redden thesis submission

8/2/2019 Redden Thesis Submission

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AGILE TRAINING:

AN INNOVATIVE PEDAGOGICAL PROCESS

FOR EDUCATORS

A Masters Thesis

Presented to the

School of Public Administration,

College of Information Science and Technology,

And the Faculty of the Graduate College

University of Nebraska

In Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Public Administration

Master of Science in Management Information Systems

University of Nebraska at Omaha

By

RJ Redden

May, 2012

Supervisory Committee

Dr. Peter Wolcott

Dr. Gary Marshall

Dr. Ilze Zigurs


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AGILE TRAINING: AN INNOVATIVE

PEDAGOGICAL PROCESS FOR EDUCATORS

RJ Redden, MPA, MIS

University of Nebraska, 2012

Advisor: Dr. Peter Wolcott

Abstract

Information technology (IT) plays a vital role in the growth of small businesses. Many

businesses unfamiliar with technology tools risk being left behind in the so-called digital

divide, rendering them unable to compete in today's business environment. Efforts to

train owners of microenterprises often employ plan-driven training, which emphasizes

structure and linear learning with pre-defined learning objectives. Plan-driven training

has been effective to a point, but it is sometimes insufficient to help microenterprises to

cross the so-called digital divide. How can an effective pedagogical method be

developed for training microenterprises to use Information Technology? This study

develops an alternative educational method known as Agile Training. Agile Training is

adapted from the Agile method of information systems development. It is an iterative

method, designed to produce a demonstrable set of valuable technical skills on a short

timetable. This study uses action research methodology to study the development of the

Agile Training process with twenty microenterprises (including nonprofit organizations)

in the Council Bluffs/Omaha area. The findings of the study reveal that the Agile

Training method produces significant effects for microenterprises, including a 95%

skill/concept retention rate.


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Acknowledgements

I wish to acknowledge the many individuals whose invaluable assistance and cooperation

were vital in the completion of this thesis.

I would like to thank my committee Dr. Peter Wolcott, Dr. Gary Marshall, and Dr. Ilze

Zigurs for their support and guidance throughout this project.

I would like to thank Dr. Angela Eikenberry for inspiring me to explore my research

interests. Her support and encouragement have been invaluable from the first graduate

class I attended.

I am extremely grateful to the Iowa West Foundation for funding the grant that made this

study possible. This project would only be an idea, were it not for their involvement.

The twenty microenterprises that opened their doors to me were patient, kind, andgenerous with their time. Their trust in me was humbling, and will always be

remembered.

Without the invaluable assistance of Andrew Lescelius, the project could never have

happened. Andrew provided much more than research support for the project, and his

contribution was instrumental.

To the many friends and family who have only seen me through the back side of my

laptop for about three years, thank you for your tireless support. Special mention goes to

Rhonda Noel-Hurst, Shawn Steiner, Beth Colaric, Alyssa Gilliland, Rena Toomey,

Sabrina Howes, Annette Beers, Rene Neun, Rochelle Cripe, Brad Cripe, Mary Ensz, and

Jennifer Jahn. From the other end of the couch, Jazz the Dog closely supervised much of

the writing of the thesis, and for her companionship I am very grateful.

It is difficult to tie a final bow on a thesis and send it out into the world, but it must be

done. This thesis is dedicated to everyone who helped me through this process. It is my

hope that all these efforts will result in more good being done in the world.


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Table of Contents

1.0: Introduction........................................................................................................................... 1

2.0: Research Question ................................................................................................................ 3

3.0 Background ............................................................................................................................ 33.1: Mental Models .................................................................................................................. 3

3.2: Agile Education ................................................................................................................ 9

3.3: Agile Training................................................................................................................. 14

4.0 Process ................................................................................................................................. 26

4.1: Methodology ................................................................................................................... 26

4.2: Impact ............................................................................................................................. 33

4.3: Technical Walkthrough of an Agile Training Process .................................................... 34

5.0: Results................................................................................................................................. 41

5.1: Evolution of the Agile Training Method ........................................................................ 50

5.2 Discussion ........................................................................................................................ 52

5.3: Limitations, Contribution to Knowledge ........................................................................ 53

6.0 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 55

Appendices................................................................................................................................. 56

Appendix A: Initial Interview Questions ............................................................................... 56

Appendix B: Mental Model Survey ....................................................................................... 57Appendix C: Twelve underlying Agile Manifesto principles. ............................................... 65

Appendix D: Breakdown of specific skills learned within an actual session......................... 66

References.................................................................................................................................. 67


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Table of Figures

Table 1: Mental Models ...................................................................................................... 7

Table 2: Values for an Agile Pedagogy (Stewart et al., 2009) ......................................... 13

Table 3: Agile Training Principles .................................................................................... 15

Table 4: Microenterprise Demographic ............................................................................ 27

Figure 1:Boyd's OODA Loop, adapted by William P. Hall ............................................. 23

(Reprinted from William P. Hall, Organizational Autopoiesis and Knowledge

Management, 2003, 5)..................................................................................................... 23

Figure 2: Mental Model Survey Results Over Time ......................................................... 30

Figure 3: Total Skills Learned During Sessions ............................................................... 43

Figure 4: User Retention of Skills Over Time .................................................................. 44

Figure 5: Importance Score Tabulation ............................................................................ 46

Figure 6: Second Order Effects: Time Savings (hours per week) .................................... 47

Figure 7: Second Order Effects: Money Savings ............................................................. 48

Figure 8: Second Order Effects: Contact Base Growth .................................................... 49


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1.0: Introduction

Microenterprises are a significant part of the economy in the United States. According to

the Association for Enterprise Opportunity, microenterprises are defined as businesses

with fewer than ten employees (Association for Enterprise Opportunity, 2011). These

businesses constitute a vital part of a regions economy, providing not only jobs, but the

innovation and entrepreneurial dynamic that benefit communities as a whole (Williams,

2011).

Many businesses unfamiliar with technology tools risk being left behind in the so-called

digital divide, rendering them unable to compete in today's business environment.

Discovering more efficient processes for keeping microenterprises abreast of technology

skills and tools will help ensure that more businesses will be able to compete in the

marketplace, thus sustaining and growing local economies.

Information technology (IT) plays an important role in the growth of small businesses by

increasing efficiencies, providing access to new markets, and fostering the development

of new products and services. Microenterprises often face great challenges in using IT

effectively. They may suffer not only from a lack of resources and skills, but also the

awareness, knowledge, and confidence needed to adopt technology successfully (Kamal,

2009).

In the field of technological instruction, plan-driven training has been effective to a point,

but it is sometimes insufficient to help microenterprises to cross the digital divide

(Wolcott, Kamal, & Qureshi, 2008). In this context, plan-driven training refers to

instruction in technology skills, with little attention paid to psychological factors (Kamal,


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2009). Traditional education uses a plan-driven approach, documented through a course

syllabus and training material prepared ahead of time. Technical training programs that

are part of microenterprise development programs typically involve courses or workshops

with well defined, but previously determined, learning objectives and pedagogical

methods (Edgcomb, 2002). Even in more customized technical assistance, the training

process typically begins with an interview of the subject, in which the technical needs of

the subject are taken into account. Information from the interview is used to devise a

technical instructional plan for the subject. Each instructional session is intended to move

the subject closer to the overall goal of the plan. This is a linear process with prescribed

goals that is difficult to adapt to changing circumstances. While such training often

produces positive results, in other cases, the impact has been negligible. The elements

that separate a high impact interaction from a low impact interaction are not well

understood; however, psychological factors may play a role in the impact of the

interaction (Cohen & Nycz, 2006; Kamal, 2009).

