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Symbioses - Mutualism
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Mutualism
• Definition - the individuals in a population of each mutualist species grow and/or survive and/or reproduce at a higher rate when in the presence of individuals of the other. Each benefits (+,+)
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Mutualisms involving Culture of Crops or Livestock
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Leaf-cutter Ants – genus Atta
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Diagram of Leaf-cutter ant colony nest
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Human Agriculture
Sustainable Dairy Industrial Wheat
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Digestive Mutualisms Involving Gut Inhabitants
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Ruminant with multiple stomachs
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Ruminant by-products
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Termite Mound Western Australia
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Termites
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Mycorrhizae
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Ectomycorrhizae
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Ectomycorrhizae
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Mycorrhizae – world’s largest organisms?
• The mycelium of some forest fungi can extend enormous distances. In 1992 a single individual of Armillaria bulbosa was discovered that permeates more than 30 acres of forest soil in northern Michigan and was thought to be one of the world's largest living organisms. It may have been spawned by a single spore thousands of years ago. In 1998 another species Armillaria solidipes in the Blue Mountains of Oregon was found to consist of a subterranean mycelial network extending across 2400 acres. It must weigh thousands of metric tons. Its age could be from 2500 to 8400 years old.
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Armillaria solidipes
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VAM – Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizae
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Nitrogen Fixing Mutualisms
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Red Clover – A Classic Legume
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Normal Nitrogen Fixation
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Legume Root Nodules
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Rhizobium root nodules on a bean plant
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Animal-Algae Mutualisms
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Healthy Coral Reef - Indonesia
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Coral polyp with zooxanthellae- a dinoflagellate, Symbiodinium
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Coral polyp – coral animal is green,Zooxanthellae is red
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Endosymbiotic Origin of Eukaryotes
Lynn Margulis
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Endosymbiotic Origin of Eukaryotes
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Endosymbiotic Origin of Eukaryotes• The earliest eukaryotes acquired mitochondria by engulfing alpha
proteobacteria.• The early origin of mitochondria is supported by the fact that all
eukaryotes studied so far either have mitochondria or had them in the past. Mitochondria have their own DNA and replicate themselves during cell division.
• Later in eukaryotic history, some lineages of heterotrophic eukaryotes acquired an additional endosymbiont—a photosynthetic cyanobacterium—that evolved into plastids.
• This hypothesis is supported by the observation that the DNA of plastids in red and green algae closely resembles the DNA of cyanobacteria.
• Plastids in these algae are surrounded by two membranes, presumably derived from the cell membranes of host and endosymbiont.
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Stromatolites on coast of Western Australia
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The Nature of Communities and Ecosystems
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Sourdough bread – ingredients and final product
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Redwood Forest
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Scale of Ecosystem – Lake Superior
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Scale of Ecosystem – Isle Royale
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Scale of Ecosystem – Isle Royale – Forest and Pond
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Scale of Ecosystem – Isle Royale Wetland
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Scale of Ecosystem – Isle Royale Pitcher Plants
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Ecotone – region where two communities/ecosystems grade into each
other
Forest-Marsh Ecotone
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Stability
A stable community or ecosystem is one that has the ability to replace
itself – exist in place for more than one generation
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Douglas-Fir
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Pea Aphids
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Life cycle of the Pea Aphid
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Components of Stability
2 major components:
1) resistance - the ability of a community or ecosystem to avoid disturbance
2) resilience - the speed with which a community or ecosystem returns to its former state following a disturbance that has displaced it from its initial condition
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Ecosystems and Stability
Grassland – South Africa Rainforest – Puerto Rico
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Additional Components of Stability
• Local stability describes the tendency of a community to return to its original state following a small disturbance
• Global stability describes the tendency of a community to return to its original state following a large disturbance
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Adaptive Capacity of an Ecosystem
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Adaptive Capacity of an Ecosystem
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Adaptive Capacity of an Ecosystem- Chesapeake Bay
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Adaptive Capacity in 3D
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Current Adaptive Capacity
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From Local vs. Global Stability
• dynamically fragile - a community which is stable only within a narrow range of environmental conditions
• dynamically robust - a community which is stable within a wide range of environmental conditions