscape of the users technological perspective. As the
cycle moves forward, the landscape changes, and adjustments are made accordingly.
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This model is user centric. The user is in control of the speed and direction of the process.
Agile Trainers know the path, and can help the user to adjust the gears when the road
seems impassable. This is done through the use of interactive methods.
3.3.3: StrategicToolkit
Agile Training uses interactive methods, which take the form of a strategic toolkit. Each
tool is related to a concept of the Agile Training method, the principles underlying the
Agile Manifesto, or Agile methodology derivatives. Each tool in the strategic toolkit has
been used numerous times within each of the twenty cases studied in this thesis.
It is important to note that the toolkit is the outcome of an action research process. The
study began with the intention of discovering repeated patterns of activity within the
microenterprises. These patterns concerned perceptions of and actions toward
technology. As patterns of behavior within the microenterprises were discovered, a set of
corresponding tools began to emerge. A description of these tools is placed here to create
awareness of the challenges and resolutions of the Agile Training process. In the
Technical Walkthrough section, a case study illustrates the use of these tools.
3.3.3.1: Pair Training
The first tool in the strategic toolkit is the composition of the training team. Technically,
one trainer could accomplish all of the tasks needed for a session. However, the use of
two trainers both inside and outside the sessions has been vital for evolving the Agile
Training method.
Pair training relates to pair programming, an agile software development technique in
which two programmers work together at one workstation. In this programming
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technique, one programmer types in code, and the other programmer evaluates the code
as it is typed in. In this way, one person is able to focus on driving the process forward,
while the other observes the process and makes suggestions (Williams & Kessler, 2003).
The two programmers switch roles frequently. Pair programming has also been reported
to produce solutions to problems more quickly than in traditional programming (Williams
& Kessler, 2003).
The driver might actually be working out a design or implementing a part of the
problem, realizing that he or she may ultimately come to a dead end in the
problem resolution. The navigator, while watching the driver's partial design or
implementation, begins thinking about the next step. When the driver hits thedead end, the navigator is often prepared to take over and lead the way. Often, the
cycle continues until the problem is solved (Williams & Kessler, 2003)."
Agile Training operates in much the same manner. One trainer teaches the next
skills/concepts to be learned, and one trainer observes and notates the session, paying
special attention to the statements and body language of the users. On occasion, the
observing trainer will make suggestions in order to aid the educating trainer. The trainers
also switch roles between sessions. For example, the educating trainer becomes the
observer trainer for the next session. This reduces the possibility that the training impact
is the direct result of a single person causing the impact.
After each session has ended, both trainers engage in a period of critical reflection about
the session. Critical reflection seeks to discover what methods were effective for learning
inside the session, and what methods were ineffective. Was there anything that could
have been done to increase the number of skills/concepts learned or shift user perception
toward positive mental models? Decisions about process changes are postulated and tried
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in the next session with a microenterprise. Process changes that have a successful
outcome are then incorporated into the overall Agile Training method.
3.3.3.2: ParallelTracks
The second tool in the strategic toolkit, Parallel Tracks, refers to changing the instruction
midstream in order to respond to verbal or nonverbal signal of non-understanding. For
example, when a user begins to give verbal and nonverbal cues (shifting in seat, looking
away, avoidance of question) that they do not understand the material, the trainer
conceives of a different explanation of the material. The trainers do not ask the users
directly if they have an understanding of the task at hand. Experience has shown that all
answers to the question Do you understand? tend to be in the affirmative, whether or
not the subject actually understands the material. Instead, the trainers use an alternative
explanation/parallel track in order to promote understanding.
These alternative explanations emerge from stories and analogies that closely relate to the
users current understanding or experience. For example, if a user gives verbal/nonverbal
cues of not understanding the difference between a domain name and a hosting provider
for a website, the trainer will shift to the analogy of a party, where the domain name is
the address of the party and the hosting provider is the person (host) who provides party
space and storage of supplies.
Analogical reasoning has long played an important role in the human learning process.
