the globe: spring 2010 1st edition

The Globe: World News From All Sides

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World News from all Sides

Spring 2010—Issue One

TheMoscowSummitof1949‐1950ByJoshuaLasky

TheSunWillNeverSetonthePersianEmpireByJeremyIloulian

Bu

ParallelsbetweentheHaitianRevolutionandtheAmericanAnti‐SlaveryMovementByLucasDivine

TheRealistCycleByRichardBenjaminBloomfield


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

LetterfromtheEditor……………………………………………………………………………………3

TheMoscowSummitof1949‐1950……………………………………………………………4‐12ByJoshuaLaskyTheSunWillNeverSetonthePersianEmpire………………………………………….12‐18ByJeremyIloulianParallelsBetweentheHaitianRevolutionTheAmericanAnti‐SlaveryMovement……………………………………………………..18‐30ByLucasDivineTheRealistCycle……………………………………………………………………………………..31‐36ByRichardBenjaminBloomfield

COPYRIGHTED 2010 ©

Copyright©2010,[TheGlobe].Unlessotherwisenoted.Allrightsreserved.Reproductionofanycontent,inwholeorinpart,withouttheexpresspermissionoftheChairmanoftheInternationalAffairsSocietyisstrictlyprohibited.Violationsaresubjecttolegalaction.TheGlobeisaproductionoftheInternationalAffairsSocietyandisaregisteredstudentorganizationofTheGeorgeWashingtonUniversityinWashington,D.C.Theviewsexpressedinthispublicationarethoseoftheauthors,andnotnecessarilythoseofTheGeorgeWashingtonUniversity,itsentities,ortheInternationalAffairsSociety.


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LETTERFROMTHEEDITOR

DearReaders:

IamproudtopresentthethirdeditionoftheTheGlobe:WorldNewsfromAllSidesforthe2009‐2010academicyear.TheGlobeistheonlyundergraduateacademicjournalattheGeorgeWashingtonUniversitydevotedsolelytoInternationalAffairs.TheGlobeisanamazingopportunityforInternationalAffairsSocietymembers,ElliotSchoolstudents,andthoseinterestedininternationalaffairstopublishtheiracademicpapersandarticlesinaprofessionalmanner.Morethanthat,itisanopportunitytoopendiscussion,publishideasandtothinkandwritecriticallyonworldissues.

TheGlobeanditssubmissionsaredrawnfrommanydifferentareasofinterestwithininternationalaffairsfromeconomics,topolitics,tointerdisciplinarydiscussions.Thiseditionisnoexceptionandwitheveryissue,wehopetobringourreadersnewoutlooksonInternationalAffairsadiscipline.

EnjoythisSpringonlineedition,aculminationofthebestsubmissionsreceivedthroughoutthesemester,andlookoutforourSpringprinteditioncomingsoon!

Cheers,

LaurenJacobsonEditor‐In‐Chief

AssistantEditors:JustinSnyderNabeelaMalikJeffRichards


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TheMoscowSummitof19491950TheHistoricalViewpointversustheContemporaryViewpoint

By:JoshuaLasky

DuringtheperiodoftimeimmediatelyfollowingtheendoftheChineseCivil

War,byallappearancestherewasagreatblowtotheWesternworldasaresultof

thealliancebetweentheSovietUnionandChina.Meetingforthefirst,andasit

turnsoutonly,timeatthissummitinMoscow,JosephStalinandMaoZedong

appearedtopresentaunitedCommunistfrontagainsttheforcesledbytheUnited

States.However,behindthescenes,therelationshipbetweenStalinandMaowas

notcompletelyharmonious.Eachofthemheldtheirownideasforwhatthe

vanguardofCommunismshouldbe.Thesedifferencesplayedoutintheprivate

talksheldinMoscowtowardstheendof1949andthebeginningof1950.An

averagefollowerofColdWartensionsmaynothavebeenabletopickupwellon

thesecracksinthefacade;however,acarefulexaminerofnewspaperarticles

emergingatthetimemayhavebeenabletoseeaglimpseofthetruerelationship

betweenStalinandMao.

ThemeetingbetweenthetwoleadersinDecemberof1949wasprimarily

heldinordertofigureoutthefuturepathforChinaandhowtheSovietUnioncould

aidinitsprogress.Earlierthatyear,therehadbeendiscreetstrugglesbetween

StalinandMaoregardingtheiruniquepartnership.Thiscanbeobservedinthe

telegramssentbetweenStalinandMaoinJanuary1949inresponsetotheNanjing

government'spleatotheWestandtheUSSRformediationintheChineseCivilWar.


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TheCommunistshadwonseveralhighprofilemilitaryvictoriesandappearedtobe

onthevergeoftakingChinaforgood.Intelegramsdatedonthe10thand11thof

JanuaryStalinnotifiedMaooftherequestsforaidsentoutbyNanjingandsuggested

thatthetwosidesaimtowardsseemingtodesiredirectnegotiationsbetweenthe

CommunistsandtheGuomindangbutmaketherequirementsforpeacetalksso

stringentthattheywouldneveragreetositdownforthem.AsStalinputsit,"our

draftofyourreplytotheGuomindangproposalisaimedattheunderminingofthe

peacenegotiations.Clearly,theGuomindangwouldnotagreetopeacenegotiations

withoutforeignpowers’mediation,especiallythatoftheUSA.Itisalsoclearthatthe

GuomindangwillnotagreetonegotiatewithouttheparticipationofJiangJieshi

[ChiangKaishek]andotherwarcriminals.Weassumethereforethatthe

GuomindangwouldrejectpeacenegotiationsonCCPterms."1Therealsurpriseto

StalinistheresponsefromMaobeinghostileratherthanreceptive.Maodictatesa

SovietresponseinhistelegramfromJanuary13ththatwouldhaveStalindenounce

anyattemptsforforeignmediationintheChineseCivilWar,anactionwhichwould

puttheUSSRatoddswiththeUnitedStates.Maotookthepositionthatvictorywas

almostinsight,whatwouldthepointbeininvitingthepossibilityofpeaceatthat

pointintheconflict?Maonotesthat,"iftheUSSRinitsreplytothenotebythe

NanjinggovernmentwilltakethepositionoutlinedinyourtelegramofJanuary10,it

wouldmaketheUSA,EnglandandFranceassumethatparticipatinginmediationis

anappropriatething,andgivetheGuomindangapretextforscoldingusaswarlike

1"StalintoMaoZedong,11January1949."CWIHP.http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/pubs/ACF1A4.pdf


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elements."2Thatis,iftheSovietUnionevenhintedatsupportingamediatedendto

theChineseCivilWar,therestofthegreatpowerswouldinstantlysupporttheidea.

MaoverymuchdesiredtheunconditionalsurrenderoftheGuomindangforcesand

didnotwanttorisktotalvictoryoverapoliticalmaneuver.Hesummarizedby

notingthat,"weareinclinedtowardsrejectingthepeacedeceptionbythe

Guomindangwithfullrighteousness,becausenow,asthebalanceofclassforcesin

Chinahasalreadychangedirreversiblyandtheinternationalopinionisalso

unfavourabletotheNanjinggovernment,thePLAwillbeabletocrosstheYangzi

thissummerandstarttheoffensivetowardsNanjing.Itlookslikewedonothaveto

makeonemorepoliticaldetour.Inthepresentsituationthismaneuverwouldbe

damagingratherthanbeneficial."AfterreceivingthisresponseStalinbacktracked

significantly,eventuallycavingintotheresponsecreatedbyMaofortheSoviet

responsetotheGuomindangpeaceproposal.Totheoutsideobserver,someone

whohadjustreadthestatementprovidedbySovietUnion,itseemedthattheir

governmenthadalwaysbeenonthesideofrejectingtheproposalforoutside

mediation;indeed,thefourgreatpowerstogetherdeclinedtoparticipateinany

suchmediationaroundthesametime.3However,inreality,Maomadeashocking

rejectionofSovietinterventionintheChineseCivilWar.Comparedtotheservility

oftheleadersoftheSovietUnion'seasternEuropeansatellites,Maoappearedto

makeaconcertedefforttobeseenas,attheveryleast,ajuniorpartnerinthe

2"MaoZedongtoStalin,13January1949."CWIHP.http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/pubs/ACF1A4.pdf3"U.S.,BRITAINSAIDTOBARCHINA'SBID."NewYorkTimes(1857Currentfile);Jan15,1949;ProQuestHistoricalNewspapersTheNewYorkTimes(1851‐2005).pg.4.


