Download - The Globe: Spring 2010 1st Edition
The Globe: World News From All Sides
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World News from all Sides
Spring 2010—Issue One
TheMoscowSummitof1949‐1950ByJoshuaLasky
TheSunWillNeverSetonthePersianEmpireByJeremyIloulian
Bu
ParallelsbetweentheHaitianRevolutionandtheAmericanAnti‐SlaveryMovementByLucasDivine
TheRealistCycleByRichardBenjaminBloomfield
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
LetterfromtheEditor……………………………………………………………………………………3
TheMoscowSummitof1949‐1950……………………………………………………………4‐12ByJoshuaLaskyTheSunWillNeverSetonthePersianEmpire………………………………………….12‐18ByJeremyIloulianParallelsBetweentheHaitianRevolutionTheAmericanAnti‐SlaveryMovement……………………………………………………..18‐30ByLucasDivineTheRealistCycle……………………………………………………………………………………..31‐36ByRichardBenjaminBloomfield
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LETTERFROMTHEEDITOR
DearReaders:
IamproudtopresentthethirdeditionoftheTheGlobe:WorldNewsfromAllSidesforthe2009‐2010academicyear.TheGlobeistheonlyundergraduateacademicjournalattheGeorgeWashingtonUniversitydevotedsolelytoInternationalAffairs.TheGlobeisanamazingopportunityforInternationalAffairsSocietymembers,ElliotSchoolstudents,andthoseinterestedininternationalaffairstopublishtheiracademicpapersandarticlesinaprofessionalmanner.Morethanthat,itisanopportunitytoopendiscussion,publishideasandtothinkandwritecriticallyonworldissues.
TheGlobeanditssubmissionsaredrawnfrommanydifferentareasofinterestwithininternationalaffairsfromeconomics,topolitics,tointerdisciplinarydiscussions.Thiseditionisnoexceptionandwitheveryissue,wehopetobringourreadersnewoutlooksonInternationalAffairsadiscipline.
EnjoythisSpringonlineedition,aculminationofthebestsubmissionsreceivedthroughoutthesemester,andlookoutforourSpringprinteditioncomingsoon!
Cheers,
LaurenJacobsonEditor‐In‐Chief
AssistantEditors:JustinSnyderNabeelaMalikJeffRichards
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TheMoscowSummitof19491950TheHistoricalViewpointversustheContemporaryViewpoint
By:JoshuaLasky
DuringtheperiodoftimeimmediatelyfollowingtheendoftheChineseCivil
War,byallappearancestherewasagreatblowtotheWesternworldasaresultof
thealliancebetweentheSovietUnionandChina.Meetingforthefirst,andasit
turnsoutonly,timeatthissummitinMoscow,JosephStalinandMaoZedong
appearedtopresentaunitedCommunistfrontagainsttheforcesledbytheUnited
States.However,behindthescenes,therelationshipbetweenStalinandMaowas
notcompletelyharmonious.Eachofthemheldtheirownideasforwhatthe
vanguardofCommunismshouldbe.Thesedifferencesplayedoutintheprivate
talksheldinMoscowtowardstheendof1949andthebeginningof1950.An
averagefollowerofColdWartensionsmaynothavebeenabletopickupwellon
thesecracksinthefacade;however,acarefulexaminerofnewspaperarticles
emergingatthetimemayhavebeenabletoseeaglimpseofthetruerelationship
betweenStalinandMao.
ThemeetingbetweenthetwoleadersinDecemberof1949wasprimarily
heldinordertofigureoutthefuturepathforChinaandhowtheSovietUnioncould
aidinitsprogress.Earlierthatyear,therehadbeendiscreetstrugglesbetween
StalinandMaoregardingtheiruniquepartnership.Thiscanbeobservedinthe
telegramssentbetweenStalinandMaoinJanuary1949inresponsetotheNanjing
government'spleatotheWestandtheUSSRformediationintheChineseCivilWar.
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TheCommunistshadwonseveralhighprofilemilitaryvictoriesandappearedtobe
onthevergeoftakingChinaforgood.Intelegramsdatedonthe10thand11thof
JanuaryStalinnotifiedMaooftherequestsforaidsentoutbyNanjingandsuggested
thatthetwosidesaimtowardsseemingtodesiredirectnegotiationsbetweenthe
CommunistsandtheGuomindangbutmaketherequirementsforpeacetalksso
stringentthattheywouldneveragreetositdownforthem.AsStalinputsit,"our
draftofyourreplytotheGuomindangproposalisaimedattheunderminingofthe
peacenegotiations.Clearly,theGuomindangwouldnotagreetopeacenegotiations
withoutforeignpowers’mediation,especiallythatoftheUSA.Itisalsoclearthatthe
GuomindangwillnotagreetonegotiatewithouttheparticipationofJiangJieshi
[ChiangKaishek]andotherwarcriminals.Weassumethereforethatthe
GuomindangwouldrejectpeacenegotiationsonCCPterms."1Therealsurpriseto
StalinistheresponsefromMaobeinghostileratherthanreceptive.Maodictatesa
SovietresponseinhistelegramfromJanuary13ththatwouldhaveStalindenounce
anyattemptsforforeignmediationintheChineseCivilWar,anactionwhichwould
puttheUSSRatoddswiththeUnitedStates.Maotookthepositionthatvictorywas
almostinsight,whatwouldthepointbeininvitingthepossibilityofpeaceatthat
pointintheconflict?Maonotesthat,"iftheUSSRinitsreplytothenotebythe
NanjinggovernmentwilltakethepositionoutlinedinyourtelegramofJanuary10,it
wouldmaketheUSA,EnglandandFranceassumethatparticipatinginmediationis
anappropriatething,andgivetheGuomindangapretextforscoldingusaswarlike
1"StalintoMaoZedong,11January1949."CWIHP.http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/pubs/ACF1A4.pdf
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elements."2Thatis,iftheSovietUnionevenhintedatsupportingamediatedendto
theChineseCivilWar,therestofthegreatpowerswouldinstantlysupporttheidea.
MaoverymuchdesiredtheunconditionalsurrenderoftheGuomindangforcesand
didnotwanttorisktotalvictoryoverapoliticalmaneuver.Hesummarizedby
notingthat,"weareinclinedtowardsrejectingthepeacedeceptionbythe
Guomindangwithfullrighteousness,becausenow,asthebalanceofclassforcesin
Chinahasalreadychangedirreversiblyandtheinternationalopinionisalso
unfavourabletotheNanjinggovernment,thePLAwillbeabletocrosstheYangzi
thissummerandstarttheoffensivetowardsNanjing.Itlookslikewedonothaveto
makeonemorepoliticaldetour.Inthepresentsituationthismaneuverwouldbe
damagingratherthanbeneficial."AfterreceivingthisresponseStalinbacktracked
significantly,eventuallycavingintotheresponsecreatedbyMaofortheSoviet
responsetotheGuomindangpeaceproposal.Totheoutsideobserver,someone
whohadjustreadthestatementprovidedbySovietUnion,itseemedthattheir
governmenthadalwaysbeenonthesideofrejectingtheproposalforoutside
mediation;indeed,thefourgreatpowerstogetherdeclinedtoparticipateinany
suchmediationaroundthesametime.3However,inreality,Maomadeashocking
rejectionofSovietinterventionintheChineseCivilWar.Comparedtotheservility
oftheleadersoftheSovietUnion'seasternEuropeansatellites,Maoappearedto
makeaconcertedefforttobeseenas,attheveryleast,ajuniorpartnerinthe
2"MaoZedongtoStalin,13January1949."CWIHP.http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/pubs/ACF1A4.pdf3"U.S.,BRITAINSAIDTOBARCHINA'SBID."NewYorkTimes(1857Currentfile);Jan15,1949;ProQuestHistoricalNewspapersTheNewYorkTimes(1851‐2005).pg.4.