This paper reports on research in progress to make technical training and assistance more

effective in an unconventional educational setting, such as that of microenterprises.

Through the use of Agile Training methods, participants (hereafter, called users) are

expected to overcome the barriers to learning that arise from gaps between learning

objectives and prior knowledge, skills, abilities, and perceptions (Cohen, 2009). The

thesis is outlined as follows: a research question is proposed. A discussion of the

background of Agile Training follows, including mental models and Agile principles in

education. Agile Training methods are then introduced, along with a strategic toolkit and

a model of the process. Next, the methodology for the study is outlined, impact is


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discussed, and a sample technical walkthrough of the process is included. The results of

the study are presented, accompanied by a section regarding the evolution of the Agile

Training method. Limitations of the study are then discussed, along with potential

contributions to knowledge, followed by a conclusion.

2.0: Research Question

How can an effective pedagogical method be developed for training microenterprises to

use Information Technology (IT)?

The goal of this research is to cultivate just such a method. Evidence of the efficacy of

the Agile Training process will be presented in terms of effects on the individual, effects

on the organization, and effects on the community. These effects will be measured both

quantitatively and qualitatively, using surveys and interviews administered throughout

the process. The purpose of this research is not to compare the effectiveness of Agile

Training and plan-driven training. Rather, it is about the development of tools and

techniques that will assist microenterprises to learn and use information technology. The

comparative study of the effectiveness of Agile Training vs. plan-driven training is

beyond the scope of this study, and is perhaps a question for future research.

3.0 Background

3.1: Mental Models

What is Information Technology? Perhaps a definition could best be found by dividing

the question in two: What is Information? What is Technology?


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Websters defines information as news, advice, or knowledge, communicated by others

or obtained by personal study and investigation; intelligence; knowledge derived from

reading, observation, or instruction (Information, 2012). Information is something that

humans have had to collect and process since the dawn of time. Where is a fruitful place

to hunt? What might the weather do? What should we do for different sicknesses? The

need for accurate, up to date information is not new.

What is technology? According to Websters, technology is the application of

knowledge for practical ends (Technology, 2012). Though technology is commonly

perceived as inextricably connected to computers and the Internet, the term has actually

been in existence long before the first computing machines were invented. In its purest

sense, technology is what we do with the information we have at hand. If information

consists of the knowledge of the size of a harvest, then a clay tablet is an example of the

technology used to store that information.

What is new, then? Websters defines Information Technology as The branch of

engineering that deals with the use of computers and telecommunications to retrieve and

store and transmit information (Information Technology, 2012). The Internet allows

individuals access to information in ways that were undreamed of even ten years ago.

Information is stored, accessed and transformed at a rate that is difficult to comprehend.

The role of information in a microenterprise is much broader than decision making.

Microenterprise owners use information to create processes, design products, and interact

and communicate with other businesses. Consequently, if microenterprise owners do not

have access to current information, they risk making business decisions based on


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incorrect or outdated information. Enough decisions made on outdated information, and

the entire business may be threatened.

This problem would seem to be solved by teaching microenterprises skills to connect to

the information they need: tax information, supplier information, or zoning information.

It seems only natural that if enough technical skills were presented to microenterprise

owners, then making business decisions based on outdated information would happen

less often.

However, simply presenting microenterprise owners with technical skills has produced

mixed results (Kamal, 2009). Just as business decisions are sometimes made based on

outdated information, decisions about technology are made based on so-called mental

models.

Peter Senge's work with the concept of mental models led to many advances in the field

of organizational theory. Mental models are the deeply held internal images of how the

world works, images that limit us to familiar ways of thinking and acting (Senge, 1990).

Individuals use mental models to comprehend and simplify complex situations in their

environment (Malan, Erwee, & Rose, 2009). Mental models influence individual thinking

processes, including decision making (Senge, Lichtenstein, Kaeufer, Bradbury, &

Carroll, 2007). If a business owner has deeply ingrained beliefs about themselves using

technology and how technology works in general, he/she takes actions based on those

beliefs. When those beliefs are based on negative information, the business owner is

likely to achieve negative outcomes.


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problem(s) with mental models lie not in whether they are right or wrong. It

is when they exist below the level of our awareness Because we remain

unaware of our mental models, the models remain unexamined. Because they are

unexamined, the models remain unchanged. As the world changes, the gap widens

between our mental models and reality, leading to increasingly counterproductive

actions (Senge, 1990).

Within the study, four mental models (fear, frustration, confidence, and empowerment)

are examined. These four mental models emerged out of multiple years of experience

with microenterprises. During training sessions, certain statements cropped up repeatedly,

statements such as "I never get this right" or "The system just won't let me do anything.

Researchers noticed that microenterprises with positive results also tended to make

positive statements (reflecting confidence and empowerment), and vice versa with

negative statements (reflecting fear and frustration).

A clear understanding of mental models is essential for effecting change (Senge, 1990).

Making decisions based on fear and frustration about technology leaves the typical small

business owner mired in inefficiency. Attempting to teach individuals with undiscovered

mental models leaves the trainer mired in inefficiency; as well. Consequently, a survey

tool for measuring mental models is used in order to discover mental models both before

the sessions begin and two months after the sessions have ended. Scores from both

surveys are compared, in order to determine if mental models have shifted as a result of

the interaction. (See Appendix B for a copy of the administered survey.)

A literature review of the fear mental model reveals that the subject of Computer Anxiety

(CA) has been studied numerous times over the years. CA has been defined as fear of the

consequences of computer usage (Sievert, Albritton, Roper, & Clayton, 1988). CA can be


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influenced by both psychological and environmental factors (Thatcher & Perrewe, 2002).

Also evidenced in the literature is fears relationship with the confidence mental model.

Individuals who have more confidence in their capabilities tend to demonstrate lower

levels of CA (Thatcher & Perrewe, 2002). These two mental models measure how an

individual feels about him/herself working with computers.

How an individual feels about the system itself is also important. Experience with

microenterprises suggests that the frustration mental model can be just as damaging

(Kamal, 2009). Frustration statements abound in sessions with microenterprises, both

singularly and combined with fear statements. Together, the frustration and

empowerment mental models form the continuum that measures how individuals feel

about computer systems (Table 1). They provide a fuller picture of the microenterprise

owners range of mental models.

Table 1: Mental Models

Positive Negative

Self-Perception Confidence Fear

System Perception Empowerment Frustration

The following are four scenarios which illustrate how the four mental models influence

decision-making in organizations. All four scenarios have been taken from data collected

during the study. The names and occupations of the users have been altered.


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3.1.1: Confidence: I can do this.

Sabrina had been getting instruction on a marketing campaign. One of the sessions

was dedicated to teaching her how to design brochures for her scrapbooking store,

using Microsoft Word. Two weeks passed, and when RJ and Andrew returned,

Sabrina proudly showed them her new business card. She had taken the design

principles she had learned from making the brochure, and transferred them to

designing a business card using Vistaprint. It was a bit of a different format, but I

knew that I could give it a try. And look how these came out! Im proud to give them

out to my customers.