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Communistmovement.ThisthemewouldreturninfuturemeetingsbetweenSoviet

andChineseleaderslaterthatyearintheMoscowsummit.

InDecember1949MaoarrivedinMoscowforacelebrationofStalin's

seventiethbirthday,aconvenientexcusetoholdtalksrelatedtothefurtheringof

Soviet‐Chinesetiesintheformofaformaltreatyoffriendship.Theheadlines

proclaimedwarmreceptionsfortheChineseleaderandnothingbutpraisefrom

MaotoStalin.Undertheblanketofthemediacoveragethingslookedsomewhat

different.InthesetalkstherewaslimiteddisagreementbetweenMaoandStalinon

afewdifferenttopicsincludingapossibletreatyoffriendshipandwhattodo

regardingtheNationalistfortificationofFormosa.AttheDecembermeeting,Stalin

voicedaconcernregardingalteringanyoftheprovisionssetforthundertheYalta

Agreement,particularlyregardingthestatusofSovietsoldiersstationedatPort

Arthur,remindingMaothat,"sinceachangeinevenonepointcouldgiveAmerica

andEnglandthelegalgroundstoraisequestionsaboutmodifyingalsothetreaty’s

provisionsconcerningtheKurileIslands,SouthSakhalin,etc."4Understandably,

MaoZedongwassomewhatwaryofproceedingforwardunderanagreement,which

hadbeenmadebeforehisgovernmenthadevencometopower.However,Stalin

wasforthetimeabletoconvinceMaothatinformalagreementsthatwouldnotalter

theletteroftheYaltaAccordswerethebestwaytonotarousetheireoftheWest.

Forexample,theSovietUnionwouldretainthewrittenrighttostationforcesatPort

Arthurfortheremainderofthethirty‐yearlease;however,aninformalagreement

4"ConversationbetweenStalinandMao,Moscow,16December1949."CWIHP.http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/pubs/ACF1A4.pdf.Pg5.


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couldhaveRussiantroopsleaveassoonasfiveyearsdowntheline.Secondly,Mao

wassomewhatconcernedaboutthePLA'sinabilitytostrikeattheremaining

GuomindangforcesthathadestablishedthemselvesontheislandofFormosa,now

knownasTaiwan.HedesiredthattheSovietUnionprovidehimwithdirectand

indirectmeanstoinvadetheislandandendthecivilwaronceandforall.Stalin

hesitatedtodothis,arguingthat"whatismostimportanthereisnottogive

Americansapretexttointervene."AtthetimethiswouldlikelyhavefrustratedMao

because,inhismind,theSovietUnionclearlyhadthemeanstoprovidehimthe

shipsandtrainingnecessarytocarryouttheoperation,yetwereunwillingtodoso.

Atthesametimeasallofthesediscussionsweretakingplace,theNewYorkTimes

publishedarticleshighlightingtheboastsoftheRussianandChinesepress.Such

statementsincludeaquotefromthePeople'sDailyfeaturingMaoremarkingthat,

"theChinesepeoplecanmakeunitingwiththeSovietUniontheirownbasicpolicy."5

Also,theTimesdeclared,againreferringtoMao,thatitwouldbe,"moreandmore

difficultforhiswishfulapologistsinthiscountrytoclingtothetheorythathewill

somehowprovetobeaChineseTito."6Bytakingthesearticlesatfacevalue,one

wouldhavenoideaofthefundamentaldifferencesinopinionthatwouldlaterfuel

theSino‐Sovietsplit.However,inanarticlewrittenacoupledaysearlierinthe

WashingtonPost,APreporterJohnHightowerenvisionedcertaincracksinthe

5"CHINESECOMMUNISTCHIEFWELCOMEDINMOSCOW."NewYorkTimes(1857Currentfile);Dec19,1949;ProQuestHistoricalNewspapersTheNewYorkTimes(1851‐2005).pg.17.6"MAOMAKESHISPILGRIMAGE."NewYorkTimes(1857Currentfile);Dec18,1949;ProQuestHistoricalNewspapersTheNewYorkTimes(1851‐2005).pg.E8.


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friendshipbetweentheSovietUnionandChina.7TakingManchuriaastheprimary

issue,hearguedthattheRussianswerereluctanttogiveuptheirspecialrightsin

ChinafollowingthevictoryoftheCommunistforcesandthattheystillwanteda

specialzoneofinfluenceinManchuria.Inactuality,Manchuriawasanissuefor

whichMaowouldchafeunderStalin'srepeatedremarksontheissueintheirlater

meetinginJanuary.Articlessuchasthisonecorrectlypredictedtroublesinthe

relationshipbetweentheSovietUnionandChinagiventhemultitudeofissuesthat

wereonthetableatthetime.

MoretensionsaroseduringthisJanuary,1950meetingbetweenStalinand

Mao.Duringthismeeting,Stalincompletelyreversesthepositionhetookonthe

subjectofwritinganewtreatythatwouldgoagainsttheYaltaAccords.Infact,he

goesasfarastosaythat,"itdoes—andtohellwithit!Oncewehavetakenupthe

positionthatthetreatiesmustbechanged,wemustgoalltheway."8Needlessto

saythiscameasquitethesurprisetoMaowhoquicklyagreedwithStalin's

magnanimousdecisionbeforetheSovietleadercouldchangehismindoncemore.

Followingthispoint,certaindisagreementsbegantoemerge.Firstofall,regarding

theadministrationofKChZhD(ChineseChangchunRailroad),theChinese

governmentwantedamajoritystakewhiletheSovietswantedtosplititevenlyas

theyhaddoneintheirothersatellitestates.ThisappearstobeMao'sfirstattempt

togainsomesovereigntyfromtheSovietsinrelationtotheirdomesticaffairs.

7Hightower,JohnM."Stalin‐MaoRiftHintedOverControlInManchuria."TheWashingtonPost(18771954);Dec18,1949;ProQuestHistoricalNewspapersTheWashingtonPost(1877‐1992).pg.M1.8"ConversationbetweenStalinandMao,Moscow,January22,1950."CWIHP.http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/pubs/ACF1A4.pdf.Pg7.


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WhiletheyarebyallaccountsgratefultotheSovietgovernmentfortheiraid,the

lastthingontheiragendaistosimplybecomeanotherSovietsatellite.Thisissue

comesupagainwhenStalinrepeatedlybringsupthemattersofManchuriaand

Xinjiang;astheseareterritoriesofChina,itwouldbenaturalforMaotowonder

whatpositionStalinisinwherehemaytellChinawhattodowithinitsownborders.

ThisreiteratestheproblemsproposedbythePostarticlefromDecember1949.He

wouldalsohavetowonderbasedonStalin'squestionasto,"whatsortofasituation

weshouldlookforwardtointhefuture:willwebesigningseparateagreements

withXinjiang,Manchuriaandotherprovinces,orasingleagreementwiththe

centralgovernment?"FromMao'sperspective,Stalincouldbetreatingthese

provincesasiftheywerenotpartofChinaandcouldbeturnedintoSovietspheres

ofinfluence.Hewouldalsohavetowonderwhetherhewasbeingtreatedasan

equalallyorasubservientvassal.