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Communistmovement.ThisthemewouldreturninfuturemeetingsbetweenSoviet
andChineseleaderslaterthatyearintheMoscowsummit.
InDecember1949MaoarrivedinMoscowforacelebrationofStalin's
seventiethbirthday,aconvenientexcusetoholdtalksrelatedtothefurtheringof
Soviet‐Chinesetiesintheformofaformaltreatyoffriendship.Theheadlines
proclaimedwarmreceptionsfortheChineseleaderandnothingbutpraisefrom
MaotoStalin.Undertheblanketofthemediacoveragethingslookedsomewhat
different.InthesetalkstherewaslimiteddisagreementbetweenMaoandStalinon
afewdifferenttopicsincludingapossibletreatyoffriendshipandwhattodo
regardingtheNationalistfortificationofFormosa.AttheDecembermeeting,Stalin
voicedaconcernregardingalteringanyoftheprovisionssetforthundertheYalta
Agreement,particularlyregardingthestatusofSovietsoldiersstationedatPort
Arthur,remindingMaothat,"sinceachangeinevenonepointcouldgiveAmerica
andEnglandthelegalgroundstoraisequestionsaboutmodifyingalsothetreaty’s
provisionsconcerningtheKurileIslands,SouthSakhalin,etc."4Understandably,
MaoZedongwassomewhatwaryofproceedingforwardunderanagreement,which
hadbeenmadebeforehisgovernmenthadevencometopower.However,Stalin
wasforthetimeabletoconvinceMaothatinformalagreementsthatwouldnotalter
theletteroftheYaltaAccordswerethebestwaytonotarousetheireoftheWest.
Forexample,theSovietUnionwouldretainthewrittenrighttostationforcesatPort
Arthurfortheremainderofthethirty‐yearlease;however,aninformalagreement
4"ConversationbetweenStalinandMao,Moscow,16December1949."CWIHP.http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/pubs/ACF1A4.pdf.Pg5.
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couldhaveRussiantroopsleaveassoonasfiveyearsdowntheline.Secondly,Mao
wassomewhatconcernedaboutthePLA'sinabilitytostrikeattheremaining
GuomindangforcesthathadestablishedthemselvesontheislandofFormosa,now
knownasTaiwan.HedesiredthattheSovietUnionprovidehimwithdirectand
indirectmeanstoinvadetheislandandendthecivilwaronceandforall.Stalin
hesitatedtodothis,arguingthat"whatismostimportanthereisnottogive
Americansapretexttointervene."AtthetimethiswouldlikelyhavefrustratedMao
because,inhismind,theSovietUnionclearlyhadthemeanstoprovidehimthe
shipsandtrainingnecessarytocarryouttheoperation,yetwereunwillingtodoso.
Atthesametimeasallofthesediscussionsweretakingplace,theNewYorkTimes
publishedarticleshighlightingtheboastsoftheRussianandChinesepress.Such
statementsincludeaquotefromthePeople'sDailyfeaturingMaoremarkingthat,
"theChinesepeoplecanmakeunitingwiththeSovietUniontheirownbasicpolicy."5
Also,theTimesdeclared,againreferringtoMao,thatitwouldbe,"moreandmore
difficultforhiswishfulapologistsinthiscountrytoclingtothetheorythathewill
somehowprovetobeaChineseTito."6Bytakingthesearticlesatfacevalue,one
wouldhavenoideaofthefundamentaldifferencesinopinionthatwouldlaterfuel
theSino‐Sovietsplit.However,inanarticlewrittenacoupledaysearlierinthe
WashingtonPost,APreporterJohnHightowerenvisionedcertaincracksinthe
5"CHINESECOMMUNISTCHIEFWELCOMEDINMOSCOW."NewYorkTimes(1857Currentfile);Dec19,1949;ProQuestHistoricalNewspapersTheNewYorkTimes(1851‐2005).pg.17.6"MAOMAKESHISPILGRIMAGE."NewYorkTimes(1857Currentfile);Dec18,1949;ProQuestHistoricalNewspapersTheNewYorkTimes(1851‐2005).pg.E8.
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friendshipbetweentheSovietUnionandChina.7TakingManchuriaastheprimary
issue,hearguedthattheRussianswerereluctanttogiveuptheirspecialrightsin
ChinafollowingthevictoryoftheCommunistforcesandthattheystillwanteda
specialzoneofinfluenceinManchuria.Inactuality,Manchuriawasanissuefor
whichMaowouldchafeunderStalin'srepeatedremarksontheissueintheirlater
meetinginJanuary.Articlessuchasthisonecorrectlypredictedtroublesinthe
relationshipbetweentheSovietUnionandChinagiventhemultitudeofissuesthat
wereonthetableatthetime.
MoretensionsaroseduringthisJanuary,1950meetingbetweenStalinand
Mao.Duringthismeeting,Stalincompletelyreversesthepositionhetookonthe
subjectofwritinganewtreatythatwouldgoagainsttheYaltaAccords.Infact,he
goesasfarastosaythat,"itdoes—andtohellwithit!Oncewehavetakenupthe
positionthatthetreatiesmustbechanged,wemustgoalltheway."8Needlessto
saythiscameasquitethesurprisetoMaowhoquicklyagreedwithStalin's
magnanimousdecisionbeforetheSovietleadercouldchangehismindoncemore.
Followingthispoint,certaindisagreementsbegantoemerge.Firstofall,regarding
theadministrationofKChZhD(ChineseChangchunRailroad),theChinese
governmentwantedamajoritystakewhiletheSovietswantedtosplititevenlyas
theyhaddoneintheirothersatellitestates.ThisappearstobeMao'sfirstattempt
togainsomesovereigntyfromtheSovietsinrelationtotheirdomesticaffairs.
7Hightower,JohnM."Stalin‐MaoRiftHintedOverControlInManchuria."TheWashingtonPost(18771954);Dec18,1949;ProQuestHistoricalNewspapersTheWashingtonPost(1877‐1992).pg.M1.8"ConversationbetweenStalinandMao,Moscow,January22,1950."CWIHP.http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/pubs/ACF1A4.pdf.Pg7.
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WhiletheyarebyallaccountsgratefultotheSovietgovernmentfortheiraid,the
lastthingontheiragendaistosimplybecomeanotherSovietsatellite.Thisissue
comesupagainwhenStalinrepeatedlybringsupthemattersofManchuriaand
Xinjiang;astheseareterritoriesofChina,itwouldbenaturalforMaotowonder
whatpositionStalinisinwherehemaytellChinawhattodowithinitsownborders.
ThisreiteratestheproblemsproposedbythePostarticlefromDecember1949.He
wouldalsohavetowonderbasedonStalin'squestionasto,"whatsortofasituation
weshouldlookforwardtointhefuture:willwebesigningseparateagreements
withXinjiang,Manchuriaandotherprovinces,orasingleagreementwiththe
centralgovernment?"FromMao'sperspective,Stalincouldbetreatingthese
provincesasiftheywerenotpartofChinaandcouldbeturnedintoSovietspheres
ofinfluence.Hewouldalsohavetowonderwhetherhewasbeingtreatedasan
equalallyorasubservientvassal.
Notsurprisingly,newssourceswerenotgettingalloftheinformation
regardingthesemeetingsbetweenSovietandChineseofficials.Forinstance,an
articlepublishedintheNewYorkTimesclaimedthatMaowasnotevenapartyto
thenegotiationsonthe22nddespitethefactthathewasoneofthemajorplayers.9
ItispossiblethatSovietsourcesplayeddownMao'sroleinordertoreducethe
mediaattentiononthenegotiationstakingplace.Ontheotherhand,theTimeswas
abletopickuponthefactthattherewassignificantbackandforthbargaininggoing
on,andnotallofitingoodhumor,indetailingtheseveralrequestsandcounter‐
9"STALINSEESCHOU;PACTMAYBETOPIC."NewYorkTimes(1857Currentfile);Jan23,1950;ProQuestHistoricalNewspapersTheNewYorkTimes(1851‐2005).pg.1.
