Transcript
Page 1: Towner Tourisms History

7/30/2019 Towner Tourisms History

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/towner-tourisms-history 1/5

I ~U T T E R W O R T HE I N E M A N N

0261-5177(95)00032-1

C u r r e n t i s s u e s

Tourism Management, Vol. 16, No. 5, pp. 33%343, 1995Copyrigh t © 1995 Elsevier Science Ltd

Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved0261-5177/95 $10.00 + 0.00

W h a t is t o u r i s m ' s h i s to r y ?

J o h n T o w n e r

School of Geography and Environmental Management, University of Northumbria at Newcastle,Newcastle Upon Tyne NE1 8ST, UK

T h e c o n v e n t i o n a l v i e w o f to u r i s m ' s p a s t is d o m i n a t e d b y t h e h i st o r y o f w e s t e r n c u l t u r a le x p e r i e n c e . To u r i s m s t a r ts w i t h t h e w e a l t h y, w i t h i m a g e s o f p r e s t ig i o u s v i s it s to s p a s a n d s e a s i d er e s o r t s , G r a n d T o u r s a n d t h e a c ti v it i es o f b u s i n e s s e n t r e p r e n e u r s s u c h a s T h o m a s C o o k , b e f o r ei t b e g i n s t o f il te r d o w n t h e s o c i a l l a d d e r . T h i s p a p e r a r g u e s t h a t m o r e a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d b e p a i d t ot o u r i s m ' s p a s t i n n o n - w e s t e r n s o c i e t i es a n d c u l t u r e s a n d t o t h e m o r e o r d i n a r y a n d r o u t i n ep r a c t i c e s o f a w i d e r c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n . I t is t o o s im p l i s t ic t o p o r t r a y t o u r i s m ' se v o l u t i o n a s a g e o g r a p h i c a l p r o c e s s o f d i f f u si o n f r o m o n e o r t w o c o r e a r e a s a n d a s o c ia l p r o c e s so f d o w n w a r d m o v e m e n t f r o m t h e af f lu e n t . R e a s o n s f o r th e p r e v a il in g i m a g e o f to u r i s m ' s p a s ta r e s u g g e s t e d a n d s e v e r a l i d e as a r e p r o p o s e d f o r b r o a d e n i n g r e s e a r c h i n t o it s h i s t o r y.

O n e s u m m e r ' s d ay in A u g u s t 1 88 7, a n l l - y e a r - o l dg i rl a n d h e r n i n e - y e a r - o l d b r o t h e r s e t o u t f r o m t h e i rO x f o r d s h i r e v i l l a g e t o w a l k t h e e i g h t m i l e s t o t h el o c a l t o w n t o s p e n d a m o n t h ' s h o l i d a y w i t h th e i r a u n ta n d u n c l e . T h e j o u r n e y i ts e l f w a s f u ll o f n o v e le x p e r i e n c e s :

A s t r eak o f c lea r wa te r was to t hem wha t a ca t a r ac tmigh t have been t o more s ea soned t r ave l l e r s ; andthe wagons t hey m e t , w i th names o f s tr ange f a rmer sand farms pa in ted across the f ront , were as exci t ingas hear ing a s t range language . l

A n e w w o r l d w a s e n c o u n t e r e d i n t h e s m a l l t o w n ,

w i t h d i f f e r e n t c u s t o m s a n d s i g h t s ; w h e r e e v e n v i s i t -i n g t h e l o c a l s h o p s w a s a m e m o r a b l e e v e n t . T h eh o l i d a y, i n f o r m a l l y o r g a n i z e d , a s h o r t d i s t a n c e f r o mh o m e , a n d i n v o l v i n g l it tl e e x p e n d i t u r e , b e c a m e av i ta l e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e l i v es o f th e s e r e l a t iv e l y p o o rc h i l d r e n . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e i r vi si t f o r m s j u s t as m u c ha p a r t o f t h e h i s t o r y o f t o u r i s m a s a t r i p t o a s p a o rs e a s i d e r e s o r t, a G r a n d To u r , o r a n e x o t ic j o u r n e yu n d e r t h e c a r e o f T h o m a s C o o k . Ye t , i t is t h e l a t t e ri m a g e s w h i ch d o m i n a t e o u r i d e a s o f to u r i s m ' s p a s t( a n d h e r e I p l e a d g u i l ty m y s e l f ) , 2 a n d w h i c h h a v ec r e a t e d a p a r t i c u l a r v i e w o f h o w t o u r i s m h a s e v o l v e do v e r t i m e . I n th i s r e v i e w, i t is a r g u e d t h a t m u c h o f

w h a t w e k n o w a n d t h in k i s i m p o r t a n t a b o u t t h ee v o l u t i o n o f t o u r i s m i s c o n d i t i o n e d b y c e r t a i n h i s t o r -i ca l p e r s p e c t i v e s a n d t h a t a c o n v e n t i o n a l v i e w o f t h ep a s t r e q u i r e s c o n s i d e r a b l e r e v i s i o n .

