Liberal spill over…Europe after the French Revolution experiences
continued turmoil… • New ‘liberal’ policies – refining its meaning• Nationalist- Independence Movements• Continued discontent among the lower classes• Continued calls for political reform • English legislation and a realigning of political
partiesPalmer ...’a vicious circle was set endlessly
revolving’
Evolution of Liberal Ideology • Pre 1789: John Locke, Adam Smith
– ‘Enlightenment-like’• Post 1815: “types of liberalism”
– Classical English Liberalism– New moderate French Liberalism– Liberalism as expressed through right
to self-government – independence movements
• Post 1848:– More radical after the failure of the
revolutions (emergence of Marxist philosophy)
Original LiberalismBourgeoisieLocke
British Model
Liberalism after 1848:MarxismSocialism
ConservatismMonarchyAristocracy
Liberalism after 1789:Democratic reformRepublican Government
Evolution of Liberalism
British Liberalism• John Stuart Mill : Utilitarianism, On Liberty
– Women’s suffrage, graduated income tax• Political Parties (Whigs & Tories)
– Tories (liberal reform) Robert Peel, George Canning• Catholic Emancipation Act 1829• Repeal of the Corn Laws 1846 (anti-mercantilist)• Factory Act 1833, Slavery Abolished
– Whig (political reform) -Rotten Boroughs, Voting Rights – Reform Bill 1832 (1 of 6 males)
• Chartists (Charter of 1838) universal male suffrage, secret ballot, 1 person, 1 vote (Populists of England)
Potato Famine
1847 – Black ’47 Peak
1841 census recorded an Irish population of 8.2 million.
By 1851 this figure had been reduced to 6.5 million
Bourbon Restoration
1830
Challenges to early 18th C Liberalism
•The Conservative upper class–Too many changes
•The Lower urban working classes–Not enough changes
•Organized religions–Too secular
Revolution & the Revolution & the birth of the Nation birth of the Nation
StateState1848-18711848-1871
Why 1848?
• A.J.P. Taylor, "history reached its turning point and failed to turn".
• Hans Rothfels, "Failure or not, 1848 was a genuine turning point. The year 1850 no more restored 1847 than 1815 had returned to 1788". . . .
• Lewis Namier, “1848 remains a seed-plot of history. It crystallized ideas and projected the pattern of things to come; it determined the course of the following century."
France 1848France 1848• Louis Phillipe’s government ignored the
needs and demands of the workers in the cities.
• February 1848– 3 days of fighting– King abdicated
• December 1848: Louis Napoleon elected – Second RepublicSecond Republic– (Napoleon III –nephew)– Napoleonic Legend
Napoleonic Napoleonic LegacyLegacy
Arc de Triomphe
•Started during Napoleonic Rule 1808
•Completed under Louis Philippe 1833-1836
Compare and Contrast political liberalism with
political conservatism in the first half of the nineteenth
century in Europe.
Springtime of the Springtime of the PeoplePeople
VölkerfrühlingVölkerfrühling Revolutions of 1848Revolutions of 1848
Austria 1848Austria 1848• Hapsburgs @ Vienna• Ethnic minorities (Hungarians, Slavs,
Czechs, Italian, Serbs, Croats)• Serfdom, feudal order• Authoritarian rule, no liberal
institutions• Metternich dismissed by Hapsburgs,
fled the country• Series of Rebellions throughout empire
– Vienna: abolition of serfdom– Bohemia: (Prague Conference – Panslavism)– Hungary: Nationalist Movement
Slavic Nationalism
"The Slavs ask nothing but justice; they rest upon moral force only....It is only by struggle that we pass from slavery to liberty. Let us therefore be victors, and we shall be free in a free nation, or let us die with honour, and glory will follow us to the grave."