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requestsmadebybothsides.Throughlookingatthenewsarticlesfromthistime
periodwithoutthemeetingnotesathand,itwouldbeeasyforAmericanstoassume
theworstfromthesemeetingsbetweenMaoandStalin.Certainarticlesdescribing
Maovowing,"afirmintentiontodisplaythestrongestsupportofStalinist
internationalpolicy,"wouldhaveshownworldwidereadersaclearpictureofa
unitedCommunistfront.10ConsideringthattheSovietUnionandChinacompriseda
significantshareofEuropeandAsiaitwouldhavebeendisastrousfortheWestif
thesetwocountrieshadbeenabletopartnersuccessfully.Thekeyinthis
discussionistheabilitytolookbeyondtheheadlines;bycarefullyobservingthe
dynamicbetweentheSovietandChineseleaders,itisclearthatthebeginningsof
resentmentarebrewing.BetweenStalin'sastonishmentearlierin1949astothe
brazenreplyofMaotohisadviceontheNanjingtelegramandMao'sbitternessover
havingtodiscussdomesticChineseissueswithanoutsider,Americanswouldhave
beenmuchmoreateasewiththisknowledgeonhand.Ontheotherhand,careful
readersofthesenewspaperarticleswouldhavebeenabletogatherthattherewere
significantnegotiationsgoingonbehindcloseddoorsandthataSino‐Sovietalliance
wasinrealityfarfromasurething.
Ultimately,thedepictionoftherelationshipbetweenJosephStalinandMao
Zedongisnotfundamentallydifferentbygoingthrougheitherthecontemporary
newssourcecoverageorthroughtherecordsoftheconversationsthemselves.
WhiletheinitialcracksthatledtotheSino‐Sovietsplitwerestartingtocomeinto
10"MAOMAKESHISPILGRIMAGE."NewYorkTimes(1857Currentfile);Dec18,1949;ProQuestHistoricalNewspapersTheNewYorkTimes(1851‐2005).pg.E8.
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placeduringthissummitmeeting,bothMaoandStalinwerestillstrivingtowardsa
goaloffriendshipbetweentheirtwocountries.Perhapsnotuntiltheearly‐1950's,
duringtheKoreanWar,wouldMaoandStalinbeginjockeyingforleadershipofthe
Communistmovementinearnest.Lookinghardenoughintothearticlesofthetime
period,itisindeedpossibletodiscernthattherecouldbeserioustensionsbetween
theSovietandChineseleaders,particularlyregardingtheirrelationshipwithinan
alliance.Asaresult,althoughtonon‐informedAmericansatthetimeaSino‐Soviet
alliancewouldhavelookedallbutinevitable,otherswouldhaveseenthepotential
fortroubleintheCommunistparadise.
TheSunWillNeverSetonthePersianEmpireBy:JeremyIloulian
Theyearis632.ImagineyouliveintheArabianPeninsula.Yourprophetthat
hastaughtyouandyourfamilymembersthesubmissionofGodhasjustpassedon
tobegreetedinheavenbyGod.Butoutofsufferingandmourningcomesagreat
timeforyourpeople.FortherestofyourlifetimenewsreturnstoMeccaonhowthe
Arabswinbattleafterbattle.Yourchildrenliveontothecreationofoneofthe
largestempires,theArabEmpire.Andthebestpartofallofthisisthatnotonlydo
thearmiesreturnwithmilitarysuccess,butreligioussuccesstoo.People
everywhereseemtobeconvertingtothisnewwonderfulreligionyoucallIslamand
theybegintoadoptyourhabitsasArabs.Everywherenewpeoplebegintocall
themselvesArabs.Exceptforone,oneancientkingdomthatfellintheeastseemsto
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converttoyourreligionbutdoesn’tlearntheholylanguageofArabicnorpractices
yourcustoms.Why?Whydoesthiscountrynotsubmittoyourculture,toyour
ways? ThecountrythattheArabswouldspeakofwouldlaterbeknownasthe
PersianEmpire.Andthatword,Empire,whichmeanssomuch,wouldbethereason
whyPersianeverbecameArab.
UntilmoderntimestheareaoflandthatwasbetweenIraqandAfghanistan
wasknownasPersia.ThemostsignificanteventtohappeninPersianhistorywas
thecomingofIslamandoftheArabinvaders.Islamistheyoungestmajorworld
religion.BythetimethatMuhammaddiedin632theonlyplaceunderIslamorArab
controlwastheArabianPeninsula.(ArabsandMuslimsarenotinterchangeablebut
untilthispointalltheMuslimswereArabs).Sotospreadthewordofthisgreat
religion,theArabswouldcontinuetoexpandtheirempire.From632to655the
Arabsexpandedthroughtheneareastandby750theArabshadconqueredSpainin
thewest,acrossNorthAfrica,intoEgypt,Syria,Iraq,Persia,andevenpartsof
centralAsia.WhentheArabscametoeachcountrytheywouldnotonlydefeatthe
armiesbutimposetheircultureandIslamaswell.
Withinthecontextofallglobalhistory,thecountriesthatmilitarilyhad
submittedtotheArabsalsosubmittedtotheirculture.InalecturethatBernard
Lewisgives(aprofessoratPrinceton)heexplainswhatchangedinthesecountries
withtheintroductionofIslamandArabism:“Thepreviouslanguageswere
forgotten,theidentitiesexpressedinthoselanguageswerereplaced,andtheancient
civilizationsofIraq,Syria,andEgyptgavewaytowhatwenowadayscalltheArab
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world.”11Persiawastheonlycountrythatdidnot.IranacceptedIslamasthenew
religionbutitneverbecameArabunlikeitsneighborsinthewest.
LewismakesacompellingargumentinhislectureaboutwhyIrandidnot
turnintoanotherArabstate:thatIranhadastrongsenseofnationalismwithin
herselfwhichhadbeenthereforalmosttwoandhalfmillennia.Themostimportant
pointtonoteisthatIranwasneverconqueredwiththeexceptionofAlexanderthe
GreatuntiltheArabs.ButeventhentheMacedoniancontrolandGreekideasonly
stayedthereforlessthan150years.AsLewispointsoutwhencomparedtoEgypt
orIraq,bothcountriesthathadthrivingcivilizations,Persiawasneverconquered.
BothEgyptandIraqhadbeenconqueredmultipletimesfromtheMacedonians,
Assyrians,Romans,andeventhePersiansthemselves.Thosecivilizationsdidnot
controltheirownkingdomforalmostentiremillennia.Iraq,Egypt,Syria,andthe
Maghreb(NorthAfricaminusEgypt)mostlikelyhadbecomeusedtothefactthat
newconquerorswouldcomeandgoandnewtraditionswouldtoo.Insomecasesif
aculturalheritagewasnotacceptedbythepeoplewhowereconquered,for
exampleCarthagewithRome,theentirecivilizationwasdestroyed.Sointheory
thosecountriesthatwereconqueredunderstoodthefactthatitwasbetterto
continuelivingthantonotswitchcultures.
AlsobecausePersiawasneverconqueredwiththeexceptionofAlexander,
shewouldhavebelievedherselftobeasuperpoweratthetimeoranEmpire.With
superpowerstatus(militarilyspeaking)thestatecreatesadominantcultureand
strongsenseofnationalism.WehaveseenthattobetruewiththeColdWarin
11Ibid,1.