Analogy consists of a learner taking the solution for one problem and mapping the
solution to a different problem (Anderson, 2005). Relationships and patterns within
known concepts then help the learner to attain new knowledge. Learners build knowledge
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steps are easily determined by the two trainers. However, in case of disagreement, the
trainers refocus on the user. In practice, the trainers arrive at the next session, armed with
questions that will help the entire group determine the next steps of the project. These
questions clarify what it is that the user would like to accomplish.
Consider the case of a user who has difficulties deciding which website builder to use in
order to update an existing website. By the end of the appointment, the user was
undecided about whether to use her existing website builder (which has been problematic
in the past) or move to a different builder (which would entail a learning curve). The
group decided to consider all the information until the following appointment, where the
user would make the final decision. After the meeting, the trainers were in disagreement
as to which method would be better for the user. It was decided to clarify with the user
both what is problematic about the current website builder, and the users vision of the
updated website. After these questions were asked at the next appointment, the user was
able to refine her goals and determine that she needed to stay with her current website
builder.
Refocusing on the user relates to the Agile Training principle of user collaboration over
student teacher relationship. Effective relationships between instructors and users are
based on trust (Kamal, 2009). Traditional student teacher relationships are bound by
conventional norms that are appropriate to the classroom. Outside the classroom
environment, these relationships tend to be more relaxed. Relying on the user for
direction when the project loses focus has been an effective way to not only steer the
project back on course, but strengthen the trust between trainers and users (Kamal, 2009).
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3.3.3.4: The OODA Loop
The next tool in the Agile Training toolkit is the Observation, Orientation, Decision,
Action (OODA) loop (Figure 1). The OODA loop was developed by USAF Colonel John
Boyd to model the decision making process as it relates to military strategy (Adolph,
2006). According to Boyd, decision making occurs in a continuous cycle of observe
(sensing circumstances) orient (analyzing observations, creating hypotheses) decide
(choosing a plan of action) act (executing the decision). Those who can process the
OODA loop more quickly than the opponent are likely to produce a competitive
advantage, and win the battle.
Figure 1:Boyd's OODA Loop, adapted by William P. Hall
(Reprinted from William P. Hall, Organizational Autopoiesis and Knowledge
Management, 2003, 5)
The OODA loop has typically been used to describe combat situations. However,
according to Angerman,
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fundamentally the OODA loop as a conceptual model is inherently neutral.
Essentially, OODA loops represent the information system processes of a
complex adaptive system. That is, OODA loops can be applied to a complex
adaptive learner acquiring personal knowledge in cognitive and affective domains
just as appropriately as they can be applied to survival, adaptation, and
competition (Angerman, 2009).
Therefore, use of the OODA loop in teaching/learning situations can be as viable as its
use in combat situations. For the instructors, the use of the OODA loop in Agile Training
has produced a teaching advantage. The advantage lies in being able to recognize what is
happening to the user in the present moment, and act appropriately. It is fundamental to
the Agile Training method to place heavy importance on what is happening to the user in
the present moment.
Decisions in Agile Training emerge from the observation of the user and the trainers
ability to adapt to the situation. What is transpiring in the present moment? Are the users
really learning? Is synthesis of ideas taking place? Are the users mental models shifting?
Is there a mismatch between statement and action on the part of the user? Does the trainer
need to take a parallel track of explanation? Is the skill/concept being taught really the
right one to be teaching, or should the trainer reprioritize and present a different
skill/concept?
What is materializing for the user at any given moment in an Agile Training situation
supersedes the importance of all other learning objectives, past observations of user
behavior, or overall training plans. The trainer must observe, then orient, decide and act.
The loop then repeats for the remainder of the session. The OODA Loop relates to the
Agile Training principle of individuals and interactions over predetermined methods. In
this case, predetermined methods consist of fixed ways of teaching skills/concepts, and/or
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shifting mental models. Predetermined methods are a valuable resource to draw upon
during a session. However, experience has shown that the role of observing individuals
and interactions is central to the adaptive nature of Agile Training. The OODA Loop also
relates to the iterative nature of the action research methodology chosen for this study,
which will be explored further in the Methodology section.
