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Physical Activity &
Sport Issues
Chapter 19
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Definitions Modern sport is a reflection of our society
– e.g., winning at all costs
Sociology is the study of the functioning of human society in various environments (e.g., workplace, church, school)
Sport sociology is the study of the functioning of society within the modern sport environment
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Important Issues in Sport Sociology Specifically, we will discuss:
– Aggression and Violence in Sport
– Cheating in Sport– Gender and Sport– Race and Ethnicity in Sport– Racism in Sport– Other Victims of Discrimination– Future Sporting Trends
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Aggression and Violence in Sport
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Violence in sports parallels the reality of violence in society as a whole– We see examples of societal violence
watching the evening news– Sports news isn’t much better
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Examples of Violence in Sport
Hockey– 2000: Marty McSorley knocks out Donald Brashear by
slashing him in the head with his stick Basketball
– 1995: Vernon Maxwell hits an abusive fan in the stands Baseball
– Roger Clemens throws the jagged piece of a broken bat at Mike Piazza
Examples can be found in almost every sport Can you think of any other examples?
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Definitions
Violence = extreme aggression There are three distinct
components of aggressive behaviour:
1. Hostile Aggression
2. Instrumental Aggression
3. Assertive Behaviour
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Hostile Aggression Instrumental Aggression
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Hostile Aggression Instrumental Aggression
The intent is to cause harm
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Hostile Aggression Instrumental Aggression
The intent is to cause harm
The intent is to cause harm
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Hostile Aggression Instrumental Aggression
The intent is to cause harm The goal is to cause suffering
The intent is to cause harm
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Hostile Aggression Instrumental Aggression
The intent is to cause harm The goal is to cause suffering
The intent is to cause harmThe goal is to achieve some external award
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Hostile Aggression Instrumental Aggression
The intent is to cause harm The goal is to cause suffering
The intent is to cause harmThe goal is to achieve some external award
Anger is usually involved
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Hostile Aggression Instrumental Aggression
The intent is to cause harm The goal is to cause suffering
The intent is to cause harmThe goal is to achieve some external award
Anger is usually involved
No anger is involved
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Hostile Aggression Instrumental Aggression
The intent is to cause harm The goal is to cause suffering
The intent is to cause harmThe goal is to achieve some external award
Anger is usually involved
No anger is involved
Performed outside the rules of the game
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Hostile Aggression Instrumental Aggression
The intent is to cause harm The goal is to cause suffering
The intent is to cause harmThe goal is to achieve some external reward
Anger is usually involved
No anger is involved
Performed outside the rules of the game
Performed within the rules of the game
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Hostile Aggression Instrumental Aggression
The intent is to cause harm The goal is to cause suffering
The intent is to cause harmThe goal is to achieve some external award
Anger is usually involved
No anger is involved
Performed outside the rules of the game
Performed within the rules of the game
e.g., fist-fighting in hockey
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Hostile Aggression Instrumental Aggression
The intent is to cause harm The goal is to cause suffering
The intent is to cause harmThe goal is to achieve some external award
Anger is usually involved
No anger is involved
Performed outside the rules of the game
Performed within the rules of the game
e.g., fist-fighting in hockey e.g., aggressive checking meant to hurt the opponent
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Assertive Behaviour
Often confused with aggression Increased effort and energy
expenditure No intent to harm No anger involved May result in harm, but any resultant
harm is incidental to the game e.g., Assertive checking meant to slow
down the opponent
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What Causes Aggressive Behaviour in Sport?
The following causes most likely interact to cause aggressive behaviour
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1. Parents and coaches
Through comments, e.g., “Bob can really take care of himself.”
By demonstrating interest in televised sporting event fights
Recommendations:1. Good role models need to convey a
negative reaction to aggression2. Other?
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2. Outcome of the contest and league standing
More aggression occurs after losing contest– Frustration
Lower league standing teams demonstrate more aggression
– Frustration and a little to lose
Recommendations:1. Refocus the teams efforts into more productive
channels, e.g., a new game plan2. Others?
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3. Point spread
The larger the point spread, the more aggression occurs
– Nothing to lose because game is perceived to be out of reach
Recommendations1. Refocus attention, e.g., try out a new
play
2. Others?
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4. Physical contact
Sports with a lot of physical contact result in more aggression
– If player believes that the opponent is trying to hurt him/her there is an increased likelihood that aggression will occur
Recommendations:1. Encouraging athletes to increase effort vs.
aggressive acts2. Victory (vs. harm) = the ultimate way to get back
at an opponent3. Others?