3.1.2: Fear: If I try to do this, something bad will happen.

Steven, a massage therapist with a private practice, was interested in moving his

business from paper to paperless. Ive always wanted to do this. I know that keeping

everything on paper is killing me, but Im afraid that if I change the way I do things, I

will lose all my data. I mean, the way I do things now is not how I would prefer to do

it, but losing my data would force me to close my doors. I dont want that.

3.1.3: Empowerment: I wonder what else the system will let me do?

Harold was interested in a strategy/marketing campaign. Late one night, he found

himself working on a presentation in the Prezi format. He wanted to embed one of the

videos from his website (designed by outside contractors), but the permissions had

been restricted. Harold looked on his hard drive for an original copy of the video. He

found one, and uploaded it to YouTube. He then edited the video to match the one on

his website and embedded it into the Prezi he had been working on. Im sure I could

have just waited and called the contractors the next day. But we had talked about


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YouTube quite a bit, and when it came down to it, I wanted to see what the system

would allow me to do. And now I dont need to be dependent on anyone else.

3.1.4: Frustration: The system wont let me do anything!

Jennifer needed help with her basic understanding of computers. She was not of the

generation that grew up with a cell phone in their hand. She had always run her

business on paper, but she was realizing the importance of being able to handle

clients efficiently through email, calendars, and tasking. During the session focusing

on email, Jennifer got very agitated. This was expressed in her tone of voice, and her

statements of I dont see where to do that, Its not here, and I dont understand

what I am supposed to be looking at. In many cases, Jennifer had actually clicked

the correct button, but was not pausing long enough for the computer to complete the

operation. When subsequent buttons were clicked, the program stopped responding.

It always does this. It never seems to work right.

3.2: Agile Education

What does a software development method have in common with pedagogy? Educators

have extracted principles from the Agile software development method and adapted those

principles for use in traditional classroom learning situations (Stewart, DeCusatis,

Kidder, Massi, & Anne, 2009).

In the history of software development methods, the Agile method is a relative

newcomer. Software development methodologies began in the 1960s with the Systems

Development Life Cycle, or SDLC (Elliott, 2004). At that time, systems development

was focused on large corporations. Functions of these large scale systems included


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activities such as basic data and transaction processing (Elliott, 2004). Given the large

scale of these systems, the needed development method would be highly plan-driven,

sequential, and heavily documented. The SDLC was designed to fit this methodological

need.

The SDLC was the reigning systems development method for many years. However, the

rigidity of the SDLC was problematic, and often caused projects to surpass both time and

budget limits. Over time, the need for more adaptive development methods arose (Elliott,

2004).

The Agile software development method was devised as an alternative to heavyweight,

inflexible software development methods. The principles underlying Agile software

development were expressed succinctly in the Agile Manifesto:

We are uncovering better ways of developing software by doing it and helping

others do it. Through this work we have come to value:

Individuals and interactions over processes and tools

Working software over comprehensive documentation Customer collaboration over contract negotiation Responding to change over following a plan

That is, while there is value in the items on the right, we value the items on the left

more (Beck et al, 2001).

The Agile method is characterized by adaptive planning, customer collaboration and

rapid response to changes in the environment. This method has been successful in

delivering high quality software products, particularly in chaotic environments where

requirements change often (Satzinger, Burd, & Jackson, 2005).


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The success of Agile methods in software development has inspired Agile principles to

be adapted for the field of project management (Fernandez & Fernandez, 2008). In the

last few years, the discipline of project management has sought to redefine itself in

todays knowledge economy. Projects are increasingly defined by complexity,

uncertainty and change (Fernandez & Fernandez, 2008). Agile Project Management

(APM) was created from the need for a more adaptive system of project management, as

opposed to the rigid command and control approach. APM takes its underlying

principles directly from the Agile Manifesto and the Declaration of Interdependence

(Anderson, 2005). APM has been successful in a paradigmatic transformation of the

discipline of project management (Koskela & Howell, 2002).

Agile principles have also been adapted for education (Stewart, DeCusatis, Kidder,

Massi, & Anne, 2009; Kussmaul, 2005). As in the software development and project

management examples, Agile Education has evolved out of a need for a more adaptive

method. Traditional educational methods are plan-driven and sequential, which resembles

the SDLC system of software development. The syllabus is the foundation for the

overwhelming majority of todays educational experiences. The syllabus sets the

educational plan for the semester. Learning goals are predetermined by the instructor,

along with the schedule. Though the schedule is somewhat subject to change, it is

normally adhered to as much as possible.

From an instructors perspective, the waterfall model has a lot of appeal.

It is easy to describe and easy for students to understand. It fits well with the

traditional academic model of assignments with due dates. This makes it simple to

give all groups the same task (such as completion of the requirements

specification) even though they are working on different projects.


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From the students perspective, however, the waterfall model makes less

sense. They dont see the value of many of the tasks, and they are anxious to start

the real work of coding. The waterfall model also has the same drawbacks here

as it does in industry: requirements change, it is hard to estimate task duration,

schedules slip, and testing suffers as a result if the project is completed at all

(Hanks, 2007).

However, according to Stewart, et al., it is not just the software community that has

grave concerns that their methodology is too heavy-weight; the academic community has

been working on developing techniques to increase student participation, rather than

using planned curricula based on instructor lectures (Stewart et al., 2009). In response to

these concerns, educators have begun looking toward more active and cooperative

learning methodologies (Stewart et al., 2009).

The first instances of using Agile principles in education originate in Computer Science

courses concerning the software development process (Stewart et al., 2009). Researchers

have mapped the Agile Manifesto principles to the classroom environment, using the

Manifesto as a template (Table 2).


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Table 2: Values for an Agile Pedagogy (Stewart et al., 2009)

Principles of the Agile Manifesto Principles Adapted for Use in

Traditional Classrooms

Individuals and interactions over processes andtools

Students over traditional processes andtools

Working software over comprehensive

documentation

Working projects over comprehensive

documentation

Customer collaboration over contract

negotiation

Student and instructor collaboration

over rigid course syllabi

Responding to change over following a plan Responding to feedback rather than

following a plan

As educators began teaching Agile methodology, they began to experiment with Agile as

a pedagogical method (Hanks, 2007; Razmov, 2007, Hislop et al, 2002). For example,

many software development courses are project based. Therefore, some instructors were

able to run the project as though it were an Agile project, using daily standup/status

meetings at the beginning of class and retrospectives at the end of class (Reed, 2008).

The standup meetings were a review of the project status, and were used in place of

traditional homework. The retrospectives gave the instructor feedback as to how well the

students understood the material presented during class, and what needed to be addressed

in the next class. Grading and evaluation also changed. While instructors still evaluated

the final project, they put much more emphasis on process evaluation, using iteration

planning and reflection documents (Hanks, 2007).

Classes so different from their plan-driven predecessors measure success with working

software delivered by students, and client satisfaction with the software. Further, the


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Agile classroom is often marked by instructor and student satisfaction with the process,

and highly motivated students (Stewart et al., 2009).

Agile Education is indeed an exciting concept for traditional education. However, a

further adaptation is needed for instructional activities in nontraditional settings, such as

the technical instruction of a microenterprise. Classrooms offer a stable environment.