3.3.3.5 Demonstrationless Training
Training without demonstration is the final tool in the Agile Training toolkit. Agile
Trainers provide over the shoulder training. The users perform all operations themselves
(building websites, using Google Docs, creating a YouTube channel), using the hardware
that they work with most often. The reasons for this are threefold. First, it decreases the
opportunity for the user to become fearful that they will not be able to complete the
operation themselves. Users with strong fear mental models have very little time to tell
themselves that they cannot perform the operation. Instead, they are already three steps
into an operation that they would have been afraid to attempt only moments before.
Second, this tool helps to ensure that users will be able to complete the operations long
after the trainers are gone. The second half of the mission of Agile Training is to teach as
many skills/concepts as possible within each session, in order for the user to achieve
enactive mastery of the material. If users have demonstrated to themselves that they have
mastered the material, it follows that they will continue to use the material.
Third, and perhaps most important, this tool allows the user to dictate the pace of the
instruction. When trainers demonstrate operations, the trainers tend to dictate a faster
pace because they are relying on their own IT skills and experience. Thus, the training is
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likely to outpace the users ability to absorb the instruction. With the user in front of the
keyboard, it becomes obvious what the user knows or does not yet know, and the trainer
can adjust to the users pace of instruction.
4.0 Process
4.1: Methodology
Action research involves utilizing an iterative method of planning, taking action,
observing, evaluating (including self-evaluation) and critical reflection prior to planning
the next iteration (O'Brien, 2001; McNiff, 2002). The action research method is often
used in both information science research and service learning courses (Kamal, 2009).
This method is also similar to the Agile method itself, as it is developed through
iterations, and focuses on flexibility over a fixed plan.
The setting for the application of Agile Training is a technical project undertaken for and
with a microenterprise by a team - a pair of individuals who may be consultants or
students in a service-learning class (Wolcott, Kamal, & Qureshi, 2008). Twenty
microenterprises (including nonprofit organizations) from the Council Bluffs/Omaha
metro area were chosen for the project. All microenterprises had ten or fewer employees.
The following table provides descriptive statistics of the participating microenterprises
(Table 4).
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Table 4: Microenterprise Demographic
Business Type Small
Business/
Nonprofit?
Male/
Female
Owner?
Number of
Employees
Project Type Location
Fitness Gym SB Male 10 Marketing, Social
Media
Council Bluffs
Bakery SB Female 2 Website, Marketing Council Bluffs
Environmental NP Female 1 Website, Marketing Omaha
Trucking
Company
SB Female 10 Website, Marketing Council Bluffs
Coffee Shop SB Female 5 Marketing, Social
Media
Council Bluffs
Insurance
Representation
SB Female 1 Marketing, Social
Media
Council Bluffs
Elder Care NP Female 3 Website, Marketing Council Bluffs
Firearms
Training
SB Female 1 Administrative,
Organizational
Omaha
Business
Consulting
SB Female 1 Administrative,
Organizational
Council Bluffs
NetworkMarketing
SB Female 1 Administrative,Organizational
Council Bluffs
Foundation NP Female 6 Marketing, Social
Media
Council Bluffs
Environmental NP Female 1 Website, Marketing Council Bluffs
Network
Marketing
SB Female 1 Administrative Council Bluffs
Clothing Store SB Female 2 Marketing, Social
Media
Omaha
Travel Agency SB Female 1 Marketing, Social
Media
Council Bluffs
Lawn Care SB Male 10 Marketing, Social
Media
Council Bluffs
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Graphic Design SB Male 1 Website, Marketing Omaha
Restaurant SB Female 8 Administrative Council Bluffs
Arts
Organization
NP Female 3 Administrative Council Bluffs
Insurance
Representation
SB Male 2 Website, Marketing Council Bluffs
SB 15,
NP 5
F 16,
M 4
70
Employees
Marketing 14,
Administrative 6
CB 16,
Omaha 4
In the process of Agile Training, each microenterprise identifies at least one technical
project that needs attention within their organization. The training team acts both as
consultants (using technical expertise to guide the project) and educators (using
pedagogical expertise to teach technical skills). The duration of a project depends on a
number of factors, but each project takes on average six to eight consulting sessions to
complete. The interview, final testing, and impact sessions are additional, for a total of
nine to eleven sessions. A session is a single visit to a microenterprise, typically lasting
one to two hours. Each session with a microenterprise is counted as an iteration of the
Agile Training method. Each session incorporates the cycle of observation, orientation,
decision, action, and critical reflection. Insight gained from each session is then used in
subsequent sessions.