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whichtheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionnotonlywerethestrongestbymilitary
measuresbutalsoledtheworldintwodifferentlifestyles.Persiawasacontender
withRome,whichhasbeenregardedasoneofthemostpowerfulempireseverin
Europeandtheworld.InahistoricaldatabasecalledADitstates,“Persiawasa
smallnationthatgrewtobetheworld'sfirstsuperpower”.12SobecausePersiawas
thefirstsuperpowertoexistithadobtainedalevelofstrengthnoothercountry
everhad!TohavePersiaunderstandthatcreatesanationalisticpridethatneither
EgyptnorIraqeverhadorwillhave.Justwithwordterminology,tocalloneselfan
Empirewouldcreateastrongsenseofnationalisticfever.Andtocreateevenmore
nationalismandpridePersiawasregardedasanEmpirenotjustbyherselfbut
othersinthepastandpresent.Bycreatingthissenseofnationalismevenwhenthe
Arabscameinandwonbymilitarymeans,thepeoplewouldnotsurrenderinterms
ofculture.InsteadthePersiansfoughtbackbykeepingtheirownsense.
Ifanything,IranactuallyinfluencedtheArabworldandIslamherselfthrough
cultural,spiritual,andpoliticalmeans.AsLewissays,“TheIraniancontributionto
thisnewIslamiccivilizationisofimmenseimportance.TheworkofIranianscanbe
seenineveryfieldofculturalendeavor.”13Lewisevengoesontoexplainthatanew
versionofIslamwasformedcalledIslam‐I‐Ajam,otherwiseknownasPersianIslam.
Forsometime,PersianIslamevenbecamethemoredominantofthetwodifferent
formsofIslamintermsofpoliticalpower.PersianIslamspreadtocentralAsia,
12"Persians."0AD.WildfireGames,6Nov.2004.Web.1Oct.2009.<http://wildfiregames.com/0ad/page.php?p=6360>.
13BernardLewis."IraninHistory."TelAvivUniversity,TelAviv.18Jan.1999.Lecture.
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India,andTurkey,whichthenbecametheOttomanEmpireandtheMughalEmpire.
SoatonepointyouhadthreeIslamicsuperpowers,Persia,theOttomanEmpire,and
theMughalEmpireandallthreeofthempracticedPersianIslam:“Thecenterofthe
IslamicworldwasunderTurkishandPersianstates,bothshapedbyIranian
culture”,onceEgyptwasconqueredbytheOttomansonlyArabiaandtheMaghreb
practicedArabianIslam.14Thissenseofnationalismalmostbecameacycle.Because
PersiahadsuchastrongnationalidentitybeforethecomingoftheArabstheywere
abletodiversifythemselvesfromtheArabinvadersandtheirversionofIslam.By
doingsothePersiansneverwouldassimilateintoArabsocietyandevenpushed
themselvesfurtheroutofthatworld.
Eventhelanguageitselfdidnotchangeunlikemanyotherlanguagesin
countriesthatfelltotheArabconquerors.AsLewispointsout,“AramaicisaSemitic
languagerelatedtoArabic,andthetransitionfromAramaictoArabicwasmuch
easierthanwouldhavebeenthetransitionfromPersian,anIndo‐European
language,toArabic.”15ForthetimePersianwassouniqueforMiddleEastern
languagesanditembodiedthatsenseofnationalismandempirethatPersianshad.
Additionally,Persianwassoembeddedintheculturethroughpoetryandliterature
thatitmadeithardforArabictoreplacethelanguageentirely.AndbecausePersian
wasembeddedinthecultureitdidnotcollapsetoArabicasonecanseewithCoptic
inEgypt.
14Ibid,2.15Ibid,2.
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ThefinalmajorpartthathadPersiamaintainasenseofnationalidentityand
EmpirewasacceptanceofShi’iteIslam.“IranhasbeenassociatedwithIslam,andin
themorerecentcenturieswithShi'iteIslam,whichsomehaveseenasan
expression,areappearanceofthePersiannationalgeniusinanIslamicdisguise.”16
ThisformofIslamwasbroughtundertheSafavidDynastyaswellasthetermIran
whichhasbecomepartofthemodernday.IranisoneoftheonlyShi’itestatestoday,
andatthetimeoftheSafavidDynastyPersiawastheonlyShi’itestate.Bymaking
herselfdifferentagainfromtheArabworldinwhichversionofIslamispracticed
(theArabworldprimarilyobservesSunniIslam)Persiaseparatesherselfandeven
couldassertthatsheisnowaPersianandaShi’iteEmpire.IdeaofaShi’iteEmpire
stillexiststoday.OneoftheentriesoftheTurkishJournalofInternationalRelations
states,“In2004Jordan’sKingAbdullah,anxiouslywarnedoftheprospectofa‘Shia
crescent’spanningIran,Iraq,Syria,andLebanon.”17Sothatnationalisticfever
becameevenstrongerwiththeacceptanceofShi’iteIslam.
Persia’scultureandnationalisticpridebecametoostrongfortheArabsto
overcome.Becauseofcenturiesofempire,adistinctlanguage,andtheadoptionof
newreligiousideals,theideaofbeingPersiannevercollapsedtotheArabworldas
Egypt,Syria,Iraq,andtheMaghrebwould.Persiabecamethefirstempiretoexist
andstillcontinuestodayasanimportantplayerinmodernpoliticsandtheMiddle
16Ibid,9.17AmirMHaji‐Yousefi"WhoseAgendaisServedbytheIdeaofaShiaCrescent?"Alternatives:TurkishJournalofInternationalRelations8.1(2007):1‐22.Spring2009.Web.23Sept.2009.<http://www.ciaonet.org/journals/tjir/v8i1/f_0016605_14357.pdf>.
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East,andintoday’sworld,itseemstobeIran,nottheArabs,thatdominatesthe
policiesandactionsoftheMiddleEast.
ParallelsBetweentheHaitianRevolutionandtheAmericanAntiSlaveryMovementBy:LucasDivine TheessayexploreshowthestruggleforfreedominHaitiinfluencedandwas
paralleledinAmerica’sstruggleagainstslavery,particularlywithinthecontextof
ToussaintL’Ouverture’stheoriesontherevolution.Theessaybeginswitha
discussionofearlyHaitianhistorytofosteranunderstandingofthismomentous
rebellion.Thenation’spariahstatusfromtheglobalcommunitythatinitially
followedtherevolutionisalsoanalyzedtounderstandtheimmediateglobal
responsetoHaiti’srevolution.ThisessayalsoexaminestheresponsesofAfrican
Americanpoliticalthinkers,totheHaitianRevolutionandToussaint.Ananalysisof
theinvolvedpartiesandtheirintentionsduringtherevolutionindicatethatthe
revolutionwasnotsimplyaracialrevolutionbutratherbasedonfreedomand
equality.TheroleofreligionwillbeexploredfrombothAmericanChristianand
HaitianVoodooperspectivestodetermineifthereisanycorrelationbetween
religionandrevolution.Inconclusion,thesuccessoftherevolutionwillbeanalyzed
intermsofbothpracticalityandtheideal.
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Background
Haitiwasdiscoveredin1492byChristopherColumbus,whoclaimedone‐thirdof
theislandofHispaniola(moderndayHaiti)onbehalfofSpain18.Thenative
populationwasquicklyeradicated.In1492,therewasanativeArawakpopulation
ofoverthreemillion19.Withintwentytwoyears,theArawaksnumberedlessthan
twentyseventhousandandby1542onlytwohundredArawaksremained20.Bythe
revolution,thenativepopulationhadbecomeextinctduetothebrutalgenocideof
thenativesthroughtheirexposuretoEuropeandiseasesandbeingworked
unmercifully,andoftenliterallytodeath,bytheSpanish21.