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5. Fan Reaction
More aggression occurs when a team plays away from home
– Linked to fan reaction, i.e., unfriendly crowd is likely to anger the visiting team
Recommendations:1. Players must learn to “tune out” this fan
reaction and focus on the game
2. Others?
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Cheating in Sport
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Cheating = behaviour aimed at getting around the rules or simply breaking them
Why do athletes engage in cheating?1. The win-at-all-costs mentality
2. Cheating results from the sport ethic
Ben Johnson’s world record in the 100-metre dash in the 1988 Summer Olympics before he was stripped of his win for using anabolic steroids.
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The Sport Ethic
A cluster of norms that describe what it means to be a successful athlete
Four specific norms make up the sport ethic
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1. An athlete makes sacrifices for the game
Athlete must love the game above all else, i.e., give it total priority
This involves:– Meeting the competition
demands without question– Making sacrifices (e.g.,
family)
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2. An athlete strives for distinction Constantly seeking
improvement Continuously getting
closer to perfection– “swifter, higher, stronger”
Tatiana Grigorieva
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3. An athlete accepts risks and plays through pain Athlete does not give in to pressure,
pain, or fear Success comes with:
– Overcoming the fear and challenge of competition
– Accepting the increased risk of failure and injury
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4. An athlete accepts no limit in the pursuit of possibilities Obligation to pursue one’s dream to
succeed without question Anything is possible if a person is
dedicated enough
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Cheating occurs when the norms of the sport ethic are accepted without question
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The Most Popular Form of
Deviance
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Athlete Recruitment
Rules are bent in order to sign promising talent
e.g., “getting around” the rules regarding athletic scholarships
“Ignoring” the required admission average standards
Others?
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Academic Cheating
Athletes have their course work written by “academic support” staff
Little evidence that athletes engage in more academic cheating than other students
However, cheating is cheating!– Pressure to maintain a certain GPA has the
potential to cause athletes to consider cheating
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Cheating in Games
Modification of equipment– Fencing: rewiring athletes– Baseball: using cork-filled bats, applying Vaseline
on the ball
Modification of play– Basketball: using physical contact to throw-off an
opponent’s jump shot when out of the referee’s sight lines
Others?
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Performance-Enhancing Drugs
1. To gain a winning edge2. Just to stay competitive e.g., Ben Johnson tragedy IOC considers certain performance-
enhancing drugs illegal because:1. They give one an unfair advantage2. They have serious health side-effects
Athletes must be counselled to stay drug-free
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Drug Physiological Effect Performance Effect
Anabolic steroids
↑ muscle mass ↑ muscle strength and power
Amphetamines ↑ muscle tension, HR, BP
Prepare body for competition
Cocaine Physiological stimulant
Help overcome fear
Rectal Air Injections
↓ body density ↑ swimmer’s buoyancy
Alkalines Neutralize accumulation of acids in the blood
Postpone fatigue
Blood Boosting ↑ oxygen carrying capacity
Postpone fatigue
Beta-adrenergic receptors
Physiological sedative To steady the hands
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Gender and Sport
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What Prevented Women From Participating in Physical Activity
in the Past?
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1. Lack of rights Women were not allowed to vote, get
education, make own decisions, etc. This prevented them from making
decisions with respect to their participation in physical activity
1948 Olympics – 400m relay
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2. Emphasis on reproduction
Women were described almost exclusively by their biology as reproducing organisms
Physical exertion was thought to destroy a woman’s potential to have children
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3. Societal expectations Women were expected to act “lady-like”
– Female athletes were negatively labelled because they did not act in accordance with these norms
Many sports were discouraged because they prevented women from acting “lady-like”– e.g., bicycling
Female athletes were expected to emphasize their femininity – e.g., by wearing feminine clothes, which impaired
performance
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Access to Sport for Women Single most important
change in the world of sport over the past generation was – INCREASED PARTICIPATION OF FEMALES
Women can now freely participate in sports that were not available to them a few decades ago
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What Led to the Increased Participation of Females in
Sport?
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1. New Opportunities Development of new teams and programs
since the late 1970’s is linked with increased participation– Unfortunately, women still don’t receive an equal
share of opportunities in today’s society - e.g.?