Students arrive at the same time every day. The materials needed for the class are

relatively static. Instructors and students already have a good idea of what will happen in

class that day.

The environment of a microenterprise is much less stable. Work is often interrupted by

customers, calls from vendors, and unanticipated emergencies. Tasks are begun, and

deserted in favor of higher priority operations. It is an environment characterized by

chaos. Therefore, a technical training method is needed that lends itself to the chaotic

nature of the microenterprise.

3.3: Agile Training

Agile Training is a method that is proposed for technical training in unconventional

educational settings, such as the microenterprise. The table below illustrates the

adaptation of Agile principles for use outside the classroom (Table 3). As with Agile

Education, Agile principles were mapped directly from the Agile Manifesto (Beck et al.,

2001). Adaptation of the additional underlying principles can be found in Appendix C.


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Table 3: Agile Training Principles

Principles of the Agile Manifesto Principles Adapted for Use in

Training Settings

Individuals and interactions over processes and

tools

Individuals and interactions over pre-

determined methods

Working software over comprehensive

documentation

Demonstrated learning of useful IT

skills/concepts over tutorials

Customer collaboration over contract

negotiation

User collaboration over user-trainer

relationship

Responding to change over following a plan Responding to user over following a

plan

3.3.1: Mission

The mission of Agile Training is twofold: to teach skills/concepts that are useful to each

microenterprise, and to teach as many skills/concepts as possible within each session.

The determination of what is useful to each microenterprise takes place first during the

interview, and continues throughout the process. The trainers seek to determine what the

pain points are for each individual. When the pain points become apparent, the

trainers then assess what skills need to be trained next, according to the individuals

experience. At times, the skill that the individual desires to learn has a set of prerequisite

skills that must precede it. The trainers teach the entire set of skills, and proceed to the

next pain point.


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The benefit of focusing on skills that are immediately useful is that there is no time delay

between learning and seeing the benefits of learning. The individuals go into the next

lesson with a bit of positive momentum.

Agile Training also seeks to teach as many skills as possible within each session. Why all

this emphasis on quantity? Is there any reason why teaching a large number of skills

might be better than teaching a few skills thoroughly? Banduras principle of enactive

mastery helps to answer this question. Enactive mastery is the repeated successful

performance of behaviors that incite anxiety and worry (Bandura, 1997; Kim, 2005).

"... enhancing personal efficacy can help people to develop the resilient sense of

efficacy needed to override difficulties that inevitably arise from time to time. In

the enactive mastery mode, a resilient sense of efficacy is built through structured

demonstration trials in the exercise of control over progressively more

challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997)."

Enactive mastery is also the leading source of self-efficacy. According to Bandura, self-

efficacy is a persons belief in their own competence (Bandura, 1997). Repeated

successful task accomplishment gives each individual more confidence in ones own

ability. Subsequently, the more tasks the individual can accomplish within the session,

the more confidence can be gained from the experience.


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3.3.2: Model

The model of how Agile Training works is represented with a bicycle. The model was

created in order to analogize the Agile Training process and provide a roadmap for users

and future trainers. The process begins with the application of user force to the pedals.

The force transfers to the cycle of instruction. As the cycle of instruction turns, more

skills/concepts are taught. The back wheel is the cycle of assessment, allowing the

trainers to determine which skills need to be covered next, or covered again. The back

wheel drives the cycle forward. The user then steers toward the next learning goal. If the

goal is steep, the trainers teach the users how to adjust the gears, in order to get over the

hill. The mental model is the landscape of the users technological perspective. As the

cycle moves forward, the landscape changes, and adjustments are made accordingly.


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This model is user centric. The user is in control of the speed and direction of the process.

Agile Trainers know the path, and can help the user to adjust the gears when the road

seems impassable. This is done through the use of interactive methods.

3.3.3: StrategicToolkit

Agile Training uses interactive methods, which take the form of a strategic toolkit. Each

tool is related to a concept of the Agile Training method, the principles underlying the

Agile Manifesto, or Agile methodology derivatives. Each tool in the strategic toolkit has

been used numerous times within each of the twenty cases studied in this thesis.

It is important to note that the toolkit is the outcome of an action research process. The

study began with the intention of discovering repeated patterns of activity within the

microenterprises. These patterns concerned perceptions of and actions toward

technology. As patterns of behavior within the microenterprises were discovered, a set of

corresponding tools began to emerge. A description of these tools is placed here to create

awareness of the challenges and resolutions of the Agile Training process. In the

Technical Walkthrough section, a case study illustrates the use of these tools.

3.3.3.1: Pair Training

The first tool in the strategic toolkit is the composition of the training team. Technically,

one trainer could accomplish all of the tasks needed for a session. However, the use of

two trainers both inside and outside the sessions has been vital for evolving the Agile

Training method.

Pair training relates to pair programming, an agile software development technique in

which two programmers work together at one workstation. In this programming


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technique, one programmer types in code, and the other programmer evaluates the code

as it is typed in. In this way, one person is able to focus on driving the process forward,

while the other observes the process and makes suggestions (Williams & Kessler, 2003).

The two programmers switch roles frequently. Pair programming has also been reported

to produce solutions to problems more quickly than in traditional programming (Williams

& Kessler, 2003).

The driver might actually be working out a design or implementing a part of the

problem, realizing that he or she may ultimately come to a dead end in the

problem resolution. The navigator, while watching the driver's partial design or

implementation, begins thinking about the next step. When the driver hits thedead end, the navigator is often prepared to take over and lead the way. Often, the

cycle continues until the problem is solved (Williams & Kessler, 2003)."

Agile Training operates in much the same manner. One trainer teaches the next

skills/concepts to be learned, and one trainer observes and notates the session, paying

special attention to the statements and body language of the users. On occasion, the

observing trainer will make suggestions in order to aid the educating trainer. The trainers

also switch roles between sessions. For example, the educating trainer becomes the

observer trainer for the next session. This reduces the possibility that the training impact

is the direct result of a single person causing the impact.

After each session has ended, both trainers engage in a period of critical reflection about

the session. Critical reflection seeks to discover what methods were effective for learning

inside the session, and what methods were ineffective. Was there anything that could

have been done to increase the number of skills/concepts learned or shift user perception

toward positive mental models? Decisions about process changes are postulated and tried


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in the next session with a microenterprise. Process changes that have a successful

outcome are then incorporated into the overall Agile Training method.

3.3.3.2: ParallelTracks

The second tool in the strategic toolkit, Parallel Tracks, refers to changing the instruction

midstream in order to respond to verbal or nonverbal signal of non-understanding. For

example, when a user begins to give verbal and nonverbal cues (shifting in seat, looking

away, avoidance of question) that they do not understand the material, the trainer

conceives of a different explanation of the material. The trainers do not ask the users

directly if they have an understanding of the task at hand. Experience has shown that all

answers to the question Do you understand? tend to be in the affirmative, whether or

not the subject actually understands the material. Instead, the trainers use an alternative

explanation/parallel track in order to promote understanding.

These alternative explanations emerge from stories and analogies that closely relate to the

users current understanding or experience. For example, if a user gives verbal/nonverbal

cues of not understanding the difference between a domain name and a hosting provider

for a website, the trainer will shift to the analogy of a party, where the domain name is

the address of the party and the hosting provider is the person (host) who provides party

space and storage of supplies.