Francecameintopossessionwiththeforcedcessionofwhatisnowmodern
dayHaiti,withtheTreatyofRyswick,whichendedtheWarofthePalantinian
Succession/NineYears’War(1688‐1697).Bythe1700’sHispaniolawasrenamed
SaintDominique(modernHaiti)andwasFrance’sandtheworld’smostlucrative
colony22.Betweenhalfamillionandthreequartersofamillionslavescultivated
crops,themaincropsbeingsugar,rum,cotton,tobacco,andindigowhichgenerated
enormousprofitsfortheslaveowners23.Haitiquicklybecamethegreatestimporter
ofaslaveworkforcethroughtheAfricanslavetrade24.TheeconomyofHaitialone
comprisedtwo‐thirdsofFrance’soverseastrade25.
18Matthewson,Tim.AProslaveryForiegnPolicy:Haitian‐AmericanRelationsDuringtheEarlyRepublic.1sted.Westport:Praeger,2003.19Chin,Pat,GregDunkel,SaraFlounders,andKimIves,comps.eds.Haiti:aSlaveRevolution200YearsAfter1804.1sted.NewYork:InternationalActionCenter,2004.20Ibid.,p.12121Ibid.,p.12122Ibid.,p.12223Matthewson,p.324Chin,p.17125Ibid.,p.171
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Revolution
TheimmediateeffectsoftheHaitianrevolutionweretheejectionofFrench
occupyingtroops,theestablishmentofHaitiasthefirstfreeblackrepublic
composedofformerslaves,andthesubsequentpariahstatusimparteduponHaiti.
Theimpingementoftheidealsespousedbytherevolutionarieshadvast
consequencestoslave‐holdingcountriesandglobalpolitics;mostnotablythe
abruptendoftheeraofcolonialism.
However,TheexpulsionoftheFrenchwasonlythefirststeptowardsHaitian
independence.WiththeturmoilinFrance,stemmingfromthechaosoftheFrench
Revolutionof1789–1799,Haitiwasprimedforrevolution.Itwasnotonlytheblack
slaveswhodesiredtheirfreedombutalsotheplanterswhomovedfor
independencefromFranceandfreecoloredswhosoughtfullcitizenshipthat
pushedHaitiintoaviolentrevolution.FrançoisDominiqueToussaintLouverture
servedinallpracticalityasadictatorfollowingtheviolentuprisingofovera
hundredthousandslavesundertheVoodooleaderBoukman,whocalledforall
whitestobepurgedfromHaiti26.ThousandsofblacksroseupinthePlaineduNord
andexecutedtheirformermasters.Lessthenaweekaftertheinitialoutbreakof
violence,slavescontrolledthenorthernregionofHaitiandbegantopersecutethe
remainingwhites.TheFrenchlegislaturedeclaredslaveryillegalin1792.However,
NapoleonexhibitedtheimmediateracismchallengingHaitiin a threatening letter to
Toussaint claiming,
26Matthewson,pp.10‐13
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The circumstances in which you found yourself, surrounded on all sides by enemies without the metropole being able to either assist or revictual you, rendered articles of that constitution legitimate that otherwise would not be.27
Napoleon was alluding to the 1801 Constitution drafted and instituted by Toussaint that
declared Haiti a sovereign state. Effectively Napoleon is claiming Toussaint’s
constitution to be null and void and threatens Toussaint must concede to French rule as:
A contrary conduct would be irreconcilable with the idea we have conceived of you. It would have you lose the many rights to recognition and the benefits of the republic, and would dig beneath your feet a precipice which, in swallowing you up, could contribute to the misfortune of those brave blacks whose courage we love, and whose rebellion we would, with difficulty, be obliged to be punished.28
Napoleon acknowledges black Haitian’s freedom and even states admiration for their
desire for freedom. His political support of the Haitian revolution represents a parallel
between the Haitian and French Revolutions as even the racist Napoleon was politically
required to provide support for the freedom seeking Haitians. Although, Napoleon
feigned support of the Haitian Revolution, he secretly plotted to reinstitute slavery under
French rule in Haiti through a campaign phase in which,
Toussaint, Moyse, and Dessalines will no longer exist and three thousand or four thousand blacks who have retreated into the hills of the Spanish part will form what we call the islands maroons, and who we will succeed in destroying with time, steady effort, and a well-organized strategy of attack29
Upon learning of Napoleon’s intentions, through an intercepted letter intended for
General LeClerc, which was written by Napolean, Toussaint rejected the idea of any type
of French rule. Not only did Toussaint reject French rule because he recognized that
Napoleon would seek revenge on the revolution’s leaders but also because Toussaint 27Schoelcher,Victor.ViedeToussaintLouverture.Paris:PaulOllendorf.1889.28Ibid.,p.6229Dubois,Laurent,Garrigus,John.SlaveRevolutionintheCaribbean1789‐1804:ABriefHistorywithDocuments.Cambridge,London:HarvardUniversityPress.p.176
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recognized that agreeing to French rule would be a concession against the freedom they
had finally achieved. NapoleoncontinuedtowithhisplanstoreinstateFranceasthe
governingbodyofHaitiresultingintheeventualcaptureandimprisonmentof
LouvertureuntilLouverture’sdeathinadrearyFrenchprisonin180330.
FurtherevidenceofFrance’sanimositytowardsthefreeblackrepublicis
shownthroughtheexclusif,aneconomicpolicyinstitutedfollowingFrenchreturn
toHaiti,intendedtoexhaustHaitiintoeconomicsubmissivenessorruinthemin
spitebyrequiringone‐hundredpercentofimportsandexportsfromandto
France31.DessalinessoonledHaitiantroopsagainsttheFrench.Withthedeathof
LeClercandthebrutalityofhissuccessor,theVicomtedeRochambeau,Haitian
freedombecameevermoretangible.WiththeaidofaBritishblockadeand
Napoleon’swaninginterestintheWesternHemisphereDessalineswasabletolead
theHaitianstofreedomin1803.
HaitiasaPariahNationandTheProblemofReconstruction
ThepariahstatusimparteduponHaitifollowingtheirsuccessfulrevolutionis
difficulttocomprehend.Followingtheidealsof“liberté,égalité,andfraternité”
foughtforintheFrenchRevolution,Haitihopedtofightforitsindependenceandbe
recognizedasanindependentandsovereignnation.Ironically,however,
independenceforslaves,andblacksatthat,wasnotendorsedbutrather
admonished.TherealmotiveinshunningHaiti’sindependencewastorebukeany
hopesofindependencefosteredinslavesoftheUnitedStatesandtheEuropean
30Chin,p.2831Ibid.,p.67
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colonies,supportedsolelybytheinstitutionofslavery.ThomasJeffersoneven
authorizedfortythousanddollarsandonethousandweaponssenttotheFrench
troopsinHaitiinordertopreservetheinstitutionofslavery32.Followingthe
successoftherevolution,theUnitedStatesbannedtheimportationofHaitiangoods
andimmigrationofHaitiansinordertopreventarevolutiononAmericansoil33.
EconomicsanctionsandlackofeconomicaidfurtherharmedHaiti’sinitial
reconstructioneffortsfollowingitseconomicself‐destruction.Followingtheir
discriminatorypracticesagainsttheHaitianstate,theUnitedStatesdeniedHaiti
recognitionasasovereignnationuntil1862,fifty‐nineyearsfollowingactual
independencefromFrenchandSpanishrule34.
Haiti’spariahstatuswithintheglobalcommunityfurthercomplicated
internalreconstructioninapost‐slaverysociety,whichpresentedproblemsinand
ofitself.Toussaintbelievedthateducationwasessentialandrefutedtheclaimthat
blacksshouldbe“classedapartfromtherestofmankind”35.Thisideologyissimilar
toBookerTWashington’stheoriesthatblacksshouldbeexposedtoanindustrial
educationratherthenanintellectualeducation:
Atthebottomofeducation,atthebottomofpolitics,evenatthebottomofreligion,theremustbeforourraceeconomicindependence.