Pavel Jozef Šafárik
German Confederation, German Confederation, 18481848
• Liberals demanded a constitutional government & a union of German states (Nationalist movement)
• Frankfurt Parliament (1848)– Called for elections to a constituent
assembly for purposes of unification– Sought war to annex Schleswig & Holstein– Presented Constitution & Invited Prussian Frederic
k William to serve as King– Humiliation of Olmutz: Austria demanded
Prussian allegiance to German Confederation (German Dualism)
Why did Frederick William reject offer?
There is no power on earth that can succeed in making me transform the natural relationship between prince and people ... into a constitutional relationship, and I never will permit a written sheet of paper to come between our God in heaven and this land ... to rule us with its paragraphs and supplant the old, sacred loyalty."
New Toughness of MindNew Toughness of MindPalmerPalmer
• Failure of 1848• Idealism and romanticism discredited• A return to realism, science, skepticism• Positivism – August Comte (sociology)• Emergence of Marxist Communism (as a
philosophy – not a reality)• Realpolitik: politics of reality
– Follow practical interests
Nationalism:Nationalism:1815-1900
But what did nationalism But what did nationalism mean to people in the mean to people in the nineteenth century? nineteenth century?
From France and across the central and southern portions of the continent, proponents
of nationalism vigorously pushed their agendas
Nationalism: Nationalism: Early Early Stirrings…Stirrings…
prior to 1848prior to 1848Revolutionary!Revolutionary!
Rulers throughout Europe believed that Rulers throughout Europe believed that nationalism would be a destabilizing nationalism would be a destabilizing force in existing governments-Therefore, force in existing governments-Therefore, they did all they could to crush they did all they could to crush nationalist sentiments within their own nationalist sentiments within their own domains and sometimes helped their domains and sometimes helped their neighbors put down nationalist uprisings neighbors put down nationalist uprisings
Nationalism: after Nationalism: after 18481848
•A more practical approach developed
•More Machiavellian than romantic •Realpolitik
–Germany – Bismarck’s Blood and iron–Italy – Cavour
•Turning Point: Crimean War ended Concert System
Crimean War 1854-Crimean War 1854-18561856• Russia wanted further breakdown of
Ottoman territories (clash of liberal nationalism and conservative nationalism)
• Under pretext of protection of Christians in Near East (traditionally role of France)
Russia
OttomanFranceBritain
Piedmont
CRIMEA PENINSULA
Austria (protect Balkans)
Charge of the Light Brigade
Alfred, Lord Tennyson
"Forward, the Light Brigade!"
Was there a man dismay'd?
Not tho' the soldier knew Someone had blunder'd:Theirs not to make reply,Theirs not to reason why,Theirs but to do and die:Into the valley of Death Rode the six hundred.
Battle of Balaclava
Florence Nightingale
Impact of the Crimean War
• Weakened the authority of several rulers (Russia and Austria specifically weakened)
• undermined the existing balance of power system in Europe (Prussia & Italy especially wanted change)
• strained international relations so much that rulers would no longer come to the aid of a neighbor or friend in times of crisis (end of concert system)
• 1860s & 1870s see rebirth of nationalist sentiment • when nationalist movements arose again in
Europe in the 1860s and 1870s, they found much more fertile ground than they had twenty to thirty years earlier
Sardinia-Piedmont
NaplesKingdom of Two Sicilies
Lombardy
Venetia
Papal States
Sardinia- Piedmont ruled by House of Savoy (Victor Emmanuel II)
Naples ruled by Bourbon
Papal States possession of the Roman See
Venetia & Lombardy possession of Austria
North Central Italy were Duchies of:
TuscanyModena Parma
Italian UnificationItalian Unification• Early Leaders: Mazzini, Pius IX (until Syllabus of
Errors)• Count Cavour Sardinia-Piedmont (NW) - Realpolitik
– Prime minister, editor of Il Risorgimento (newspaper)