The initial session is an interview, which is conducted to determine the mental models of
the users concerning their attitudes/perspectives of technology. (See Appendix A for a
copy of the interview questions.) Interview questions also determine hardware/software
availability, and nature of technological needs. Given the overview of the current
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technical situation, the trainers and users then identify and prioritize technical projects
which can be done within time/availability constraints.
This approach mirrors the Agile development method, which collects user stories and
prioritizes them in order of project importance. It also brings to the table everyone who is
concerned with the project (stakeholders). The method of breaking large technical
projects into smaller, more manageable pieces may also serve as a bit of instruction for
the microenterprise owners. In the future, they will be more empowered if this skill is
something that they can repeat for themselves.
A survey is then administered to the users to collect additional data about users mental
models, specifically around the four constructs of fear, frustration, confidence and
empowerment. Each microenterprise is given a rating according to measured level of
each construct. This rating is on a scale from 0-40, and the higher the number, the higher
the users score is for that particular construct. For example, a user with a combined score
of 33 on the empowerment construct would be said to have a high sense of
empowerment.
The survey is administered by email to the users directly after the first interview is
conducted. Two months after each project has ended, an impact interview is held. At this
point, the survey is administered a second time. The results of the first and second
surveys are then compared. This is done in order to gauge any change in the users
mental models over time, such as in the following illustration:
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Figure 2: Mental Model Survey Results Over Time
The illustration shows evidence of the users mental model changes over time (Figure 2).
In this instance, the user is experiencing less fear, approximately the same amount of
frustration, more confidence, and much more empowerment than in the initial stages of
the project.
The four constructs are measured informally within each session throughout the training
period. During the course of each session with a microenterprise, special attention is paid
to the statements and body language of the users, in order to note changes in perceptions
of technology. Any general shift toward either positive or negative constructs is recorded.
Training for each session alters according to the perceived levels of positive and negative
constructs. For example, if the user is making numerous frustration based statements, the
instruction pauses while the trainers attempt to determine the reason behind the
statements. This is done by asking questions of the user. If the reason cannot be
28
31
25
2118
28
34
32
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Follow Up Survey
Initial Survey
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determined, the trainers resume the session. The trainers then determine post session
if/how the course of the project should change.
The remaining sessions focus on the smaller project goals/technical lessons that were
previously agreed upon. Before each session, the trainers decide on technical lessons for
the session. The users work hands-on with the hardware/software whenever possible. As
the session proceeds, the trainers use interactive methods to teach each lesson. These
interactive methods take the form of the strategic toolkit discussed above.
It is important to note that the frequent iterations of Agile Training enhanced the
discovery of the tools contained in the strategic toolkit (pair training, parallel tracks,
refocus on the user, the OODA loop). Prior to this study, the principal trainer (RJ) had
worked directly with four microenterprises over two years (with additional indirect
exposure to ten microenterprises through the IT for Development course). Work with
each microenterprise lasted an entire semester, with only one project undertaken at a
time. In contrast, the study of Agile Training proposed work with twenty
microenterprises in the course of nine months, with projects to be worked concurrently.
As a result, the process of working with the microenterprises was shortened from an
average of fourteen weeks to an average of seven weeks. Concurrent projects also
allowed the trainers to treat each session with a microenterprise as a teaching tool for all
future sessions with all of the microenterprises in the study. A lesson learned from one
session with a microenterprise could result in a process change which may affect future
sessions with all twenty microenterprises.
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Consequently, the process of discovering patterns of behavior and developing tools as a
response to those patterns was greatly accelerated. During the prior two years, patterns of
behavior had been noted and resolved individually. The time constraints of the Agile
Training project permitted the researchers to discover patterns and adjust to user behavior
in shorter iterations, allowing for a more precise identification of tools in the strategic
toolkit. The speed and number of the iterations provided invaluable feedback for the
researchers, and thus became important in its own right.