Notsurprisingly,newssourceswerenotgettingalloftheinformation

regardingthesemeetingsbetweenSovietandChineseofficials.Forinstance,an

articlepublishedintheNewYorkTimesclaimedthatMaowasnotevenapartyto

thenegotiationsonthe22nddespitethefactthathewasoneofthemajorplayers.9

ItispossiblethatSovietsourcesplayeddownMao'sroleinordertoreducethe

mediaattentiononthenegotiationstakingplace.Ontheotherhand,theTimeswas

abletopickuponthefactthattherewassignificantbackandforthbargaininggoing

on,andnotallofitingoodhumor,indetailingtheseveralrequestsandcounter‐

9"STALINSEESCHOU;PACTMAYBETOPIC."NewYorkTimes(1857Currentfile);Jan23,1950;ProQuestHistoricalNewspapersTheNewYorkTimes(1851‐2005).pg.1.


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requestsmadebybothsides.Throughlookingatthenewsarticlesfromthistime

periodwithoutthemeetingnotesathand,itwouldbeeasyforAmericanstoassume

theworstfromthesemeetingsbetweenMaoandStalin.Certainarticlesdescribing

Maovowing,"afirmintentiontodisplaythestrongestsupportofStalinist

internationalpolicy,"wouldhaveshownworldwidereadersaclearpictureofa

unitedCommunistfront.10ConsideringthattheSovietUnionandChinacompriseda

significantshareofEuropeandAsiaitwouldhavebeendisastrousfortheWestif

thesetwocountrieshadbeenabletopartnersuccessfully.Thekeyinthis

discussionistheabilitytolookbeyondtheheadlines;bycarefullyobservingthe

dynamicbetweentheSovietandChineseleaders,itisclearthatthebeginningsof

resentmentarebrewing.BetweenStalin'sastonishmentearlierin1949astothe

brazenreplyofMaotohisadviceontheNanjingtelegramandMao'sbitternessover

havingtodiscussdomesticChineseissueswithanoutsider,Americanswouldhave

beenmuchmoreateasewiththisknowledgeonhand.Ontheotherhand,careful

readersofthesenewspaperarticleswouldhavebeenabletogatherthattherewere

significantnegotiationsgoingonbehindcloseddoorsandthataSino‐Sovietalliance

wasinrealityfarfromasurething.

Ultimately,thedepictionoftherelationshipbetweenJosephStalinandMao

Zedongisnotfundamentallydifferentbygoingthrougheitherthecontemporary

newssourcecoverageorthroughtherecordsoftheconversationsthemselves.

WhiletheinitialcracksthatledtotheSino‐Sovietsplitwerestartingtocomeinto

10"MAOMAKESHISPILGRIMAGE."NewYorkTimes(1857Currentfile);Dec18,1949;ProQuestHistoricalNewspapersTheNewYorkTimes(1851‐2005).pg.E8.


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placeduringthissummitmeeting,bothMaoandStalinwerestillstrivingtowardsa

goaloffriendshipbetweentheirtwocountries.Perhapsnotuntiltheearly‐1950's,

duringtheKoreanWar,wouldMaoandStalinbeginjockeyingforleadershipofthe

Communistmovementinearnest.Lookinghardenoughintothearticlesofthetime

period,itisindeedpossibletodiscernthattherecouldbeserioustensionsbetween

theSovietandChineseleaders,particularlyregardingtheirrelationshipwithinan

alliance.Asaresult,althoughtonon‐informedAmericansatthetimeaSino‐Soviet

alliancewouldhavelookedallbutinevitable,otherswouldhaveseenthepotential

fortroubleintheCommunistparadise.

TheSunWillNeverSetonthePersianEmpireBy:JeremyIloulian

Theyearis632.ImagineyouliveintheArabianPeninsula.Yourprophetthat

hastaughtyouandyourfamilymembersthesubmissionofGodhasjustpassedon

tobegreetedinheavenbyGod.Butoutofsufferingandmourningcomesagreat

timeforyourpeople.FortherestofyourlifetimenewsreturnstoMeccaonhowthe

Arabswinbattleafterbattle.Yourchildrenliveontothecreationofoneofthe

largestempires,theArabEmpire.Andthebestpartofallofthisisthatnotonlydo

thearmiesreturnwithmilitarysuccess,butreligioussuccesstoo.People

everywhereseemtobeconvertingtothisnewwonderfulreligionyoucallIslamand

theybegintoadoptyourhabitsasArabs.Everywherenewpeoplebegintocall

themselvesArabs.Exceptforone,oneancientkingdomthatfellintheeastseemsto


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converttoyourreligionbutdoesn’tlearntheholylanguageofArabicnorpractices

yourcustoms.Why?Whydoesthiscountrynotsubmittoyourculture,toyour

ways? ThecountrythattheArabswouldspeakofwouldlaterbeknownasthe

PersianEmpire.Andthatword,Empire,whichmeanssomuch,wouldbethereason

whyPersianeverbecameArab.

UntilmoderntimestheareaoflandthatwasbetweenIraqandAfghanistan

wasknownasPersia.ThemostsignificanteventtohappeninPersianhistorywas

thecomingofIslamandoftheArabinvaders.Islamistheyoungestmajorworld

religion.BythetimethatMuhammaddiedin632theonlyplaceunderIslamorArab

controlwastheArabianPeninsula.(ArabsandMuslimsarenotinterchangeablebut

untilthispointalltheMuslimswereArabs).Sotospreadthewordofthisgreat

religion,theArabswouldcontinuetoexpandtheirempire.From632to655the

Arabsexpandedthroughtheneareastandby750theArabshadconqueredSpainin

thewest,acrossNorthAfrica,intoEgypt,Syria,Iraq,Persia,andevenpartsof

centralAsia.WhentheArabscametoeachcountrytheywouldnotonlydefeatthe

armiesbutimposetheircultureandIslamaswell.

Withinthecontextofallglobalhistory,thecountriesthatmilitarilyhad

submittedtotheArabsalsosubmittedtotheirculture.InalecturethatBernard

Lewisgives(aprofessoratPrinceton)heexplainswhatchangedinthesecountries

withtheintroductionofIslamandArabism:“Thepreviouslanguageswere

forgotten,theidentitiesexpressedinthoselanguageswerereplaced,andtheancient

civilizationsofIraq,Syria,andEgyptgavewaytowhatwenowadayscalltheArab


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world.”11Persiawastheonlycountrythatdidnot.IranacceptedIslamasthenew

religionbutitneverbecameArabunlikeitsneighborsinthewest.

LewismakesacompellingargumentinhislectureaboutwhyIrandidnot

turnintoanotherArabstate:thatIranhadastrongsenseofnationalismwithin

herselfwhichhadbeenthereforalmosttwoandhalfmillennia.Themostimportant

pointtonoteisthatIranwasneverconqueredwiththeexceptionofAlexanderthe

GreatuntiltheArabs.ButeventhentheMacedoniancontrolandGreekideasonly

stayedthereforlessthan150years.AsLewispointsoutwhencomparedtoEgypt

orIraq,bothcountriesthathadthrivingcivilizations,Persiawasneverconquered.

BothEgyptandIraqhadbeenconqueredmultipletimesfromtheMacedonians,

Assyrians,Romans,andeventhePersiansthemselves.Thosecivilizationsdidnot

controltheirownkingdomforalmostentiremillennia.Iraq,Egypt,Syria,andthe

Maghreb(NorthAfricaminusEgypt)mostlikelyhadbecomeusedtothefactthat

newconquerorswouldcomeandgoandnewtraditionswouldtoo.Insomecasesif

aculturalheritagewasnotacceptedbythepeoplewhowereconquered,for

exampleCarthagewithRome,theentirecivilizationwasdestroyed.Sointheory

thosecountriesthatwereconqueredunderstoodthefactthatitwasbetterto

continuelivingthantonotswitchcultures.