Analogical reasoning has long played an important role in the human learning process.

Analogy consists of a learner taking the solution for one problem and mapping the

solution to a different problem (Anderson, 2005). Relationships and patterns within

known concepts then help the learner to attain new knowledge. Learners build knowledge


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steps are easily determined by the two trainers. However, in case of disagreement, the

trainers refocus on the user. In practice, the trainers arrive at the next session, armed with

questions that will help the entire group determine the next steps of the project. These

questions clarify what it is that the user would like to accomplish.

Consider the case of a user who has difficulties deciding which website builder to use in

order to update an existing website. By the end of the appointment, the user was

undecided about whether to use her existing website builder (which has been problematic

in the past) or move to a different builder (which would entail a learning curve). The

group decided to consider all the information until the following appointment, where the

user would make the final decision. After the meeting, the trainers were in disagreement

as to which method would be better for the user. It was decided to clarify with the user

both what is problematic about the current website builder, and the users vision of the

updated website. After these questions were asked at the next appointment, the user was

able to refine her goals and determine that she needed to stay with her current website

builder.

Refocusing on the user relates to the Agile Training principle of user collaboration over

student teacher relationship. Effective relationships between instructors and users are

based on trust (Kamal, 2009). Traditional student teacher relationships are bound by

conventional norms that are appropriate to the classroom. Outside the classroom

environment, these relationships tend to be more relaxed. Relying on the user for

direction when the project loses focus has been an effective way to not only steer the

project back on course, but strengthen the trust between trainers and users (Kamal, 2009).


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3.3.3.4: The OODA Loop

The next tool in the Agile Training toolkit is the Observation, Orientation, Decision,

Action (OODA) loop (Figure 1). The OODA loop was developed by USAF Colonel John

Boyd to model the decision making process as it relates to military strategy (Adolph,

2006). According to Boyd, decision making occurs in a continuous cycle of observe

(sensing circumstances) orient (analyzing observations, creating hypotheses) decide

(choosing a plan of action) act (executing the decision). Those who can process the

OODA loop more quickly than the opponent are likely to produce a competitive

advantage, and win the battle.

Figure 1:Boyd's OODA Loop, adapted by William P. Hall

(Reprinted from William P. Hall, Organizational Autopoiesis and Knowledge

Management, 2003, 5)

The OODA loop has typically been used to describe combat situations. However,

according to Angerman,


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fundamentally the OODA loop as a conceptual model is inherently neutral.

Essentially, OODA loops represent the information system processes of a

complex adaptive system. That is, OODA loops can be applied to a complex

adaptive learner acquiring personal knowledge in cognitive and affective domains

just as appropriately as they can be applied to survival, adaptation, and

competition (Angerman, 2009).

Therefore, use of the OODA loop in teaching/learning situations can be as viable as its

use in combat situations. For the instructors, the use of the OODA loop in Agile Training

has produced a teaching advantage. The advantage lies in being able to recognize what is

happening to the user in the present moment, and act appropriately. It is fundamental to

the Agile Training method to place heavy importance on what is happening to the user in

the present moment.

Decisions in Agile Training emerge from the observation of the user and the trainers

ability to adapt to the situation. What is transpiring in the present moment? Are the users

really learning? Is synthesis of ideas taking place? Are the users mental models shifting?

Is there a mismatch between statement and action on the part of the user? Does the trainer

need to take a parallel track of explanation? Is the skill/concept being taught really the

right one to be teaching, or should the trainer reprioritize and present a different

skill/concept?

What is materializing for the user at any given moment in an Agile Training situation

supersedes the importance of all other learning objectives, past observations of user

behavior, or overall training plans. The trainer must observe, then orient, decide and act.

The loop then repeats for the remainder of the session. The OODA Loop relates to the

Agile Training principle of individuals and interactions over predetermined methods. In

this case, predetermined methods consist of fixed ways of teaching skills/concepts, and/or


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shifting mental models. Predetermined methods are a valuable resource to draw upon

during a session. However, experience has shown that the role of observing individuals

and interactions is central to the adaptive nature of Agile Training. The OODA Loop also

relates to the iterative nature of the action research methodology chosen for this study,

which will be explored further in the Methodology section.

3.3.3.5 Demonstrationless Training

Training without demonstration is the final tool in the Agile Training toolkit. Agile

Trainers provide over the shoulder training. The users perform all operations themselves

(building websites, using Google Docs, creating a YouTube channel), using the hardware

that they work with most often. The reasons for this are threefold. First, it decreases the

opportunity for the user to become fearful that they will not be able to complete the

operation themselves. Users with strong fear mental models have very little time to tell

themselves that they cannot perform the operation. Instead, they are already three steps

into an operation that they would have been afraid to attempt only moments before.

Second, this tool helps to ensure that users will be able to complete the operations long

after the trainers are gone. The second half of the mission of Agile Training is to teach as

many skills/concepts as possible within each session, in order for the user to achieve

enactive mastery of the material. If users have demonstrated to themselves that they have

mastered the material, it follows that they will continue to use the material.

Third, and perhaps most important, this tool allows the user to dictate the pace of the

instruction. When trainers demonstrate operations, the trainers tend to dictate a faster

pace because they are relying on their own IT skills and experience. Thus, the training is


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likely to outpace the users ability to absorb the instruction. With the user in front of the

keyboard, it becomes obvious what the user knows or does not yet know, and the trainer

can adjust to the users pace of instruction.

4.0 Process

4.1: Methodology

Action research involves utilizing an iterative method of planning, taking action,

observing, evaluating (including self-evaluation) and critical reflection prior to planning

the next iteration (O'Brien, 2001; McNiff, 2002). The action research method is often

used in both information science research and service learning courses (Kamal, 2009).

This method is also similar to the Agile method itself, as it is developed through

iterations, and focuses on flexibility over a fixed plan.

The setting for the application of Agile Training is a technical project undertaken for and

with a microenterprise by a team - a pair of individuals who may be consultants or

students in a service-learning class (Wolcott, Kamal, & Qureshi, 2008). Twenty

microenterprises (including nonprofit organizations) from the Council Bluffs/Omaha

metro area were chosen for the project. All microenterprises had ten or fewer employees.

The following table provides descriptive statistics of the participating microenterprises

(Table 4).


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Table 4: Microenterprise Demographic

Business Type Small

Business/

Nonprofit?

Male/

Female

Owner?