BothWashingtonandToussaintareabletorecognizethatintheshort‐term,an
intellectualeducationcannotbetheprimaryconcernifastablenationistobebuilt.
Whiletheimportanceofanindustrialeducationwasmuchmorevitaltothe
32Ibid.,pp.24‐2733Matthewson,p.6234Ibid.,p.6235Pluchon,ToussaintLouverture.Paris.1989.pp.263‐268
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reconstructionandviabilityofHaitiasamautonomousnation,theUnitedStateswas
stilllargelyagriculturalduringWashington’slife.
TheEffectoftheRevolutiononOtherSlaveBasedNations
Haiti’spariahstatusbegsthequestionofwhethertherevolutionreallywasastepin
therightdirectiontowardemancipation.Historicallyspeaking,Haitiastheworld’s
firstblackrepublichasbeenacatastrophicfailure,turningwhatwasoncea
lucrativeandgrowingcolonialpossessionunderFrenchrule(commonlyreferredto
as“thecrownjeweloftheirempire”duringtheperiod)intooneofthemost
backwardnationsinthemodernworld.TheprecedentsetbytheHaitianrevolution
onlyfurtheredtheracistbeliefsthatblackscouldnotfunctionsufficientlyontheir
own.HadtheHaitianrevolutionresultedinastrongandcentralizedgovernmentit
isunquestionablethatotherslavecountrieswouldhavefollowedsuitwithslaves
violentlyrevoltingforindependenceinsimilarfashiontothatoftheHaitians.In
responsetothefailuresoftheHaitianRevolution,DavidWalkerclaimsinhis
“AppealtotheColouredCitizensoftheWorld”thatblacks,“havetoprovetothe
Americansandtheworld,thatweareMEN,andnotbrutes,aswehavebeen
represented,andbymillionstreated(line254‐256).”Toussaintseemedtosubscribe
toasimilarphilosophy,evidencedthroughhispoliciesintendedtoforce“freed”
blacksbacktoworkingtheirplantations36.InToussaint’sForcedLaborDecreeof
1800hestates:
Youwilleasilyconceive,Citizens,thatAgricultureisthesupportofGovernment;sinceitisthefoundationofCommerceandwealth,thesourceofArts
36Dubois,Laurent.AvengersoftheNewWorld:TheStoryoftheHaitianRevolution.Cambridge,London:HarvardUniversityPress.p.177
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andindustry,itkeepseverybodyemployed,asbeingthemechanismofallTrades.And,fromthemomentthateveryindividualbecomesuseful,itcreatespublictranquility;disturbancesdisappeartogetherwithidleness,bywhichtheyarecommonlygenerated,andeveryonepeaceablyenjoysthefruitsofhisindustry….Whereas,sincetherevolution,laborersofbothsexes,thentooyoungtobeemployedinthefield,refusetogotoitnowunderpretextoffreedom,spendtheirtimeinwanderingabout,andgiveabadexampletotheothercultivators;while,ontheotherhand,thegenerals,officers,subalterns,andsoldiers,areinastateofconstantactivitytomaintainthesacredrightsofthepeople….FollowingtherevolutioninHaiti,manyslavesfeltthattheynolongerneededto
workhardorworkatallinsomecases.ToussaintandWalkerrealizedthatalthough
blackshaveproventhemselvesasabletowork,throughtheiryearsofslavelabour
onplantations,theymustnowprovethemselvesasabletoworkwhilefreeand
equal.Slaveryandfreedomaretwopolaroppositesthatrequireradicallydifferent
workethics.It’sindisputablethatslavesknewhowtowork,astheirworkethicis
clearlydemonstratedthroughtheiryearsofslavelabour.However,oncefreeone
hastoweightheopportunitycostofleisuretimeagainstthatofwork.Blackslaves
simplyhadnotencounteredsuchanideabeforeand,inHaiti’scase,thismeant
manyblackschosenottowork.ThischallengeledToussainttoinstitutinghis
mandatorylabourlaws.WhileWalkermaynothavesupportedasimilarsystemin
theUS,theHaitianeconomywassolelybasedonagriculturewhereasintheUSthere
wasatleastsomedegreeofindustrializationthatblackscouldpotentiallybecome
involvedin.
RejectionofaPurelyRacialRevolution
OthernationsheldthecommonperceptionthattheHaitianRevolutionwas
purelyaracialstruggle.Whilethiswouldhavehadmoredrasticimplicationson
otherslaveholdingnations,thisviewshouldbedisregarded.Attheoutsetofthe
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revolutiontherewereblackslaveswhofoughtonbehalfofwhiteplantationowners
andtheKingofFrance37.SomeEuropeansalsosupportedrevolutionarysentiment
inHaiti.TheAmisdeNoirs(literallytranslatingtoFriendsoftheBlacks)brought
revolutionarytextstoHaiti;theDeclarationoftheRightsofManwhichhailedfrom
theFrenchRevolutionclearlystatedinthefirstarticlethat“Menarebornand
remainfreeandequalinrights”,aconceptwhichprovedtobeespecially
incendiary38.VariousotherarticlesoftheConstitutionasserttheequalityofmenin
allaspects.TherewasalsothewarofexterminationwagedbetweenMulattoesand
blackslavestoconsider.HaitianMulattoes,ofbothwhiteEuropeanandblack
Africanlineage,wereoftenwelleducatedandwealthy39.Aswascommonwithinthe
UnitedStates,whitesweregenerallymoreacceptingofblackswhoappearedmore
white.Mulattoesconsequentlyweregrantedmoreopportunitiestoattendschool
andobtainbetterjobsthendarkerblacks.ManyMulattoeswereconsideredfree
citizensandsomeevenheldslaves40.Theynormallyassociatedthemselveswiththe
Frenchgovernmentandsupportedthesuppressionofslaveinsurrectionsasthese
insurrectionsthreatenedthepowerandsocialhierarchyinwhichMulattoeshad
establishedthemselvesassuperiortoblacks41.TheMulattoesandblackslaves
slaughteredoneanotherinadesperatepowerstruggle;theblackslavesfoughtfor
freedomwhiletheMulattoesfoughttomaintaintheirstatusandprivileges42.
Duringtherevolution,LouvertureappointedJean‐JacquesDessalinestopacifythe37Chin,p.4238Ibid.,p.4339Ibid.,p.3840Ibid.,p.3841Ibid.,p.3842Ibid.,p.39
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South(wheremanyMulattoeswereinvolvedinresistance)43.Dessalinessoughtto
eradicatetheMulattoes,provokingToussainttoremark,“Ididnotwantthis!Itold
himtoprunethetree,nottouprootit.44”Toussaintclearlydidn’tdesirebloodand
retributiononMulattoeinsurgentsasmuchashedesired,“LibertyandEqualityto
reigninSaint‐Domingue.Iwanttobring[thatstate]intoexistence.45”These
discrepanciesagainstthecommonperceptionoftherevolutionassimplyaracial
struggle,shedanewlightontheHaitianRevolution,asnotarevolutionpurely
basedonrace,butratherarevolutionofequality,orinequalityinthewhiteand
Mulattoecase,bothpoliticallyandeconomically.Therevolutionwaspropelledby
theHaitianmass(composedprimarilyoftheroughlythreehundredandfifty
thousandslaves),whichdidnotdiscriminatebetweenfreeblacks,whosupported
thesuppressionofslaves’rights,andtheirwhitecounterparts.Bothgroupswere
equallyresponsiblefortheiroppressioninblackHaitian’seyes.Haitialsoardently
supportedtheemancipationofallslavesunderthecontrolofthemajorcolonial
powersonaglobalscale.HaiticontributedsuppliesandfundstoSouthAmerica’s
revolutionfromSpanishcontrolwhileHaitiwasstillinruinsandblockadedby
Frenchforces46.Thisaction,whileleadingtotheliberationofhalfthenationsof
SouthAmerica,precludedrelationswithSpain47.WithHaiti’spariahstatuswithin
theglobalcommunitytheycouldhaveusedthesupportfromandbenefitsoftrade
withasuper‐powersuchasSpain.Therefore,Haitian’s(includingToussaint)must
43Corbett.Pp.34‐4844Ibid.45Dubois.P.18446Chin,p.20747Ibid.,p.208
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havebelievedthatlibertyandequalityweremorevaluablethenbeneficialrelations
withSpain.