AlsobecausePersiawasneverconqueredwiththeexceptionofAlexander,

shewouldhavebelievedherselftobeasuperpoweratthetimeoranEmpire.With

superpowerstatus(militarilyspeaking)thestatecreatesadominantcultureand

strongsenseofnationalism.WehaveseenthattobetruewiththeColdWarin

11Ibid,1.


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whichtheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionnotonlywerethestrongestbymilitary

measuresbutalsoledtheworldintwodifferentlifestyles.Persiawasacontender

withRome,whichhasbeenregardedasoneofthemostpowerfulempireseverin

Europeandtheworld.InahistoricaldatabasecalledADitstates,“Persiawasa

smallnationthatgrewtobetheworld'sfirstsuperpower”.12SobecausePersiawas

thefirstsuperpowertoexistithadobtainedalevelofstrengthnoothercountry

everhad!TohavePersiaunderstandthatcreatesanationalisticpridethatneither

EgyptnorIraqeverhadorwillhave.Justwithwordterminology,tocalloneselfan

Empirewouldcreateastrongsenseofnationalisticfever.Andtocreateevenmore

nationalismandpridePersiawasregardedasanEmpirenotjustbyherselfbut

othersinthepastandpresent.Bycreatingthissenseofnationalismevenwhenthe

Arabscameinandwonbymilitarymeans,thepeoplewouldnotsurrenderinterms

ofculture.InsteadthePersiansfoughtbackbykeepingtheirownsense.

Ifanything,IranactuallyinfluencedtheArabworldandIslamherselfthrough

cultural,spiritual,andpoliticalmeans.AsLewissays,“TheIraniancontributionto

thisnewIslamiccivilizationisofimmenseimportance.TheworkofIranianscanbe

seenineveryfieldofculturalendeavor.”13Lewisevengoesontoexplainthatanew

versionofIslamwasformedcalledIslam‐I‐Ajam,otherwiseknownasPersianIslam.

Forsometime,PersianIslamevenbecamethemoredominantofthetwodifferent

formsofIslamintermsofpoliticalpower.PersianIslamspreadtocentralAsia,

12"Persians."0AD.WildfireGames,6Nov.2004.Web.1Oct.2009.<http://wildfiregames.com/0ad/page.php?p=6360>.

13BernardLewis."IraninHistory."TelAvivUniversity,TelAviv.18Jan.1999.Lecture.


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India,andTurkey,whichthenbecametheOttomanEmpireandtheMughalEmpire.

SoatonepointyouhadthreeIslamicsuperpowers,Persia,theOttomanEmpire,and

theMughalEmpireandallthreeofthempracticedPersianIslam:“Thecenterofthe

IslamicworldwasunderTurkishandPersianstates,bothshapedbyIranian

culture”,onceEgyptwasconqueredbytheOttomansonlyArabiaandtheMaghreb

practicedArabianIslam.14Thissenseofnationalismalmostbecameacycle.Because

PersiahadsuchastrongnationalidentitybeforethecomingoftheArabstheywere

abletodiversifythemselvesfromtheArabinvadersandtheirversionofIslam.By

doingsothePersiansneverwouldassimilateintoArabsocietyandevenpushed

themselvesfurtheroutofthatworld.

Eventhelanguageitselfdidnotchangeunlikemanyotherlanguagesin

countriesthatfelltotheArabconquerors.AsLewispointsout,“AramaicisaSemitic

languagerelatedtoArabic,andthetransitionfromAramaictoArabicwasmuch

easierthanwouldhavebeenthetransitionfromPersian,anIndo‐European

language,toArabic.”15ForthetimePersianwassouniqueforMiddleEastern

languagesanditembodiedthatsenseofnationalismandempirethatPersianshad.

Additionally,Persianwassoembeddedintheculturethroughpoetryandliterature

thatitmadeithardforArabictoreplacethelanguageentirely.AndbecausePersian

wasembeddedinthecultureitdidnotcollapsetoArabicasonecanseewithCoptic

inEgypt.

14Ibid,2.15Ibid,2.


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ThefinalmajorpartthathadPersiamaintainasenseofnationalidentityand

EmpirewasacceptanceofShi’iteIslam.“IranhasbeenassociatedwithIslam,andin

themorerecentcenturieswithShi'iteIslam,whichsomehaveseenasan

expression,areappearanceofthePersiannationalgeniusinanIslamicdisguise.”16

ThisformofIslamwasbroughtundertheSafavidDynastyaswellasthetermIran

whichhasbecomepartofthemodernday.IranisoneoftheonlyShi’itestatestoday,

andatthetimeoftheSafavidDynastyPersiawastheonlyShi’itestate.Bymaking

herselfdifferentagainfromtheArabworldinwhichversionofIslamispracticed

(theArabworldprimarilyobservesSunniIslam)Persiaseparatesherselfandeven

couldassertthatsheisnowaPersianandaShi’iteEmpire.IdeaofaShi’iteEmpire

stillexiststoday.OneoftheentriesoftheTurkishJournalofInternationalRelations

states,“In2004Jordan’sKingAbdullah,anxiouslywarnedoftheprospectofa‘Shia

crescent’spanningIran,Iraq,Syria,andLebanon.”17Sothatnationalisticfever

becameevenstrongerwiththeacceptanceofShi’iteIslam.

Persia’scultureandnationalisticpridebecametoostrongfortheArabsto

overcome.Becauseofcenturiesofempire,adistinctlanguage,andtheadoptionof

newreligiousideals,theideaofbeingPersiannevercollapsedtotheArabworldas

Egypt,Syria,Iraq,andtheMaghrebwould.Persiabecamethefirstempiretoexist

andstillcontinuestodayasanimportantplayerinmodernpoliticsandtheMiddle

16Ibid,9.17AmirMHaji‐Yousefi"WhoseAgendaisServedbytheIdeaofaShiaCrescent?"Alternatives:TurkishJournalofInternationalRelations8.1(2007):1‐22.Spring2009.Web.23Sept.2009.<http://www.ciaonet.org/journals/tjir/v8i1/f_0016605_14357.pdf>.


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East,andintoday’sworld,itseemstobeIran,nottheArabs,thatdominatesthe

policiesandactionsoftheMiddleEast.

ParallelsBetweentheHaitianRevolutionandtheAmericanAntiSlaveryMovementBy:LucasDivine TheessayexploreshowthestruggleforfreedominHaitiinfluencedandwas

paralleledinAmerica’sstruggleagainstslavery,particularlywithinthecontextof

ToussaintL’Ouverture’stheoriesontherevolution.Theessaybeginswitha

discussionofearlyHaitianhistorytofosteranunderstandingofthismomentous

rebellion.Thenation’spariahstatusfromtheglobalcommunitythatinitially

followedtherevolutionisalsoanalyzedtounderstandtheimmediateglobal

responsetoHaiti’srevolution.ThisessayalsoexaminestheresponsesofAfrican

Americanpoliticalthinkers,totheHaitianRevolutionandToussaint.Ananalysisof

theinvolvedpartiesandtheirintentionsduringtherevolutionindicatethatthe

revolutionwasnotsimplyaracialrevolutionbutratherbasedonfreedomand

equality.TheroleofreligionwillbeexploredfrombothAmericanChristianand

HaitianVoodooperspectivestodetermineifthereisanycorrelationbetween

religionandrevolution.Inconclusion,thesuccessoftherevolutionwillbeanalyzed

intermsofbothpracticalityandtheideal.


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Background

Haitiwasdiscoveredin1492byChristopherColumbus,whoclaimedone‐thirdof

theislandofHispaniola(moderndayHaiti)onbehalfofSpain18.Thenative

populationwasquicklyeradicated.In1492,therewasanativeArawakpopulation

ofoverthreemillion19.Withintwentytwoyears,theArawaksnumberedlessthan

twentyseventhousandandby1542onlytwohundredArawaksremained20.Bythe

revolution,thenativepopulationhadbecomeextinctduetothebrutalgenocideof

thenativesthroughtheirexposuretoEuropeandiseasesandbeingworked

unmercifully,andoftenliterallytodeath,bytheSpanish21.