Number of

Employees

Project Type Location

Fitness Gym SB Male 10 Marketing, Social

Media

Council Bluffs

Bakery SB Female 2 Website, Marketing Council Bluffs

Environmental NP Female 1 Website, Marketing Omaha

Trucking

Company

SB Female 10 Website, Marketing Council Bluffs

Coffee Shop SB Female 5 Marketing, Social

Media

Council Bluffs

Insurance

Representation

SB Female 1 Marketing, Social

Media

Council Bluffs

Elder Care NP Female 3 Website, Marketing Council Bluffs

Firearms

Training

SB Female 1 Administrative,

Organizational

Omaha

Business

Consulting

SB Female 1 Administrative,

Organizational

Council Bluffs

NetworkMarketing

SB Female 1 Administrative,Organizational

Council Bluffs

Foundation NP Female 6 Marketing, Social

Media

Council Bluffs

Environmental NP Female 1 Website, Marketing Council Bluffs

Network

Marketing

SB Female 1 Administrative Council Bluffs

Clothing Store SB Female 2 Marketing, Social

Media

Omaha

Travel Agency SB Female 1 Marketing, Social

Media

Council Bluffs

Lawn Care SB Male 10 Marketing, Social

Media

Council Bluffs


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Graphic Design SB Male 1 Website, Marketing Omaha

Restaurant SB Female 8 Administrative Council Bluffs

Arts

Organization

NP Female 3 Administrative Council Bluffs

Insurance

Representation

SB Male 2 Website, Marketing Council Bluffs

SB 15,

NP 5

F 16,

M 4

70

Employees

Marketing 14,

Administrative 6

CB 16,

Omaha 4

In the process of Agile Training, each microenterprise identifies at least one technical

project that needs attention within their organization. The training team acts both as

consultants (using technical expertise to guide the project) and educators (using

pedagogical expertise to teach technical skills). The duration of a project depends on a

number of factors, but each project takes on average six to eight consulting sessions to

complete. The interview, final testing, and impact sessions are additional, for a total of

nine to eleven sessions. A session is a single visit to a microenterprise, typically lasting

one to two hours. Each session with a microenterprise is counted as an iteration of the

Agile Training method. Each session incorporates the cycle of observation, orientation,

decision, action, and critical reflection. Insight gained from each session is then used in

subsequent sessions.

The initial session is an interview, which is conducted to determine the mental models of

the users concerning their attitudes/perspectives of technology. (See Appendix A for a

copy of the interview questions.) Interview questions also determine hardware/software

availability, and nature of technological needs. Given the overview of the current


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technical situation, the trainers and users then identify and prioritize technical projects

which can be done within time/availability constraints.

This approach mirrors the Agile development method, which collects user stories and

prioritizes them in order of project importance. It also brings to the table everyone who is

concerned with the project (stakeholders). The method of breaking large technical

projects into smaller, more manageable pieces may also serve as a bit of instruction for

the microenterprise owners. In the future, they will be more empowered if this skill is

something that they can repeat for themselves.

A survey is then administered to the users to collect additional data about users mental

models, specifically around the four constructs of fear, frustration, confidence and

empowerment. Each microenterprise is given a rating according to measured level of

each construct. This rating is on a scale from 0-40, and the higher the number, the higher

the users score is for that particular construct. For example, a user with a combined score

of 33 on the empowerment construct would be said to have a high sense of

empowerment.

The survey is administered by email to the users directly after the first interview is

conducted. Two months after each project has ended, an impact interview is held. At this

point, the survey is administered a second time. The results of the first and second

surveys are then compared. This is done in order to gauge any change in the users

mental models over time, such as in the following illustration:


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Figure 2: Mental Model Survey Results Over Time

The illustration shows evidence of the users mental model changes over time (Figure 2).

In this instance, the user is experiencing less fear, approximately the same amount of

frustration, more confidence, and much more empowerment than in the initial stages of

the project.

The four constructs are measured informally within each session throughout the training

period. During the course of each session with a microenterprise, special attention is paid

to the statements and body language of the users, in order to note changes in perceptions

of technology. Any general shift toward either positive or negative constructs is recorded.

Training for each session alters according to the perceived levels of positive and negative

constructs. For example, if the user is making numerous frustration based statements, the

instruction pauses while the trainers attempt to determine the reason behind the

statements. This is done by asking questions of the user. If the reason cannot be

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2118

28

34

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0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Follow Up Survey

Initial Survey


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determined, the trainers resume the session. The trainers then determine post session

if/how the course of the project should change.

The remaining sessions focus on the smaller project goals/technical lessons that were

previously agreed upon. Before each session, the trainers decide on technical lessons for

the session. The users work hands-on with the hardware/software whenever possible. As

the session proceeds, the trainers use interactive methods to teach each lesson. These

interactive methods take the form of the strategic toolkit discussed above.

It is important to note that the frequent iterations of Agile Training enhanced the

discovery of the tools contained in the strategic toolkit (pair training, parallel tracks,

refocus on the user, the OODA loop). Prior to this study, the principal trainer (RJ) had

worked directly with four microenterprises over two years (with additional indirect

exposure to ten microenterprises through the IT for Development course). Work with

each microenterprise lasted an entire semester, with only one project undertaken at a

time. In contrast, the study of Agile Training proposed work with twenty

microenterprises in the course of nine months, with projects to be worked concurrently.

As a result, the process of working with the microenterprises was shortened from an

average of fourteen weeks to an average of seven weeks. Concurrent projects also

allowed the trainers to treat each session with a microenterprise as a teaching tool for all

future sessions with all of the microenterprises in the study. A lesson learned from one

session with a microenterprise could result in a process change which may affect future

sessions with all twenty microenterprises.


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Consequently, the process of discovering patterns of behavior and developing tools as a

response to those patterns was greatly accelerated. During the prior two years, patterns of

behavior had been noted and resolved individually. The time constraints of the Agile

Training project permitted the researchers to discover patterns and adjust to user behavior

in shorter iterations, allowing for a more precise identification of tools in the strategic

toolkit. The speed and number of the iterations provided invaluable feedback for the

researchers, and thus became important in its own right.

Iteration cycles are central to Agile software development, Agile Training, and the action

research method. Iteration cycles deliver feedback and opportunities to alter the process

to better fit the situation at hand. Process alterations provide opportunities to enter the

iteration cycle using a different approach, which elicits additional feedback. The cycle of

approach and feedback is the heart of the Agile Training process. When the iteration

cycle speed is increased, the ability to refine the method also increases.

The development of an effective pedagogical method for training microenterprises to use

IT is the goal of this research. The action research methodology provided an opportunity

for the researchers to experiment on their feet with the structure of the proposed

process. When this research was proposed, the researchers had an adaptation of a

software development method, and a number of ideas concerning the pedagogical

process. Many of the elements in this study were unknown at the beginning of the

process. Rather, the components of Agile Training were revealed over time. The iterative

cycles of action research permitted the researchers to refine previous ideas while

exploring new landscapes. Therefore, action research methodology is appropriate for

answering the research question.


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4.2: Impact

Impact measurement takes place during each Agile Training session. Near the end of

each session, the trainers determine if a skill/concept has been successfully taught by

asking the microenterprise owner to teach them the skill/concept as if they were a new

employee. As an alternative, the user is given the opportunity to perform the evaluation at

the beginning of the next session, rather than immediately, if that makes the user more

comfortable. This evaluation accomplishes several goals. It causes the microenterprise

owner to assimilate the new information before the session breaks. In having the user try

to explain the new information to another person, the approach identifies gaps in the

user's learning, which the trainers can then address. These skills/concepts are measured

on a pass/try again basis. At the beginning of the next session, the user is offered a

second chance at any skills/concepts not passed in the previous session.

After each session has ended, the trainers meet at a separate location to evaluate the

impact of the session. A list of technical lessons learned is recorded. Critical reflection

also takes place. The session is discussed, with particular emphasis on user reactions that

seemed out of the ordinary. The users responses to the session are noted, and further

alterations to the trajectory of the project are proposed if needed. A plan is outlined for

the next session. The effect of each session is measured by skills demonstrably learned on

the part of the users. The effect of the session is also determined by shifts in the users

mental models. These are determined both directly and indirectly, using user behavior as

the principal measure. This behavior is shown in the users verbal statements and body

language.