These new opportunities have resulted from political changes
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2. Political Pressure and Equal Rights Legislation
In early 1980’s in Canada, pressure from women’s groups led to the investigation of sport opportunities
Findings from 1984 study:– 64% of inter-collegiate athletes were males
Findings from 1987 study:– 64% of inter-collegiate athletes were still males
Today– More females enjoy equal access in university sports– Women’s sports are not usually promoted as mass sports– Male athletes still enjoy greater financial rewards than female
athletes
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3. The Global Women’s Rights Movement
Over the past 30 years: Emphasized that females excel as human beings
when they are given the opportunity to develop their physical abilities
Played role in redefining occupational and family roles for women
In 1996, U.N.’s Fourth World Conference on Women called for:
Increased efforts to provide sports opportunities New efforts to promote education, health, and human
rights for females all over the world
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4. The Expanding Health and Fitness Movement Since the mid-1970’s health research
highlighted the many benefits of regular participation in physical activity for females
Today, well-toned muscles and CV fitness are no longer seen as desirable only in the male population
Some traditional standards still remain in terms of clothing fashion and marketing strategies– Examples?
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5. Increased Media Coverage of Women In Sport
Today, there are increased opportunities for girls and women to follow female athletes in media
This provides them with role models and encourages them to be active athletes themselves
Unfortunately, women’s sports are still not covered as often or with the same detail as men’s sports– Examples?
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In Summary
The preceding factors have: – Collectively fostered increased interest in sport
participation for females– Emphasized that gender equity in sports is an
important goal In today’s society,
– Gender equity is far from being achieved• Example?
– But the movement is underway and there is no turning back
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Race and Ethnicity in Sport
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Definitions Race
– Involves reference to physical traits– BUT is based on meanings that people have given
to those particular physical traits Ethnicity
– Not based on physical traits– Based on characteristics associated with cultural
traditions and background Minority group
– A socially identified group that experiences discrimination and suffers social disadvantages
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Racism in Sport
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The Black Athlete – View of the Past Only white athletes were
allowed to play on major league baseball teams
Black athletes played in Negro Leagues
Jackie Robinson – first black baseball player to play in the major leagues
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The Black Athlete - Progress Progress has been made leading to a significant
increase in black athlete representation
However, the majority of people in power (e.g., team owners) are white, so the possibility of unequal access still exists
Black Athlete Representation Trends in Three Professional Sports
0102030405060708090
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000Year
Per
cent
age
(%)
Baseball
Football
Basketball
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Other Victims of Discrimination
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Canada’s First Nations Two major concerns of native peoples with
respect to sports:1. Equity concerns
• Natives are at the bottom of the social ladder• They lack financial resources, sports facilities,
coaching, and sporting event opportunities
2. Cultural concerns• Maintenance of cultural values in sports• e.g., maintenance of snow snake or lacrosse• e.g., maintenance of inclusion and sharing (vs.
competition)
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Disabilities and Sport Traditionally people with disabilities have been segregated in our
society and sports
Determination shown by Terry Fox, Rick Hansen, and others has led to highlighted attention of achievements of disabled athletes
Changes that allowed disabled individuals to become less segregated members of our society:– Crippled, handicapped, retarded disabled– More sporting events are being offered– Bill C-62– More ramps and accessibility– Others?
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Gay Athletes Professional sport is highly
male, heterosexual, and homophobic
“Coming out” in a sporting environment puts individual’s social status, family and fan affection, and even success at risk
Dave Kopay (1976) - First North American athlete to “come out”
Martina Navratilova
Greg Louganis
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Gay Games– Formed in 1982– Since then their popularity has
increased tremendously– People of all sexual orientations are
welcomed– Key philosophy: PARTICIPATION,
SUPPORT, INCLUSIVENESS AND ENJOYMENT
– This philosophy is opposite to conventional international competitions, which stress exclusion and ranking
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Older Adults in Sport Older adults were discouraged
from participating in sport due to:1. Developmental theory2. Old Medical practice
Today, physical activity is viewed as part of an overall healthy lifestyle in persons of all ages
Organized sports are being established to meet the needs of older adults
– Allow a great deal of social interactions– Do not involve intimidation, use of physical force, or
high-risk activities
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Physical Activity and Sport Trends
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Heath and Fitness Concerns Will Continue to Increase Greater emphasis on illness prevention vs.
treatment– Physical activity will become an integral part of
illness prevention Wellness movement
– Emphasis on involvement in participation sports vs. performance sports
Educational curricula– Less emphasis on performance sports– More emphasis on physical activities that involve
lifetime skills
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Groups Seeking Alternative Sports Rejection of traditional
performance sports for alternative sports
Youths will continue to form own sport in order to avoid the constraints of traditional sports
Alternative sports will embody some aspects of pleasure and participation sports
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Spectators and Spectator Sports
More people will choose to watch vs. participate in sports
Increasing variation in the sports to watch– e.g., soccer, alternative sports, fishing channel
Increased exposure to sports from other cultures
Virtual sports