Francecameintopossessionwiththeforcedcessionofwhatisnowmodern

dayHaiti,withtheTreatyofRyswick,whichendedtheWarofthePalantinian

Succession/NineYears’War(1688‐1697).Bythe1700’sHispaniolawasrenamed

SaintDominique(modernHaiti)andwasFrance’sandtheworld’smostlucrative

colony22.Betweenhalfamillionandthreequartersofamillionslavescultivated

crops,themaincropsbeingsugar,rum,cotton,tobacco,andindigowhichgenerated

enormousprofitsfortheslaveowners23.Haitiquicklybecamethegreatestimporter

ofaslaveworkforcethroughtheAfricanslavetrade24.TheeconomyofHaitialone

comprisedtwo‐thirdsofFrance’soverseastrade25.

18Matthewson,Tim.AProslaveryForiegnPolicy:Haitian‐AmericanRelationsDuringtheEarlyRepublic.1sted.Westport:Praeger,2003.19Chin,Pat,GregDunkel,SaraFlounders,andKimIves,comps.eds.Haiti:aSlaveRevolution200YearsAfter1804.1sted.NewYork:InternationalActionCenter,2004.20Ibid.,p.12121Ibid.,p.12122Ibid.,p.12223Matthewson,p.324Chin,p.17125Ibid.,p.171


20

Revolution

TheimmediateeffectsoftheHaitianrevolutionweretheejectionofFrench

occupyingtroops,theestablishmentofHaitiasthefirstfreeblackrepublic

composedofformerslaves,andthesubsequentpariahstatusimparteduponHaiti.

Theimpingementoftheidealsespousedbytherevolutionarieshadvast

consequencestoslave‐holdingcountriesandglobalpolitics;mostnotablythe

abruptendoftheeraofcolonialism.

However,TheexpulsionoftheFrenchwasonlythefirststeptowardsHaitian

independence.WiththeturmoilinFrance,stemmingfromthechaosoftheFrench

Revolutionof1789–1799,Haitiwasprimedforrevolution.Itwasnotonlytheblack

slaveswhodesiredtheirfreedombutalsotheplanterswhomovedfor

independencefromFranceandfreecoloredswhosoughtfullcitizenshipthat

pushedHaitiintoaviolentrevolution.FrançoisDominiqueToussaintLouverture

servedinallpracticalityasadictatorfollowingtheviolentuprisingofovera

hundredthousandslavesundertheVoodooleaderBoukman,whocalledforall

whitestobepurgedfromHaiti26.ThousandsofblacksroseupinthePlaineduNord

andexecutedtheirformermasters.Lessthenaweekaftertheinitialoutbreakof

violence,slavescontrolledthenorthernregionofHaitiandbegantopersecutethe

remainingwhites.TheFrenchlegislaturedeclaredslaveryillegalin1792.However,

NapoleonexhibitedtheimmediateracismchallengingHaitiin a threatening letter to

Toussaint claiming,

26Matthewson,pp.10‐13


21

The circumstances in which you found yourself, surrounded on all sides by enemies without the metropole being able to either assist or revictual you, rendered articles of that constitution legitimate that otherwise would not be.27

Napoleon was alluding to the 1801 Constitution drafted and instituted by Toussaint that

declared Haiti a sovereign state. Effectively Napoleon is claiming Toussaint’s

constitution to be null and void and threatens Toussaint must concede to French rule as:

A contrary conduct would be irreconcilable with the idea we have conceived of you. It would have you lose the many rights to recognition and the benefits of the republic, and would dig beneath your feet a precipice which, in swallowing you up, could contribute to the misfortune of those brave blacks whose courage we love, and whose rebellion we would, with difficulty, be obliged to be punished.28

Napoleon acknowledges black Haitian’s freedom and even states admiration for their

desire for freedom. His political support of the Haitian revolution represents a parallel

between the Haitian and French Revolutions as even the racist Napoleon was politically

required to provide support for the freedom seeking Haitians. Although, Napoleon

feigned support of the Haitian Revolution, he secretly plotted to reinstitute slavery under

French rule in Haiti through a campaign phase in which,

Toussaint, Moyse, and Dessalines will no longer exist and three thousand or four thousand blacks who have retreated into the hills of the Spanish part will form what we call the islands maroons, and who we will succeed in destroying with time, steady effort, and a well-organized strategy of attack29

Upon learning of Napoleon’s intentions, through an intercepted letter intended for

General LeClerc, which was written by Napolean, Toussaint rejected the idea of any type

of French rule. Not only did Toussaint reject French rule because he recognized that

Napoleon would seek revenge on the revolution’s leaders but also because Toussaint 27Schoelcher,Victor.ViedeToussaintLouverture.Paris:PaulOllendorf.1889.28Ibid.,p.6229Dubois,Laurent,Garrigus,John.SlaveRevolutionintheCaribbean1789‐1804:ABriefHistorywithDocuments.Cambridge,London:HarvardUniversityPress.p.176


22

recognized that agreeing to French rule would be a concession against the freedom they

had finally achieved. NapoleoncontinuedtowithhisplanstoreinstateFranceasthe

governingbodyofHaitiresultingintheeventualcaptureandimprisonmentof

LouvertureuntilLouverture’sdeathinadrearyFrenchprisonin180330.

FurtherevidenceofFrance’sanimositytowardsthefreeblackrepublicis

shownthroughtheexclusif,aneconomicpolicyinstitutedfollowingFrenchreturn

toHaiti,intendedtoexhaustHaitiintoeconomicsubmissivenessorruinthemin

spitebyrequiringone‐hundredpercentofimportsandexportsfromandto

France31.DessalinessoonledHaitiantroopsagainsttheFrench.Withthedeathof

LeClercandthebrutalityofhissuccessor,theVicomtedeRochambeau,Haitian

freedombecameevermoretangible.WiththeaidofaBritishblockadeand

Napoleon’swaninginterestintheWesternHemisphereDessalineswasabletolead

theHaitianstofreedomin1803.

HaitiasaPariahNationandTheProblemofReconstruction

ThepariahstatusimparteduponHaitifollowingtheirsuccessfulrevolutionis

difficulttocomprehend.Followingtheidealsof“liberté,égalité,andfraternité”

foughtforintheFrenchRevolution,Haitihopedtofightforitsindependenceandbe

recognizedasanindependentandsovereignnation.Ironically,however,

independenceforslaves,andblacksatthat,wasnotendorsedbutrather

admonished.TherealmotiveinshunningHaiti’sindependencewastorebukeany

hopesofindependencefosteredinslavesoftheUnitedStatesandtheEuropean

30Chin,p.2831Ibid.,p.67


23

colonies,supportedsolelybytheinstitutionofslavery.ThomasJeffersoneven

authorizedfortythousanddollarsandonethousandweaponssenttotheFrench

troopsinHaitiinordertopreservetheinstitutionofslavery32.Followingthe

successoftherevolution,theUnitedStatesbannedtheimportationofHaitiangoods

andimmigrationofHaitiansinordertopreventarevolutiononAmericansoil33.

EconomicsanctionsandlackofeconomicaidfurtherharmedHaiti’sinitial

reconstructioneffortsfollowingitseconomicself‐destruction.Followingtheir

discriminatorypracticesagainsttheHaitianstate,theUnitedStatesdeniedHaiti

recognitionasasovereignnationuntil1862,fifty‐nineyearsfollowingactual

independencefromFrenchandSpanishrule34.