Iteration cycles are central to Agile software development, Agile Training, and the action
research method. Iteration cycles deliver feedback and opportunities to alter the process
to better fit the situation at hand. Process alterations provide opportunities to enter the
iteration cycle using a different approach, which elicits additional feedback. The cycle of
approach and feedback is the heart of the Agile Training process. When the iteration
cycle speed is increased, the ability to refine the method also increases.
The development of an effective pedagogical method for training microenterprises to use
IT is the goal of this research. The action research methodology provided an opportunity
for the researchers to experiment on their feet with the structure of the proposed
process. When this research was proposed, the researchers had an adaptation of a
software development method, and a number of ideas concerning the pedagogical
process. Many of the elements in this study were unknown at the beginning of the
process. Rather, the components of Agile Training were revealed over time. The iterative
cycles of action research permitted the researchers to refine previous ideas while
exploring new landscapes. Therefore, action research methodology is appropriate for
answering the research question.
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4.2: Impact
Impact measurement takes place during each Agile Training session. Near the end of
each session, the trainers determine if a skill/concept has been successfully taught by
asking the microenterprise owner to teach them the skill/concept as if they were a new
employee. As an alternative, the user is given the opportunity to perform the evaluation at
the beginning of the next session, rather than immediately, if that makes the user more
comfortable. This evaluation accomplishes several goals. It causes the microenterprise
owner to assimilate the new information before the session breaks. In having the user try
to explain the new information to another person, the approach identifies gaps in the
user's learning, which the trainers can then address. These skills/concepts are measured
on a pass/try again basis. At the beginning of the next session, the user is offered a
second chance at any skills/concepts not passed in the previous session.
After each session has ended, the trainers meet at a separate location to evaluate the
impact of the session. A list of technical lessons learned is recorded. Critical reflection
also takes place. The session is discussed, with particular emphasis on user reactions that
seemed out of the ordinary. The users responses to the session are noted, and further
alterations to the trajectory of the project are proposed if needed. A plan is outlined for
the next session. The effect of each session is measured by skills demonstrably learned on
the part of the users. The effect of the session is also determined by shifts in the users
mental models. These are determined both directly and indirectly, using user behavior as
the principal measure. This behavior is shown in the users verbal statements and body
language.
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The final session is a review of all of the skills and concepts learned during previous
sessions. The primary reason for testing the skills a second time is to ascertain if the
previously learned skills/concepts have been retained over a period of time. The subjects
are allowed to use notes made during previous sessions. This approximates the actual
environment in which the skills will be demonstrated.
4.3: Technical Walkthrough of an Agile Training Process
An Agile training process lasts between nine and eleven session. The first session is a
consultation in which the trainers conduct an interview with the users. This interview is
intended to ascertain both the technical needs of the users and their perspectives on
technology (mental models). During the following six to eight sessions, the trainers and
users work together to build skills and learn technical concepts, usually through the
accomplishment of technical projects, such as building a website or creating a social
media campaign. After the technical project/s are finished, the trainers use one session to
test the users on all of the skills/concepts that have been learned during the process. Two
months after the testing session, the trainers conduct a final impact interview. This
interview is designed to ascertain the effectiveness of the Agile Training process.
Below is an example of what the Agile Training process looks like in action. This
example is designed to give the reader a feel for the process, and does not represent any
single user involved in the project.
The first session started with the entrance interview, conducted by RJ. Susan, the flower
shop owner, granted permission for the interview to be recorded. Andrew took notes
during the interview, focusing on Susans facial expressions, body language, and
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positive/negative statements concerning technology. During the interview, Susan often
punctuated her answers to the questions with nervous laughter. Her body language also
indicated nervousness. This is generally normal for the first few minutes of the entrance
interview. RJ will usually tell them a story, or relate to something that they are saying, in
order to get the nervousness to die down and the user to relax a bit. Susan revealed in the
interview that she had owned this flower shop for thirty years, navigating through many
business upsets and dry spells. It is clear from her stories that she is an extremely
intelligent and capable person. Susan also indicated a willingness and eagerness to learn
technological skills that will be important to her business.
A behavioral pattern emerged during the interview. Numerous times, she referred to
herself as dumb or incompetent with regard to technology. For example, during the
interview she stated "youll have to be patient with me, because I'm such an idiot with
this stuff". Though Susan presented herself with confidence in many aspects of her
business, the technological aspect was riddled with fear about her ability to navigate
technology. She also had a somewhat negative perception regarding the pace at which
technology changes, stating that just when you get used to doing things a certain way,
something always comes along to upset the applecart.