RoleofReligion
Asreligionsupportsthebasisoftherevolution,freedomandequality,the
roleofreligioninspurringrevolution,bothwithinHaitiandwithintheUnited
States,cannotbeunderstated.Clearly,inHaiti’scasereligionwasanintegralaspect
ofsociety.TherevolutionistracedtotheVoodooleduprisingbyBoukmanand
whileToussianthimselfdidnotbelieveinVoodoopractices(hewasinfacta
Catholichimself)hecontinuedtorefertoVoodooconceptssuchthe“Supreme
Being”inhisProclamation.TheconceptofasupremebeingisverymuchaHaitian
concept,althoughitwouldalsoappealtoChristians,bothwithinandoutsideof
Haiti.The“SupremeBeing”canfunctioneitherasaChristfigurewithinCatholicism
orasamonotheisticgodwithinHaitianvoodoo.Ifnothingmore,Toussaint
leveragedtheVoodooreligionofHaititohispoliticalendsbymakinghimselfseem
asHaitianaspossible.WithoutToussaint’smasterfuluseofsyncretismhewould
otherwisebeastrangechoiceasablackrevolutionaryofthepeople.Hewasnota
commonslaverlaborer…instead;hewasacoachmantoaplantationowner.As
such,Toussaintwasrespectedwithinthewhitecommunityandenviedwithinthe
blackcommunity.Toussaintheldastationofstatusandhadsomewhatofan
educationthroughtheproselytizingJesuits,priortotheirexpulsion,fromHaiti.
ToussaintalsobecamesomewhatreveredwithintheVoodoosocietyduetohis
knowledgeofherbalismthatwaspassedonfromhisfather.PracticingVoodooitself
wasaresistancetoslavery.TheFrenchoutlawedVoodooservicesastheywere
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frightenedbythemusic,dancing,andceremoniesperformedunderVoodoo.Despite
VoodoobeingoutlawedmanyHaitianscontinuedtopracticeVoodooasdirect
defiancetotheirstateofservitude.Voodoosupportsthattherearevariousspirits,
goodandevilbeingtwoofthesespirits,whichareabletopossesspeople.Perhaps
theVoodoopracticingHaitiansbelievedtheywerecastingouttheevilspiritsofthe
whitementhroughtheirstruggleagainstslavery.
Christianity can be argued to be either pro-slavery or anti-slavery. The Bible
sanctions the practice of slavery and states numerous accounts of slavery during biblical
times. In Genesis of the Old Testament slavery is attributed to Cain:
CursedbeCanaan!Thelowestofslaveswillhebetohisbrothers.Healsosaid,'BlessedbetheLord,theGodofShem!MayCanaanbetheslaveofShem.
ItwasbelievedthattheCanaanitessettledinAfricaandthereforetheirdecedents
weretheblackinhabitantsofAfrica.Christianbasedcivilizationsupuntilthe
nineteenthcenturypracticedslaveryandsociallyitwasacceptable,even
commonplace.Withtheenlightenmenttherewasrenewedinterestinphilosophy,
particularlyepistemology.Theshiftfromclassicalsuperstitiousandintolerant
thoughttopost‐enlightenmentthought,whichquestionedtraditionalinstitutions
andmorals,broughtchangeswithinthechurchandstate.Statesecularismbeganto
gaininfluenceandthereligiousjustificationofcertaininstitutionsandmoralswere
nolongerleftunquestionable.
Therevolutionaryeraexhibitsthedramaticshiftinthinking,withinthe
citizensofvariousnationsoftheworld,whichresultedfromtheEnlightenment.
Withtheoften‐violentchangedemandingthatstatethoughtshifttowardpolitical
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andeconomicfreedomandequalitysotodidasimilarchangeinreligiousthought
occur.TheChurch’sfocusonoldtestamentthoughtwhichpreachedideasofslavery
andalessforgivinggodshiftedtothenewtestamentemphasisonhowGodis
forgiving,aviewmuchmorecompatiblewithpost‐Enlightenmentthought.While
therewereandarestillpeoplewhoarguethatChristianitysupportsslaverythe
majoritywouldarguethatChristianitynolongersupportsslaverybutrather
promotesuniversalequalityandfreedom.WithinAmericaChristianitywasthe
predominantreligion.WhiletheSouthwouldoftenpreachthatChristianity
supportedslavery,theNorthwasdoingtheexactopposite.Thisshowsthatreligion
didnotplayasmuchofaroleinAmerica’srevolutionasitdidinHaiti’sbutitwas
definitelyanintegralcontributiontorevolutionarythought.
Thus,onemightwonderifHaiti’srevolutionwasastepintherightdirection,
notonlyforHaitianindependencebutalsofortheperceptionofblacksworldwide.
DuringtherevolutionthevoodooleaderDuttyBoukmanstated,“Listentothevoice
ofliberty,whichspeaksintheheartsofusall.48”Itwasinemotionratherthanlogic
thattherevolutionoriginated.Boukmanandhisfollowersfailedtoperceivethe
challengesthatwouldlieaheadforafreeblackrepublic.Therefore,therevolution
wassuccessfulintermsofprocuringtheidealoffreedom:freedomfromFrench
oppressionintheformofslavery;butpracticallyspeakingfreedomcameatasteep
price.
48Corbett,Robert."HaitiandItsDiaspora."Haitimailinglist.24Oct.1999.8Oct.2006<http://www.websterfl.edu/~corbetre/haiti‐archive/msg00868.html>.
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TheRealistCycle
By:RichardBenjaminBloomfield
Realistsviewinternationalpoliticsasastateofwarbecauseoftheir
beliefinrealistcycle.Therealistcycleconsistsofnaturalconflictinherentinastate
ofwarwhichleadstotheformationofalliancestodefeatcommonadversaries,then
abetrayalorcollapseofthesealliancesinthepursuitofselfinterestresultsina
returntoconflict.Threeconditionsmustbepresentfortherealistcycle.These
conditionsarethelackofacentralauthoritytopreventwar,thefeargeneratedfrom
thepowerofothersandthenatureofsovereign’sdecisionmaking.Thesethree
circumstancesresultinacontinualcircutofcombat.Thispaperwillpresentand
analyzetheideasofHobbes,MachiavelliandThucydidesinordertoexplainthis
cycleandhowitresultsinaperpetualstateofwar.
Hobbes’Leviathanwillbeusedtoaddressthestructuralcausationofthe
stateofwar,Machiavelli’sThePrincewilldescribethenatureofleadersandtheir
impactoninternationalpolitics.Thucydides’HistoryofThePeloponnesianWar
illustrateshowthefearofarelativeriseinpowerofacommonthreatwillcause
actorstoformalliancesandfight.WewilluseMachiavelli’sprincipalityastheterm
foractorsontheinternationalstageforsimplicity’ssakeandbecauseinrealist
thinking,thenatureofacountry’sgovernanceandcompositiondoesnotchangethe
wayitbehavesinternationally.