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The final session is a review of all of the skills and concepts learned during previous

sessions. The primary reason for testing the skills a second time is to ascertain if the

previously learned skills/concepts have been retained over a period of time. The subjects

are allowed to use notes made during previous sessions. This approximates the actual

environment in which the skills will be demonstrated.

4.3: Technical Walkthrough of an Agile Training Process

An Agile training process lasts between nine and eleven session. The first session is a

consultation in which the trainers conduct an interview with the users. This interview is

intended to ascertain both the technical needs of the users and their perspectives on

technology (mental models). During the following six to eight sessions, the trainers and

users work together to build skills and learn technical concepts, usually through the

accomplishment of technical projects, such as building a website or creating a social

media campaign. After the technical project/s are finished, the trainers use one session to

test the users on all of the skills/concepts that have been learned during the process. Two

months after the testing session, the trainers conduct a final impact interview. This

interview is designed to ascertain the effectiveness of the Agile Training process.

Below is an example of what the Agile Training process looks like in action. This

example is designed to give the reader a feel for the process, and does not represent any

single user involved in the project.

The first session started with the entrance interview, conducted by RJ. Susan, the flower

shop owner, granted permission for the interview to be recorded. Andrew took notes

during the interview, focusing on Susans facial expressions, body language, and


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positive/negative statements concerning technology. During the interview, Susan often

punctuated her answers to the questions with nervous laughter. Her body language also

indicated nervousness. This is generally normal for the first few minutes of the entrance

interview. RJ will usually tell them a story, or relate to something that they are saying, in

order to get the nervousness to die down and the user to relax a bit. Susan revealed in the

interview that she had owned this flower shop for thirty years, navigating through many

business upsets and dry spells. It is clear from her stories that she is an extremely

intelligent and capable person. Susan also indicated a willingness and eagerness to learn

technological skills that will be important to her business.

A behavioral pattern emerged during the interview. Numerous times, she referred to

herself as dumb or incompetent with regard to technology. For example, during the

interview she stated "youll have to be patient with me, because I'm such an idiot with

this stuff". Though Susan presented herself with confidence in many aspects of her

business, the technological aspect was riddled with fear about her ability to navigate

technology. She also had a somewhat negative perception regarding the pace at which

technology changes, stating that just when you get used to doing things a certain way,

something always comes along to upset the applecart.

During the interview, Susan related a story about a negative experience with IT. A few

years ago, she was having printer problems. She called someone out of the phone book

for assistance. This person charged her by the hour to look at the printer. When seven

hours had passed, he pronounced the printer unfixable and left the scene. Susan paid the

bill and purchased another printer. She decided to ask her nephew to install the printer.

When he arrived, he examined the unfixable printer first, and found that the printer was


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indeed fixable, and only required an ink cartridge change. It was clear during the

recounting of this story that Susan was still frustrated from this experience.

The trainers discussed the interview afterwards. Susan was interested in a social media

campaign for the flower shop. In addition, she was considering franchising the shop and

needed a way to communicate with employees in different cities, without spending half

her life in the car. During the session, Susan and the trainers had decided that the social

media campaign was the highest priority. The trainers decided to start Susans social

media blitz by working with the Facebook page. Susan had determined that a segment of

her target market was on Facebook, and she had built a Facebook page six months

previously. However, she had failed to continue to update the page, stating lack of

update material as the reason for the abandonment. It was decided to start with the

Facebook page because it was an already familiar environment. The trainers decided that

when the situation warranted, they would move on to less familiar social networking sites

(Twitter, Pinterest, and so on).

Susans fear of using technology was also discussed. It was decided to continue to

monitor this fear level. When the fear reached a certain intensity (ascertained through

fearful statements and body language), it could then be addressed.

During the time between the interview and the first teaching session, Susan took a survey

designed to further determine her mental models and perspectives on technology. The

results of this survey indicated high levels of fear and frustration, as was shown in the

interview.


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The next appointment was the first session of Agile Training. RJ took the teaching role.

Andrew observed and took notes during the meeting. The Facebook page was the focus

of the first session. The first part of the meeting involved a discussion of target market

and the platform of social media in general. Susan seemed relatively relaxed during this

part of the session. She expressed surprise at the numerous changes in advertising that

social media had brought about.

At that point, RJ began technological instruction on how to use the Facebook page as a

social media tool. Susan used her own laptop for the session, with RJ sitting behind her.

As RJ began the tour of the various elements of the Facebook page, Susans demeanor

changed. She began to ask rapid fire questions, and then proceeded to click on several

elements of the page in an attempt to answer her own question. Several times, RJ noticed

that the answers to Susans questions were written directly on the screen, but Susan

seemed to overlook this. RJ saw that Susan was becoming more and more frustrated.

Andrew also noted Susans statements, which ranged from fear I just cant make that

happen to frustration Why wont Facebook let me do that. RJ then made a decision to

adjust the method slightly, in order to help Susan calm down a bit. RJ slowed down the

process in two ways. First, RJ helped Susan focus on only one operation at a time.

Whenever the focus began to scatter, RJ would bring it back to the single operation that

she had asked Susan to accomplish. Second, she began to relate the concepts learned at

the beginning of the session to what was currently on the screen. One of the concepts at

the beginning had been the nature and quality of status updates. RJ asked Susan to find

another business page and scan the updates, noting similarities. These similarities were

put back into the context of what had been learned in the beginning of the session.


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These techniques helped to calm Susan. The fear and frustration statements did not stop

altogether, but the severity and frequency of the statements diminished. Susans body

language also calmed down a bit. The rest of the session continued without incident. At

the end of the session, Andrew role-played being the flower shops newest employee in

charge of social media. He asked her questions about how to administer the Facebook

page for the flower shop. RJ took notes as to whether or not Susan answered the

questions correctly.

Susan got a bit frustrated, but she was able to remember nine out of the ten skills that had

been taught in the session, including how to switch from a personal Facebook profile to

business profile, how to engage with other business profile pages, and how to link her

Facebook status to update her Twitter feed.

After the session, the trainers discussed Susans reactions. The lack of focus during the

session (clicking from page to page without reading, not finishing one operation before

starting another, etc) could have been related to her fear of technology, or it could have

been related to Facebook itself. It was agreed that the trainers would find out during the

next session by introducing a different social media tool. It was also agreed that the one

task at a time method of slowing Susan down was effective, and could be tried again if

the need arose. Finally, the trainers decided that if the lack of focus problem occurred

again, then the next session would be time to address the situation, and perhaps find the

root cause.

The next session covered all aspects of using Pinterest as a social media tool. Pinterest is

an image oriented social networking tool used by a large segment of Susans target


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market (females aged 25-60). RJ started the session with a review of some concepts of

social media from the first session. Susan remembered all of the concepts, and was happy

to report to us that she had actually ventured out on her own and looked at Pinterest,

though she had not yet signed up for an account.

RJ and Susan then made an account for Susan on Pinterest. Susans demeanor changed

again, replicating what had happened in the previous session (asking rapid fire questions,

clicking on every visible button, etc). RJ once again employed the one task at a time

approach, which Susan responded to. RJ decided that it was time to further explore the

lack of focus situation. RJ began asking some questions, and it was determined that the

lack of focus was precipitated by Susans fear of failure. RJ and Susan discussed the fear,

and ways that Susan might remedy the situation. Susan indicated that she was willing to

try slowing down and addressing the fear when it cropped up. RJ and Susan then turned

their attention back to learning the different aspects of Pinterest.