During the interview, Susan related a story about a negative experience with IT. A few
years ago, she was having printer problems. She called someone out of the phone book
for assistance. This person charged her by the hour to look at the printer. When seven
hours had passed, he pronounced the printer unfixable and left the scene. Susan paid the
bill and purchased another printer. She decided to ask her nephew to install the printer.
When he arrived, he examined the unfixable printer first, and found that the printer was
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indeed fixable, and only required an ink cartridge change. It was clear during the
recounting of this story that Susan was still frustrated from this experience.
The trainers discussed the interview afterwards. Susan was interested in a social media
campaign for the flower shop. In addition, she was considering franchising the shop and
needed a way to communicate with employees in different cities, without spending half
her life in the car. During the session, Susan and the trainers had decided that the social
media campaign was the highest priority. The trainers decided to start Susans social
media blitz by working with the Facebook page. Susan had determined that a segment of
her target market was on Facebook, and she had built a Facebook page six months
previously. However, she had failed to continue to update the page, stating lack of
update material as the reason for the abandonment. It was decided to start with the
Facebook page because it was an already familiar environment. The trainers decided that
when the situation warranted, they would move on to less familiar social networking sites
(Twitter, Pinterest, and so on).
Susans fear of using technology was also discussed. It was decided to continue to
monitor this fear level. When the fear reached a certain intensity (ascertained through
fearful statements and body language), it could then be addressed.
During the time between the interview and the first teaching session, Susan took a survey
designed to further determine her mental models and perspectives on technology. The
results of this survey indicated high levels of fear and frustration, as was shown in the
interview.
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The next appointment was the first session of Agile Training. RJ took the teaching role.
Andrew observed and took notes during the meeting. The Facebook page was the focus
of the first session. The first part of the meeting involved a discussion of target market
and the platform of social media in general. Susan seemed relatively relaxed during this
part of the session. She expressed surprise at the numerous changes in advertising that
social media had brought about.
At that point, RJ began technological instruction on how to use the Facebook page as a
social media tool. Susan used her own laptop for the session, with RJ sitting behind her.
As RJ began the tour of the various elements of the Facebook page, Susans demeanor
changed. She began to ask rapid fire questions, and then proceeded to click on several
elements of the page in an attempt to answer her own question. Several times, RJ noticed
that the answers to Susans questions were written directly on the screen, but Susan
seemed to overlook this. RJ saw that Susan was becoming more and more frustrated.
Andrew also noted Susans statements, which ranged from fear I just cant make that
happen to frustration Why wont Facebook let me do that. RJ then made a decision to
adjust the method slightly, in order to help Susan calm down a bit. RJ slowed down the
process in two ways. First, RJ helped Susan focus on only one operation at a time.
Whenever the focus began to scatter, RJ would bring it back to the single operation that
she had asked Susan to accomplish. Second, she began to relate the concepts learned at
the beginning of the session to what was currently on the screen. One of the concepts at
the beginning had been the nature and quality of status updates. RJ asked Susan to find
another business page and scan the updates, noting similarities. These similarities were
put back into the context of what had been learned in the beginning of the session.
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These techniques helped to calm Susan. The fear and frustration statements did not stop
altogether, but the severity and frequency of the statements diminished. Susans body
language also calmed down a bit. The rest of the session continued without incident. At
the end of the session, Andrew role-played being the flower shops newest employee in
charge of social media. He asked her questions about how to administer the Facebook
page for the flower shop. RJ took notes as to whether or not Susan answered the
questions correctly.
Susan got a bit frustrated, but she was able to remember nine out of the ten skills that had
been taught in the session, including how to switch from a personal Facebook profile to
business profile, how to engage with other business profile pages, and how to link her
Facebook status to update her Twitter feed.