Haiti’spariahstatuswithintheglobalcommunityfurthercomplicated

internalreconstructioninapost‐slaverysociety,whichpresentedproblemsinand

ofitself.Toussaintbelievedthateducationwasessentialandrefutedtheclaimthat

blacksshouldbe“classedapartfromtherestofmankind”35.Thisideologyissimilar

toBookerTWashington’stheoriesthatblacksshouldbeexposedtoanindustrial

educationratherthenanintellectualeducation:

Atthebottomofeducation,atthebottomofpolitics,evenatthebottomofreligion,theremustbeforourraceeconomicindependence.

BothWashingtonandToussaintareabletorecognizethatintheshort‐term,an

intellectualeducationcannotbetheprimaryconcernifastablenationistobebuilt.

Whiletheimportanceofanindustrialeducationwasmuchmorevitaltothe

32Ibid.,pp.24‐2733Matthewson,p.6234Ibid.,p.6235Pluchon,ToussaintLouverture.Paris.1989.pp.263‐268


24

reconstructionandviabilityofHaitiasamautonomousnation,theUnitedStateswas

stilllargelyagriculturalduringWashington’slife.

TheEffectoftheRevolutiononOtherSlaveBasedNations

Haiti’spariahstatusbegsthequestionofwhethertherevolutionreallywasastepin

therightdirectiontowardemancipation.Historicallyspeaking,Haitiastheworld’s

firstblackrepublichasbeenacatastrophicfailure,turningwhatwasoncea

lucrativeandgrowingcolonialpossessionunderFrenchrule(commonlyreferredto

as“thecrownjeweloftheirempire”duringtheperiod)intooneofthemost

backwardnationsinthemodernworld.TheprecedentsetbytheHaitianrevolution

onlyfurtheredtheracistbeliefsthatblackscouldnotfunctionsufficientlyontheir

own.HadtheHaitianrevolutionresultedinastrongandcentralizedgovernmentit

isunquestionablethatotherslavecountrieswouldhavefollowedsuitwithslaves

violentlyrevoltingforindependenceinsimilarfashiontothatoftheHaitians.In

responsetothefailuresoftheHaitianRevolution,DavidWalkerclaimsinhis

“AppealtotheColouredCitizensoftheWorld”thatblacks,“havetoprovetothe

Americansandtheworld,thatweareMEN,andnotbrutes,aswehavebeen

represented,andbymillionstreated(line254‐256).”Toussaintseemedtosubscribe

toasimilarphilosophy,evidencedthroughhispoliciesintendedtoforce“freed”

blacksbacktoworkingtheirplantations36.InToussaint’sForcedLaborDecreeof

1800hestates:

Youwilleasilyconceive,Citizens,thatAgricultureisthesupportofGovernment;sinceitisthefoundationofCommerceandwealth,thesourceofArts

36Dubois,Laurent.AvengersoftheNewWorld:TheStoryoftheHaitianRevolution.Cambridge,London:HarvardUniversityPress.p.177


25

andindustry,itkeepseverybodyemployed,asbeingthemechanismofallTrades.And,fromthemomentthateveryindividualbecomesuseful,itcreatespublictranquility;disturbancesdisappeartogetherwithidleness,bywhichtheyarecommonlygenerated,andeveryonepeaceablyenjoysthefruitsofhisindustry….Whereas,sincetherevolution,laborersofbothsexes,thentooyoungtobeemployedinthefield,refusetogotoitnowunderpretextoffreedom,spendtheirtimeinwanderingabout,andgiveabadexampletotheothercultivators;while,ontheotherhand,thegenerals,officers,subalterns,andsoldiers,areinastateofconstantactivitytomaintainthesacredrightsofthepeople….FollowingtherevolutioninHaiti,manyslavesfeltthattheynolongerneededto

workhardorworkatallinsomecases.ToussaintandWalkerrealizedthatalthough

blackshaveproventhemselvesasabletowork,throughtheiryearsofslavelabour

onplantations,theymustnowprovethemselvesasabletoworkwhilefreeand

equal.Slaveryandfreedomaretwopolaroppositesthatrequireradicallydifferent

workethics.It’sindisputablethatslavesknewhowtowork,astheirworkethicis

clearlydemonstratedthroughtheiryearsofslavelabour.However,oncefreeone

hastoweightheopportunitycostofleisuretimeagainstthatofwork.Blackslaves

simplyhadnotencounteredsuchanideabeforeand,inHaiti’scase,thismeant

manyblackschosenottowork.ThischallengeledToussainttoinstitutinghis

mandatorylabourlaws.WhileWalkermaynothavesupportedasimilarsystemin

theUS,theHaitianeconomywassolelybasedonagriculturewhereasintheUSthere

wasatleastsomedegreeofindustrializationthatblackscouldpotentiallybecome

involvedin.

RejectionofaPurelyRacialRevolution

OthernationsheldthecommonperceptionthattheHaitianRevolutionwas

purelyaracialstruggle.Whilethiswouldhavehadmoredrasticimplicationson

otherslaveholdingnations,thisviewshouldbedisregarded.Attheoutsetofthe


26

revolutiontherewereblackslaveswhofoughtonbehalfofwhiteplantationowners

andtheKingofFrance37.SomeEuropeansalsosupportedrevolutionarysentiment

inHaiti.TheAmisdeNoirs(literallytranslatingtoFriendsoftheBlacks)brought

revolutionarytextstoHaiti;theDeclarationoftheRightsofManwhichhailedfrom

theFrenchRevolutionclearlystatedinthefirstarticlethat“Menarebornand

remainfreeandequalinrights”,aconceptwhichprovedtobeespecially

incendiary38.VariousotherarticlesoftheConstitutionasserttheequalityofmenin

allaspects.TherewasalsothewarofexterminationwagedbetweenMulattoesand

blackslavestoconsider.HaitianMulattoes,ofbothwhiteEuropeanandblack

Africanlineage,wereoftenwelleducatedandwealthy39.Aswascommonwithinthe

UnitedStates,whitesweregenerallymoreacceptingofblackswhoappearedmore

white.Mulattoesconsequentlyweregrantedmoreopportunitiestoattendschool

andobtainbetterjobsthendarkerblacks.ManyMulattoeswereconsideredfree

citizensandsomeevenheldslaves40.Theynormallyassociatedthemselveswiththe

Frenchgovernmentandsupportedthesuppressionofslaveinsurrectionsasthese

insurrectionsthreatenedthepowerandsocialhierarchyinwhichMulattoeshad

establishedthemselvesassuperiortoblacks41.TheMulattoesandblackslaves

slaughteredoneanotherinadesperatepowerstruggle;theblackslavesfoughtfor

freedomwhiletheMulattoesfoughttomaintaintheirstatusandprivileges42.

Duringtherevolution,LouvertureappointedJean‐JacquesDessalinestopacifythe37Chin,p.4238Ibid.,p.4339Ibid.,p.3840Ibid.,p.3841Ibid.,p.3842Ibid.,p.39


27

South(wheremanyMulattoeswereinvolvedinresistance)43.Dessalinessoughtto

eradicatetheMulattoes,provokingToussainttoremark,“Ididnotwantthis!Itold

himtoprunethetree,nottouprootit.44”Toussaintclearlydidn’tdesirebloodand

retributiononMulattoeinsurgentsasmuchashedesired,“LibertyandEqualityto

reigninSaint‐Domingue.Iwanttobring[thatstate]intoexistence.45”These

discrepanciesagainstthecommonperceptionoftherevolutionassimplyaracial

struggle,shedanewlightontheHaitianRevolution,asnotarevolutionpurely

basedonrace,butratherarevolutionofequality,orinequalityinthewhiteand

Mulattoecase,bothpoliticallyandeconomically.Therevolutionwaspropelledby

theHaitianmass(composedprimarilyoftheroughlythreehundredandfifty

thousandslaves),whichdidnotdiscriminatebetweenfreeblacks,whosupported

thesuppressionofslaves’rights,andtheirwhitecounterparts.Bothgroupswere

equallyresponsiblefortheiroppressioninblackHaitian’seyes.Haitialsoardently

supportedtheemancipationofallslavesunderthecontrolofthemajorcolonial

powersonaglobalscale.HaiticontributedsuppliesandfundstoSouthAmerica’s

revolutionfromSpanishcontrolwhileHaitiwasstillinruinsandblockadedby

Frenchforces46.Thisaction,whileleadingtotheliberationofhalfthenationsof

SouthAmerica,precludedrelationswithSpain47.WithHaiti’spariahstatuswithin

theglobalcommunitytheycouldhaveusedthesupportfromandbenefitsoftrade

withasuper‐powersuchasSpain.Therefore,Haitian’s(includingToussaint)must

43Corbett.Pp.34‐4844Ibid.45Dubois.P.18446Chin,p.20747Ibid.,p.208


28

havebelievedthatlibertyandequalityweremorevaluablethenbeneficialrelations

withSpain.