Hobbesdoesnotdescribethestateofwarasdirectmilitaryconfrontation,it
isinsteadtheconditioninwhichthe“willtocontendbybattleissufficiently
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known”(Hobbes88).Thisconditionisperpetualsolongasprincipalitiesmaintain
thedispositiontofighteachother.Theonlythingthatmayalterthisstateofwar
andkeepprincipalitiesoutofconflictisthepresenceof“acommonpowertokeep
themallinawe”(88).Aprincipalitymayerectacommonpowerdomesticallyand
ceaseanarchyinternallybutnosuchabsoluteauthorityexistsintheinternational
realm.Iftheonlythingthatmaychangeastateofwartoastateofpeaceisthe
presenceofacommonpowerandnosuchpowerexistsinternationallythen
principalitiesmustinteractinaconstantstateofwar.Inthisstateofwareach
principalityisconcernedforitsownsurvivalandmustactitinitsowninterest.
EveryPrincipalityispittedagainstalltherestinastruggletoassureitscontinued
existence.Inthisanarchicalstateeachprincipalitymustrelyonitsownforceof
armsfordefenseandaggrandizement;howeverwhenprincipalitiesarepresented
withacommonthreatorinteresttheymightformconfederationsor
alliances(Hobbes102).
ThucydidesportraystheHellenicworldasbeingalmostentirelydivided
betweenthePeloponnesianleagueledbySpartaandtheDelianLeagueledby
Athens(Thucydides35).Nohierarchicalpowerreignsoverthesegroupswhich
mightpreventconflicttherefore,theyareinastateofwar.Whenhostilitiesemerge
betweenCorinthandCorcyra,thelatterseeksoutanalliancewiththeAtheniansin
hopetheirsupportwillgiveCorcyraadecisiveadvantage.TheAtheniansentertain
thisalliancewithCorcyrabecausethecombinationoftheirnavieswouldmakethe
Athenianalliance“thegreatestnavalpowerinHellas”(55).TheAthenianscommit
themselvesonthesideoftheCorcyrabecauseitisintheirself‐interesttobemore
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powerfulinrelationtotheSpartans.AccordingtoThucydides,thisupsetinthe
balanceofpowercausedfearinSpartaandthusmadewarinevitable(49).
Thiscourseofeventsisrepresentativeoftherealistviewofinternational
politicsasastateofwarbecauseeachactorismakingdecisionsmotivatedbythe
desiretoincreaseitsrelativestrengthcomparedtoadversariesinordertosave
itselffrombeingconquered.Warisunavoidablebecauseitistheonlywayeachside
mayassureitscontinuedexistence.Thismarksthestartoftherealistcycle.Ina
stateofwarprincipalitiesmustallywithothersorfaceobliterationwhenfacedwith
acommonandexistentialthreat.Thesealliancesmustbeinbothactor’sself
interestwhichinastateofwarconsistsofmutualstrategicadvantage.The
necessityofamutuallybeneficialallianceinastateofwarisprovenbythecaseof
theMelians.
TheMeliansremainedneutraluntiltheywereattackedbyAthenswhothen
offeredthemthechancetosurrenderorfacedestruction(400‐402).TheMelians
refusedtosurrenderbecausetheybelievedtheirtiesofkinshiptoSparta(the
MelianswereaSpartancolony)wouldcausethePeloponnesianleaguetorushto
theirdefense.Thiswasnotthecase,theSpartanswereunwillingtoexpendtheir
forces,andtheMelianswereannihilatedbyAthens(408).
Whenprincipalitiesarealliedtogethertheydonotfighteachothersowhat
preventsanalliancefromexpandingtoincludeeveryprincipalitywhilepersisting
indefinitelyandtherebyliftingtheworldoutofastateofwar?Hobbesbelievesthat
onceavictoryagainstamutualenemyisobtainedcommoninterestsdissolveamong
alliesandtheyfallintowaramongstthemselves(119).
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Thisdissolutionisalsoduetothenatureofasovereign'sdecisionmaking.
Sovereignsbecomejealousandfearfuloftheiralliesbecause“whoeveris
responsibleforanotherbecomingpowerfulruinshimself”(Machiavelli15).Each
sovereign’sown“ambitionsandrivalries”(15)ruinthechanceofanallianceexisting
aftertheeliminationofacommonthreat.Thismustoccurbecause“menare
continuallyincompetitionforhonoranddignity”incomparisontootherrulersand
can“relishnothingbutwhatiseminent”(Hobbes119).Machiavellibelieves
principalitiesmustjudgethemselvesbytheirabilitytostandaloneand“assemble
anarmyequaltoanencounterwithanyaggressor”(36)includingtheirformerallies.
Healsobelievessovereignsmusttrainthemselvesexclusivelyintheartofwar(47).
Aconstantdesireforprestige,powerandcontrolonthepartofprincipalities
combinedwiththemilitantnatureofsovereignswillnotallowprincipalitiesto
remaininanallianceintheabsenceofacommonfear.Withoutmutuallybeneficial
alliancesprincipalitiesareagainpittedagainsteachotherinachaoticstateof
perpetualconflict.Thiscircuitofconflict,alliancecreationforvictoryinwar
followedbythecollapseofalliancesduetothenatureofsovereignswhichthen
leadstofurtherbattlesexplainswhyrealistsviewinternationalpoliticsasa
perpetualstateofwar.Wheninternationalrelationsareexplainedwiththerealist
cycleitbecomesapparentthatprincipalitieswillfightwitheachothersolongas
thereisnohigherauthoritystoppingthemfromdoingso.Thepresenceofthe
realistcycleresultsininternationalpoliticsbeingviewedasastateofwarbecause
thereisnoalternativetoeternalconflict.
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Itisdifficultnottoviewinternationalpoliticsfromtherealistperspectivefor
severalreasons.Evenifthesovereignofaprincipalityisnotmilitaristicandjudges
thequalityofhis/herterritorybystandardsotherthanmilitarystrengthhe/she
cannotpresumeothersdoandmustmaintainasufficientarmyfordefense.This
willnotworkbecauseifasovereignknowsanotheronlymaintainsaminimal
militaryitwillbeinclinedtoraisealargeforceorenteranalliancewithanother
principalityandconquertheweakterritory.Adefensiveallianceinwhich
principalitiespledgetodefendoneanotherincaseofaggressiondoesnotprevent
conflicteitherbecausenothingcanstopasovereignfromtakingadvantageofan
ally’svulnerabilityandattackingit.Thesepossibilitiesmeanallalliancesare
temporaryandcanonlyexistinthepresenceofacommonenemy,whichreturnsus
totherealistcycleandthestateofwar.Apossiblesolutionforceasingconflictand
therebyendingthestateofwarisasysteminwhicheachprincipalitymakesa
bilateraldefensivealliancewitheveryotherprincipalityintheworld.Inthissystem
nobodycangotowarbecauseallotherprincipalitieswouldbeboundtodefendthe
attackedprincipality.Thissystemwouldresultinmilitarygridlockbecauseno
principalitycouldattackanotherwiththehopeofsuccess.
Therealistperspectiveisverydifficulttoargueagainstbecauseitisbasedon
premises,whichareverypessimisticinnatureanddifficulttodiscount.If
principalitiesalwaysseektofurthertheirambitionsmilitarilytherealistcycle
becomesaselffulfillingprophecy.Aslongasprincipalitieseitheractthiswayor
believeothersdoso,itisimpossibletotranscendthestateofwar.Therealist
interpretationofinternationalpoliticsisrootedinparanoiaandunfetteredambition
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36
andsolongasnothingpreventsprincipalitiesfromachievingtheirdesiresby
militaryforcetherealistcyclewillremainperpetualandinternationalpoliticswill
beastateofwar.
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