After the session, the trainers discussed Susans reactions. The lack of focus during the
session (clicking from page to page without reading, not finishing one operation before
starting another, etc) could have been related to her fear of technology, or it could have
been related to Facebook itself. It was agreed that the trainers would find out during the
next session by introducing a different social media tool. It was also agreed that the one
task at a time method of slowing Susan down was effective, and could be tried again if
the need arose. Finally, the trainers decided that if the lack of focus problem occurred
again, then the next session would be time to address the situation, and perhaps find the
root cause.
The next session covered all aspects of using Pinterest as a social media tool. Pinterest is
an image oriented social networking tool used by a large segment of Susans target
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market (females aged 25-60). RJ started the session with a review of some concepts of
social media from the first session. Susan remembered all of the concepts, and was happy
to report to us that she had actually ventured out on her own and looked at Pinterest,
though she had not yet signed up for an account.
RJ and Susan then made an account for Susan on Pinterest. Susans demeanor changed
again, replicating what had happened in the previous session (asking rapid fire questions,
clicking on every visible button, etc). RJ once again employed the one task at a time
approach, which Susan responded to. RJ decided that it was time to further explore the
lack of focus situation. RJ began asking some questions, and it was determined that the
lack of focus was precipitated by Susans fear of failure. RJ and Susan discussed the fear,
and ways that Susan might remedy the situation. Susan indicated that she was willing to
try slowing down and addressing the fear when it cropped up. RJ and Susan then turned
their attention back to learning the different aspects of Pinterest.
The fear of failure/lack of focus problem recurred during the remaining sessions.
However, the problem always resurfaced temporarily, and responded favorably to the
one task at a time treatment.
A different pattern began to emerge in the remaining sessions. Whenever signing up for a
new social media site, Susan would need to create a new user account with a user name
and password. Her current method of password storage involved writing passwords down
on different sheets of paper. This made signing back into social media sites problematic.
When Susan failed in her attempt to log back into Pinterest, she quickly became
frustrated, making statements such as I dont understand why they wont let me log in.
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They must not want me on their website. In this situation, the trainers ascertained two
problems. First, the passwords needed to be kept in a more organized way for easy
retrieval. Second, she jumped to the conclusion that the system was trying to prevent her
from being on the site (indicating a frustration based mental model). This conclusion is
actually the opposite of the truth. The intent of social media websites is to keep users on
their site for as long as possible.
Frustration based mental models are dealt with in a different way than fear based mental
models. RJ decided to deal with the frustration mental model before addressing the
password issue. The decision was made in relation to the fact that when faced with both a
process problem (passwords) and a mental model problem (frustration), the trainers
always deal with the mental model problem first. Mental model problems are often more
serious, as these deeply held assumptions can affect the user for long periods of time, if
left unconfronted (Senge, 1990).
The frustration issue was dealt with through educating Susan on how social networking
sites are designed to work (ie, keeping users on the site for as long as possible). This was
opposite of her former conclusion, that the system was blocking her access to the site.
There are often several options for recovering username and password information, as
well as several ways to back up the information. RJ and Susan tested this theory by
attempting to sign in to several sites requiring account information. The examples were
successful in helping to shift Susans mental model away from frustration. The password
problem was then dealt with through educating Susan on several ways to store username
and password information. Susan then chose a method which was the easiest for her to
accomplish: emailing all passwords to herself with a codename in the title of the email.
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Over time, Susans perspective of both technology and herself using technology changed.
By the last session, she appeared to be much more relaxed when working with
technology. She had also made a couple of statements based on her confidence level, I
think Im really getting this and I guess you can teach an old dog new tricks. During
the final testing session, Susan retained 35 out of the 36 skills/concepts that she had
learned during the Agile Training process.
The above process demonstrated Agile Training in action. We saw how Agile Trainers
deal with both fear and frustration based mental models. We also saw that when faced
with a choice between dealing with a mental model (frustration) and dealing with a
process problem (password storage), Agile Trainers deal with the mental model first.
There was also evidence of a shift in mental models (from fear to confidence). The
example also highlighted a description of how/why projects are prioritized (beginning the
project with the Facebook page). Finally, the Observation Orientation Decision Action
(OODA) loop was demonstrated in the various decisions that took place in the moment
(dealing with Susans fear, educating her on how social networks function).