RoleofReligion

Asreligionsupportsthebasisoftherevolution,freedomandequality,the

roleofreligioninspurringrevolution,bothwithinHaitiandwithintheUnited

States,cannotbeunderstated.Clearly,inHaiti’scasereligionwasanintegralaspect

ofsociety.TherevolutionistracedtotheVoodooleduprisingbyBoukmanand

whileToussianthimselfdidnotbelieveinVoodoopractices(hewasinfacta

Catholichimself)hecontinuedtorefertoVoodooconceptssuchthe“Supreme

Being”inhisProclamation.TheconceptofasupremebeingisverymuchaHaitian

concept,althoughitwouldalsoappealtoChristians,bothwithinandoutsideof

Haiti.The“SupremeBeing”canfunctioneitherasaChristfigurewithinCatholicism

orasamonotheisticgodwithinHaitianvoodoo.Ifnothingmore,Toussaint

leveragedtheVoodooreligionofHaititohispoliticalendsbymakinghimselfseem

asHaitianaspossible.WithoutToussaint’smasterfuluseofsyncretismhewould

otherwisebeastrangechoiceasablackrevolutionaryofthepeople.Hewasnota

commonslaverlaborer…instead;hewasacoachmantoaplantationowner.As

such,Toussaintwasrespectedwithinthewhitecommunityandenviedwithinthe

blackcommunity.Toussaintheldastationofstatusandhadsomewhatofan

educationthroughtheproselytizingJesuits,priortotheirexpulsion,fromHaiti.

ToussaintalsobecamesomewhatreveredwithintheVoodoosocietyduetohis

knowledgeofherbalismthatwaspassedonfromhisfather.PracticingVoodooitself

wasaresistancetoslavery.TheFrenchoutlawedVoodooservicesastheywere


29

frightenedbythemusic,dancing,andceremoniesperformedunderVoodoo.Despite

VoodoobeingoutlawedmanyHaitianscontinuedtopracticeVoodooasdirect

defiancetotheirstateofservitude.Voodoosupportsthattherearevariousspirits,

goodandevilbeingtwoofthesespirits,whichareabletopossesspeople.Perhaps

theVoodoopracticingHaitiansbelievedtheywerecastingouttheevilspiritsofthe

whitementhroughtheirstruggleagainstslavery.

Christianity can be argued to be either pro-slavery or anti-slavery. The Bible

sanctions the practice of slavery and states numerous accounts of slavery during biblical

times. In Genesis of the Old Testament slavery is attributed to Cain:

CursedbeCanaan!Thelowestofslaveswillhebetohisbrothers.Healsosaid,'BlessedbetheLord,theGodofShem!MayCanaanbetheslaveofShem.

ItwasbelievedthattheCanaanitessettledinAfricaandthereforetheirdecedents

weretheblackinhabitantsofAfrica.Christianbasedcivilizationsupuntilthe

nineteenthcenturypracticedslaveryandsociallyitwasacceptable,even

commonplace.Withtheenlightenmenttherewasrenewedinterestinphilosophy,

particularlyepistemology.Theshiftfromclassicalsuperstitiousandintolerant

thoughttopost‐enlightenmentthought,whichquestionedtraditionalinstitutions

andmorals,broughtchangeswithinthechurchandstate.Statesecularismbeganto

gaininfluenceandthereligiousjustificationofcertaininstitutionsandmoralswere

nolongerleftunquestionable.

Therevolutionaryeraexhibitsthedramaticshiftinthinking,withinthe

citizensofvariousnationsoftheworld,whichresultedfromtheEnlightenment.

Withtheoften‐violentchangedemandingthatstatethoughtshifttowardpolitical


30

andeconomicfreedomandequalitysotodidasimilarchangeinreligiousthought

occur.TheChurch’sfocusonoldtestamentthoughtwhichpreachedideasofslavery

andalessforgivinggodshiftedtothenewtestamentemphasisonhowGodis

forgiving,aviewmuchmorecompatiblewithpost‐Enlightenmentthought.While

therewereandarestillpeoplewhoarguethatChristianitysupportsslaverythe

majoritywouldarguethatChristianitynolongersupportsslaverybutrather

promotesuniversalequalityandfreedom.WithinAmericaChristianitywasthe

predominantreligion.WhiletheSouthwouldoftenpreachthatChristianity

supportedslavery,theNorthwasdoingtheexactopposite.Thisshowsthatreligion

didnotplayasmuchofaroleinAmerica’srevolutionasitdidinHaiti’sbutitwas

definitelyanintegralcontributiontorevolutionarythought.

Thus,onemightwonderifHaiti’srevolutionwasastepintherightdirection,

notonlyforHaitianindependencebutalsofortheperceptionofblacksworldwide.

DuringtherevolutionthevoodooleaderDuttyBoukmanstated,“Listentothevoice

ofliberty,whichspeaksintheheartsofusall.48”Itwasinemotionratherthanlogic

thattherevolutionoriginated.Boukmanandhisfollowersfailedtoperceivethe

challengesthatwouldlieaheadforafreeblackrepublic.Therefore,therevolution

wassuccessfulintermsofprocuringtheidealoffreedom:freedomfromFrench

oppressionintheformofslavery;butpracticallyspeakingfreedomcameatasteep

price.

48Corbett,Robert."HaitiandItsDiaspora."Haitimailinglist.24Oct.1999.8Oct.2006<http://www.websterfl.edu/~corbetre/haiti‐archive/msg00868.html>.


31

TheRealistCycle

By:RichardBenjaminBloomfield

Realistsviewinternationalpoliticsasastateofwarbecauseoftheir

beliefinrealistcycle.Therealistcycleconsistsofnaturalconflictinherentinastate

ofwarwhichleadstotheformationofalliancestodefeatcommonadversaries,then

abetrayalorcollapseofthesealliancesinthepursuitofselfinterestresultsina

returntoconflict.Threeconditionsmustbepresentfortherealistcycle.These

conditionsarethelackofacentralauthoritytopreventwar,thefeargeneratedfrom

thepowerofothersandthenatureofsovereign’sdecisionmaking.Thesethree

circumstancesresultinacontinualcircutofcombat.Thispaperwillpresentand

analyzetheideasofHobbes,MachiavelliandThucydidesinordertoexplainthis

cycleandhowitresultsinaperpetualstateofwar.

Hobbes’Leviathanwillbeusedtoaddressthestructuralcausationofthe

stateofwar,Machiavelli’sThePrincewilldescribethenatureofleadersandtheir

impactoninternationalpolitics.Thucydides’HistoryofThePeloponnesianWar

illustrateshowthefearofarelativeriseinpowerofacommonthreatwillcause

actorstoformalliancesandfight.WewilluseMachiavelli’sprincipalityastheterm

foractorsontheinternationalstageforsimplicity’ssakeandbecauseinrealist

thinking,thenatureofacountry’sgovernanceandcompositiondoesnotchangethe

wayitbehavesinternationally.