– Built a liberal and economically sound state (railroads, docks, agricultural improvements)
– Curtailed the influence of the Church (abolish church courts)
– Sought unification of Northern and Central Italy– Joined Crimean War– Plombieres 1859 – French Promise of support in
war with Austria – Provoked war with Austria (1859:Franco-
Austrian War)
Italian UnificationItalian UnificationBy 1860 – the North Unified
– Franco-Austrian War settlement•Lombardy to Piedmont
– Plebiscite: Tuscany, Modena, Parma to Piedmont
In the South…Armed expedition– Giuseppe Garibaldi & Red Shirts (1,150)– Landed in Sicily, moved to Mainland– Two Sicilies collapsed (Bourbons)
• Made move to Rome, agreed to endorse King Victor Emmanuel II– Plebicites (except Rome)
Italian UnificationItalian Unification• First Parliament of a united Italy in
1861• Excludes Venetia, Rome• Venetia added 1866 as result of
Austro-Prussian War• Rome annexed in 1870 after
withdrawal of French troops
German Unification: German Unification: BackgroundBackground
• Napoleonic Germany – National Awakening– Intellectual Romantic thinkers– Herder: Volk or Volksgeist (Zeitgeist (zeit time + geist spirit)
• Stressed differences among nations• Cultural nationalism • Suspicious of anything that might corrupt the purity of
Volk
– Politically astute and aware of the paternalistic nature of German government
• Creating a German identity– Grimm Fair Tales (study of languages)– Hegelian Dialectic: history is a process.
• The fragmentation of Germany ultimately bred a unified Germany
German Unification: German Unification: BackgroundBackground
After 1815: Prussia emerged as leading German State
Zollverein: customs union 1834 -included most of Germany except Austria and Bavaria
Debate…Grossdeutsch plan: unified Germany
including Prussia & Austria Kleindeutsche plan: unified Germany
excluding Austria
Realpolitik
The position of Prussia in Germany will not be determined by its liberalism but by its power ... Prussia must concentrate its strength and hold it for the favourable moment, which has already come and gone several times. Since the treaties of Vienna, our frontiers have been ill-designed for a healthy body politic. Not through speeches and majority decisions will the great questions of the day be decided - that was the great mistake of 1848 and 1849 - but by iron and blood.
German Unification: German Unification: BismarckBismarckJunker heritage
1862: Chief MinisterPrussian loyalties,
not GermanConstitutional Crisis“Gap theory”
Lückentheorie – favor with KingConservative
Realpolitik: Blood & Iron• 1864: Danish – German War
– Prussia & Austria defeated Denmark and gained both Schleswig and Holstein
• 1866: Austro-Prussian War (7 Weeks War)– Prussia defeated Austria and alliance of German
states to obtain Holstein– Annexed Schleswig, Holstein, Frankfurt, Hanover,
Nassau • 1867 North German Confederation
– Excluded Austria & German states south of the Main River
– Creation of Reichstag & liberal reforms (universal male suffrage) Prussian King is head of state
1870 Franco- Prussian WarCausesCauses
• Spanish Insurrection – invited Hohenzollern (Leopold II) to Spanish throne - declined
• Ems Dispatch – French required Prussians to never accept invite
• Prussian King had been insulted• Napoleon III declared war on PrussiaOutcomeOutcome• Two months – Napoleon captured, gov’t collapsed• Paris Constituent governments (Paris Commune)
declared Third Republic, continued fight• January 1871: Hall of Mirrors Bismarck declared the
German Empire• Last German States (except Austria) joined Prussia• Annexed Alsace-Lorraine
Kingdom of Prussia in 1866
Annexations after the Seven Weeks War of 1866
Extensions towards forming the North German Confederation 1867
Other Germanic territories agree to the formation of a Second German Empire after the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871
1815: German Confederation
•39 States
1848: Frankfurt Assembly
•Great Germans
•Little Germans
1867: North German Confederation
•Prussia & 21 other states
•Austria & southern states excluded
1871: German Empire
•Remaining German states and Alsace-Lorraine
Consolidation…