5.0: Results
Information technology is pervasive in the daily activities of an entrepreneur. Technology
changes produce a variety of effects, rippling over time. Results measurement can be
regarded as the acquisition of a new set of tools that the entrepreneur can leverage as
he/she sees fit. The more tools the entrepreneur can add to the workbench, the more
impact the interaction will have on the individual, the organization, and the community as
a whole. This study measures impact in terms of first order (individual), second order
(organization), and third order (community) effects.
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First order effects are defined as effects on the individual. When an interaction is
complete, how many new skills has the individual learned? What can he/she do with
technology that they could not do before? Has the individual gained any new tools,
software or otherwise? What is the level of mastery that the individual has been able to
attain on the new tool? Was the individual able to learn any new techniques during the
process of the interaction? Have these techniques influenced the individuals daily work?
Finally, has the individual learned new options for making progress on problems which
had previously seemed insurmountable? Are there any new alternatives/workarounds
available?
Fifteen organizations achieved significant first order effects as a result of the study
(Figure 3). Though twenty microenterprises participated in the project, only fifteen had
finished with the process at the time results were measured. The number of individuals
involved in the sessions at each organization ranged from one to six. Consequently, first
order effects are measured in terms of individual organizations, rather than individual
people. Individual skills taught ranged in length and scope from simple data backup to
creating social media marketing campaigns. The skills taught fell into two broad
categories: Marketing (attracting new business) and Information Management
(processing information on current business). In total, six hundred sixty five
skills/concepts were taught to fifteen organizations. The average number of skills taught
to each microenterprise was 44.4. See Appendix D for a breakdown of specific skills
learned within an actual session.
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Figure 3: Total Skills Learned During Sessions
Skills/concepts were measured both in the session in which they were taught and on the
day of the final session, in order to ascertain whether the skills were being retained over
time. On average, the users retained 95% of the skills/concepts they had learned (Figure
4).
49
66
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37
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Figure 4: User Retention of Skills Over Time
The trainers weighted the skills/concepts according to perceived importance to the
organization (Figure 5). As the skills/concepts were tabulated, the trainers gave each skill
an importance score. The trainers used the importance to evaluate the usefulness of each
skill/concept to the user. Every skill/concept was evaluated against the following criteria,
94%
95%
98%
95%
97%
96%
100%
93%
95%
89%
97%
93%
100%
89%
100%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
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which were measured on a Likert scale: level of difficulty, number of attempts, critical to
project, and projected frequency of use. Number of attempts on each skill was a criteria
for evaluation because each attempt is significant to the user. Skills that are passed in four
or five attempts are typically more significant to user memory than a skill passed in one
attempt. Each criterion was given a rating from 1 5. The ratings were then added, and
the sum became the importance score. Below is a sample skill taught during a session,
along with an example of importance score tabulation. For this particular skill, the
importance score was 13/20. Trainers consider skills with an importance score above ten
to be substantially useful to the user. Trainers also examine the overall importance scores
of the skills learned in a session. For example, if over half of the skills in any session
have an importance score above ten, then the session is considered to be useful. The
importance score keeps the trainers focusing on useful skills/concepts.
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Figure 5: Importance Score Tabulation
The first order effects (skills, concepts, techniques and options) taught as a part of the IT
interaction process have the potential to create a ripple effect in the Council Bluffs
community. In terms of the sheer number of effects that have already been felt, it is clear
that the partner organizations indeed have more tools for their respective toolboxes,
making it easier for them to gain traction in an increasingly technological marketplace.
Second order effects are effects on the organization as a whole. How many process
changes have taken place as a result of the interaction? Have any time savings occurred?
How about money savings, in terms of bargaining power? Has the organization gained
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any new contacts as a result of the interaction? Second order effects were determined by
the microenterprises. The trainers collected this data during the final session.
Fifteen businesses achieved second order effects as a result of the study. Process changes
in the organizations are saving an average of 5-7 hours a week (Figure 6). Money savings
(apart from the number of hours saved per week) differed in each organization, with a
low of $100 and a high of $10, 000 (Figure 7). Many organizations also reported social
media contact growth, up to 440% (Figure 8).
Figure 6: Second Order Effects: Time Savings (hours per week)
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Figure 7: Second Order Effects: Money Savings (over one year)
$1,500
$100
$3,000
$300
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