Hobbesdoesnotdescribethestateofwarasdirectmilitaryconfrontation,it

isinsteadtheconditioninwhichthe“willtocontendbybattleissufficiently


32

known”(Hobbes88).Thisconditionisperpetualsolongasprincipalitiesmaintain

thedispositiontofighteachother.Theonlythingthatmayalterthisstateofwar

andkeepprincipalitiesoutofconflictisthepresenceof“acommonpowertokeep

themallinawe”(88).Aprincipalitymayerectacommonpowerdomesticallyand

ceaseanarchyinternallybutnosuchabsoluteauthorityexistsintheinternational

realm.Iftheonlythingthatmaychangeastateofwartoastateofpeaceisthe

presenceofacommonpowerandnosuchpowerexistsinternationallythen

principalitiesmustinteractinaconstantstateofwar.Inthisstateofwareach

principalityisconcernedforitsownsurvivalandmustactitinitsowninterest.

EveryPrincipalityispittedagainstalltherestinastruggletoassureitscontinued

existence.Inthisanarchicalstateeachprincipalitymustrelyonitsownforceof

armsfordefenseandaggrandizement;howeverwhenprincipalitiesarepresented

withacommonthreatorinteresttheymightformconfederationsor

alliances(Hobbes102).

ThucydidesportraystheHellenicworldasbeingalmostentirelydivided

betweenthePeloponnesianleagueledbySpartaandtheDelianLeagueledby

Athens(Thucydides35).Nohierarchicalpowerreignsoverthesegroupswhich

mightpreventconflicttherefore,theyareinastateofwar.Whenhostilitiesemerge

betweenCorinthandCorcyra,thelatterseeksoutanalliancewiththeAtheniansin

hopetheirsupportwillgiveCorcyraadecisiveadvantage.TheAtheniansentertain

thisalliancewithCorcyrabecausethecombinationoftheirnavieswouldmakethe

Athenianalliance“thegreatestnavalpowerinHellas”(55).TheAthenianscommit

themselvesonthesideoftheCorcyrabecauseitisintheirself‐interesttobemore


33

powerfulinrelationtotheSpartans.AccordingtoThucydides,thisupsetinthe

balanceofpowercausedfearinSpartaandthusmadewarinevitable(49).

Thiscourseofeventsisrepresentativeoftherealistviewofinternational

politicsasastateofwarbecauseeachactorismakingdecisionsmotivatedbythe

desiretoincreaseitsrelativestrengthcomparedtoadversariesinordertosave

itselffrombeingconquered.Warisunavoidablebecauseitistheonlywayeachside

mayassureitscontinuedexistence.Thismarksthestartoftherealistcycle.Ina

stateofwarprincipalitiesmustallywithothersorfaceobliterationwhenfacedwith

acommonandexistentialthreat.Thesealliancesmustbeinbothactor’sself

interestwhichinastateofwarconsistsofmutualstrategicadvantage.The

necessityofamutuallybeneficialallianceinastateofwarisprovenbythecaseof

theMelians.

TheMeliansremainedneutraluntiltheywereattackedbyAthenswhothen

offeredthemthechancetosurrenderorfacedestruction(400‐402).TheMelians

refusedtosurrenderbecausetheybelievedtheirtiesofkinshiptoSparta(the

MelianswereaSpartancolony)wouldcausethePeloponnesianleaguetorushto

theirdefense.Thiswasnotthecase,theSpartanswereunwillingtoexpendtheir

forces,andtheMelianswereannihilatedbyAthens(408).

Whenprincipalitiesarealliedtogethertheydonotfighteachothersowhat

preventsanalliancefromexpandingtoincludeeveryprincipalitywhilepersisting

indefinitelyandtherebyliftingtheworldoutofastateofwar?Hobbesbelievesthat

onceavictoryagainstamutualenemyisobtainedcommoninterestsdissolveamong

alliesandtheyfallintowaramongstthemselves(119).


34

Thisdissolutionisalsoduetothenatureofasovereign'sdecisionmaking.

Sovereignsbecomejealousandfearfuloftheiralliesbecause“whoeveris

responsibleforanotherbecomingpowerfulruinshimself”(Machiavelli15).Each

sovereign’sown“ambitionsandrivalries”(15)ruinthechanceofanallianceexisting

aftertheeliminationofacommonthreat.Thismustoccurbecause“menare

continuallyincompetitionforhonoranddignity”incomparisontootherrulersand

can“relishnothingbutwhatiseminent”(Hobbes119).Machiavellibelieves

principalitiesmustjudgethemselvesbytheirabilitytostandaloneand“assemble

anarmyequaltoanencounterwithanyaggressor”(36)includingtheirformerallies.

Healsobelievessovereignsmusttrainthemselvesexclusivelyintheartofwar(47).

Aconstantdesireforprestige,powerandcontrolonthepartofprincipalities

combinedwiththemilitantnatureofsovereignswillnotallowprincipalitiesto

remaininanallianceintheabsenceofacommonfear.Withoutmutuallybeneficial

alliancesprincipalitiesareagainpittedagainsteachotherinachaoticstateof

perpetualconflict.Thiscircuitofconflict,alliancecreationforvictoryinwar

followedbythecollapseofalliancesduetothenatureofsovereignswhichthen

leadstofurtherbattlesexplainswhyrealistsviewinternationalpoliticsasa

perpetualstateofwar.Wheninternationalrelationsareexplainedwiththerealist

cycleitbecomesapparentthatprincipalitieswillfightwitheachothersolongas

thereisnohigherauthoritystoppingthemfromdoingso.Thepresenceofthe

realistcycleresultsininternationalpoliticsbeingviewedasastateofwarbecause

thereisnoalternativetoeternalconflict.


35

Itisdifficultnottoviewinternationalpoliticsfromtherealistperspectivefor

severalreasons.Evenifthesovereignofaprincipalityisnotmilitaristicandjudges

thequalityofhis/herterritorybystandardsotherthanmilitarystrengthhe/she

cannotpresumeothersdoandmustmaintainasufficientarmyfordefense.This

willnotworkbecauseifasovereignknowsanotheronlymaintainsaminimal

militaryitwillbeinclinedtoraisealargeforceorenteranalliancewithanother

principalityandconquertheweakterritory.Adefensiveallianceinwhich

principalitiespledgetodefendoneanotherincaseofaggressiondoesnotprevent

conflicteitherbecausenothingcanstopasovereignfromtakingadvantageofan

ally’svulnerabilityandattackingit.Thesepossibilitiesmeanallalliancesare

temporaryandcanonlyexistinthepresenceofacommonenemy,whichreturnsus

totherealistcycleandthestateofwar.Apossiblesolutionforceasingconflictand

therebyendingthestateofwarisasysteminwhicheachprincipalitymakesa

bilateraldefensivealliancewitheveryotherprincipalityintheworld.Inthissystem

nobodycangotowarbecauseallotherprincipalitieswouldbeboundtodefendthe

attackedprincipality.Thissystemwouldresultinmilitarygridlockbecauseno

principalitycouldattackanotherwiththehopeofsuccess.

Therealistperspectiveisverydifficulttoargueagainstbecauseitisbasedon

premises,whichareverypessimisticinnatureanddifficulttodiscount.If

principalitiesalwaysseektofurthertheirambitionsmilitarilytherealistcycle

becomesaselffulfillingprophecy.Aslongasprincipalitieseitheractthiswayor

believeothersdoso,itisimpossibletotranscendthestateofwar.Therealist

interpretationofinternationalpoliticsisrootedinparanoiaandunfetteredambition


36

andsolongasnothingpreventsprincipalitiesfromachievingtheirdesiresby

militaryforcetherealistcyclewillremainperpetualandinternationalpoliticswill

beastateofwar.


37

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