The fear of failure/lack of focus problem recurred during the remaining sessions.

However, the problem always resurfaced temporarily, and responded favorably to the

one task at a time treatment.

A different pattern began to emerge in the remaining sessions. Whenever signing up for a

new social media site, Susan would need to create a new user account with a user name

and password. Her current method of password storage involved writing passwords down

on different sheets of paper. This made signing back into social media sites problematic.

When Susan failed in her attempt to log back into Pinterest, she quickly became

frustrated, making statements such as I dont understand why they wont let me log in.


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They must not want me on their website. In this situation, the trainers ascertained two

problems. First, the passwords needed to be kept in a more organized way for easy

retrieval. Second, she jumped to the conclusion that the system was trying to prevent her

from being on the site (indicating a frustration based mental model). This conclusion is

actually the opposite of the truth. The intent of social media websites is to keep users on

their site for as long as possible.

Frustration based mental models are dealt with in a different way than fear based mental

models. RJ decided to deal with the frustration mental model before addressing the

password issue. The decision was made in relation to the fact that when faced with both a

process problem (passwords) and a mental model problem (frustration), the trainers

always deal with the mental model problem first. Mental model problems are often more

serious, as these deeply held assumptions can affect the user for long periods of time, if

left unconfronted (Senge, 1990).

The frustration issue was dealt with through educating Susan on how social networking

sites are designed to work (ie, keeping users on the site for as long as possible). This was

opposite of her former conclusion, that the system was blocking her access to the site.

There are often several options for recovering username and password information, as

well as several ways to back up the information. RJ and Susan tested this theory by

attempting to sign in to several sites requiring account information. The examples were

successful in helping to shift Susans mental model away from frustration. The password

problem was then dealt with through educating Susan on several ways to store username

and password information. Susan then chose a method which was the easiest for her to

accomplish: emailing all passwords to herself with a codename in the title of the email.


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Over time, Susans perspective of both technology and herself using technology changed.

By the last session, she appeared to be much more relaxed when working with

technology. She had also made a couple of statements based on her confidence level, I

think Im really getting this and I guess you can teach an old dog new tricks. During

the final testing session, Susan retained 35 out of the 36 skills/concepts that she had

learned during the Agile Training process.

The above process demonstrated Agile Training in action. We saw how Agile Trainers

deal with both fear and frustration based mental models. We also saw that when faced

with a choice between dealing with a mental model (frustration) and dealing with a

process problem (password storage), Agile Trainers deal with the mental model first.

There was also evidence of a shift in mental models (from fear to confidence). The

example also highlighted a description of how/why projects are prioritized (beginning the

project with the Facebook page). Finally, the Observation Orientation Decision Action

(OODA) loop was demonstrated in the various decisions that took place in the moment

(dealing with Susans fear, educating her on how social networks function).

5.0: Results

Information technology is pervasive in the daily activities of an entrepreneur. Technology

changes produce a variety of effects, rippling over time. Results measurement can be

regarded as the acquisition of a new set of tools that the entrepreneur can leverage as

he/she sees fit. The more tools the entrepreneur can add to the workbench, the more

impact the interaction will have on the individual, the organization, and the community as

a whole. This study measures impact in terms of first order (individual), second order

(organization), and third order (community) effects.


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First order effects are defined as effects on the individual. When an interaction is

complete, how many new skills has the individual learned? What can he/she do with

technology that they could not do before? Has the individual gained any new tools,

software or otherwise? What is the level of mastery that the individual has been able to

attain on the new tool? Was the individual able to learn any new techniques during the

process of the interaction? Have these techniques influenced the individuals daily work?

Finally, has the individual learned new options for making progress on problems which

had previously seemed insurmountable? Are there any new alternatives/workarounds

available?

Fifteen organizations achieved significant first order effects as a result of the study

(Figure 3). Though twenty microenterprises participated in the project, only fifteen had

finished with the process at the time results were measured. The number of individuals

involved in the sessions at each organization ranged from one to six. Consequently, first

order effects are measured in terms of individual organizations, rather than individual

people. Individual skills taught ranged in length and scope from simple data backup to

creating social media marketing campaigns. The skills taught fell into two broad

categories: Marketing (attracting new business) and Information Management

(processing information on current business). In total, six hundred sixty five

skills/concepts were taught to fifteen organizations. The average number of skills taught

to each microenterprise was 44.4. See Appendix D for a breakdown of specific skills

learned within an actual session.


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Figure 3: Total Skills Learned During Sessions

Skills/concepts were measured both in the session in which they were taught and on the

day of the final session, in order to ascertain whether the skills were being retained over

time. On average, the users retained 95% of the skills/concepts they had learned (Figure

4).

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Figure 4: User Retention of Skills Over Time

The trainers weighted the skills/concepts according to perceived importance to the

organization (Figure 5). As the skills/concepts were tabulated, the trainers gave each skill

an importance score. The trainers used the importance to evaluate the usefulness of each

skill/concept to the user. Every skill/concept was evaluated against the following criteria,

94%

95%

98%

95%

97%

96%

100%

93%

95%

89%

97%

93%

100%

89%

100%

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which were measured on a Likert scale: level of difficulty, number of attempts, critical to

project, and projected frequency of use. Number of attempts on each skill was a criteria

for evaluation because each attempt is significant to the user. Skills that are passed in four

or five attempts are typically more significant to user memory than a skill passed in one

attempt. Each criterion was given a rating from 1 5. The ratings were then added, and

the sum became the importance score. Below is a sample skill taught during a session,

along with an example of importance score tabulation. For this particular skill, the

importance score was 13/20. Trainers consider skills with an importance score above ten

to be substantially useful to the user. Trainers also examine the overall importance scores

of the skills learned in a session. For example, if over half of the skills in any session

have an importance score above ten, then the session is considered to be useful. The

importance score keeps the trainers focusing on useful skills/concepts.


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Figure 5: Importance Score Tabulation

The first order effects (skills, concepts, techniques and options) taught as a part of the IT

interaction process have the potential to create a ripple effect in the Council Bluffs

community. In terms of the sheer number of effects that have already been felt, it is clear

that the partner organizations indeed have more tools for their respective toolboxes,

making it easier for them to gain traction in an increasingly technological marketplace.

Second order effects are effects on the organization as a whole. How many process

changes have taken place as a result of the interaction? Have any time savings occurred?

How about money savings, in terms of bargaining power? Has the organization gained


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any new contacts as a result of the interaction? Second order effects were determined by

the microenterprises. The trainers collected this data during the final session.

Fifteen businesses achieved second order effects as a result of the study. Process changes

in the organizations are saving an average of 5-7 hours a week (Figure 6). Money savings

(apart from the number of hours saved per week) differed in each organization, with a

low of $100 and a high of $10, 000 (Figure 7). Many organizations also reported social

media contact growth, up to 440% (Figure 8).

Figure 6: Second Order Effects: Time Savings (hours per week)

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Figure 7: Second Order Effects: Money Savings (over one year)

$1,500

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redden thesis submission

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