A c o n v e n t i o n a l v i e w o f t o u r i s m ' s h i s t o r y

To u r i s m h i s t o r y a s i t a p p e a r s i n m u c h t o u r i s m l i te r a -t u r e c a n b e s u m m a r i z e d b r i e fl y. I t is l a r g e l y c o n -c e r n e d w i t h t h e a c t i v i ti e s o f t h e a f f l u e n t , o c c u r r i n g i np a r t i c u l a r t o u r i s m s e t t i n g s s u c h a s r e s o r t s o r l e n g t h yt o u r s . T h e s e f o r m s o f t o u r i s m a r e p r e s t ig i o u s e v e n t sw h i c h o c c u r r e d p e r i o d i c a l l y i n p e o p l e ' s l i v e s a n d

t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e i s g e n e r a l l y a s s e s s e d i n q u a n t i f i a b l et e r m s s u c h a s le n g t h o f v i si t a n d e c o n o m i c o u t l a y.B u t , f u n d a m e n t a l l y, t h is i s a h i s to r y o f w e s t e r nc u l t u r a l e x p e r i e n c e ; b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e l e i s u r e d6 1i te s o f a n c i e n t G r e e c e a n d R o m e , t h e r e -e m e r g e n c e o f t o u r i sm i n th e R e n a i s s a n c e , a n d t h ed e v e l o p m e n t o f s p a s a n d G r a n d To u r s i n th e 1 7 tha n d 1 8 t h c e n t u r i e s . T h e s t o r y c o n t i n u e s w i t h th es e a s i d e r e s o r t s o f t h e 1 9 th c e n t u r y a n d t h e s p r e a d o fi n t e r n at i o n a l t o u r i s m t h r o u g h t h e a g e n c y o f T h o m a sC o o k a n d h i s s u c c e s s o rs . F r o m t h e m i d - 2 0 t h c e n -t u r y , t h e w h o l e m o v e m e n t i s a c c e l e r a te d b y t h e j e ta e r o p l a n e a n d c h a r t e r f l i g h t s . Wi t h i n t h i s p r o c e s s ,

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Current issues

t o u r i s m i s s e e n a s d i s p e r s i n g g e o g r a p h i c a l l y e v e ro u t w a r d s f r o m i t s o r i g i n s i n B r i t a i n a n d We s t e r nE u r o p e , c r e a t in g a s e r ie s o f ' p l e a s u r e p e r i p h e r i e s ' , 3a n d s p r e a d i n g s o c i a l l y f r o m t h e u p p e r c l a s se s , d o w nt h r o u g h t h e m i d d l e r a n k s a n d u l t im a t e l y t o th e m a s sw o r k i n g c l a s s e s . I m p o r t a n t a g e n t s i n t h i s m o v e m e n ta r e s o c i a l e m u l a t i o n , i m p r o v e m e n t s i n t e c h n o l o g y

( e s p e c i a l ly t r a n s p o r t ) 4 a n d t h e r o l e o f i n n o v a t o r s a n de n t r e p r e n e u r s .B u t , i s t h is r e a l l y t h e e s s e n c e o f t o u r i s m ' s h i s t o r y ?

T h e e m p h a s i s i s o n t h e o c c a s i o n a l a n d p r e s t i g i o u se p i s o d e a n d a m e c h a n i s t i c p o r t r a y a l o f t o u r i s ms p r e a d i n g o u t w a r d s f r o m a E u r o p e a n h e a r t l a n d a n dp e r m e a t i n g d o w n w a r d s f r o m a w e a l t h y 6 1 i t e t o t h em a s s o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n . I t i s t o u r i s m t h a t w a se s s e n t i a ll y o rg a n i z e d a n d i n v o l v e d t h e m o s t t i m e a n dm o n e y. S u c h a v i ew, h o w e v e r , u n d e r p l a y s t h e i n f o r-m a l , t h e r o u t i n e , t h e ' o r d i n a r y ' , m o r e l o c a l i z e d ,t o u r i s m p r a c t i c e s a s t h e y h a v e v a r i e d b e t w e e n a n dw i t h i n c o u n t r i e s a n d c u l tu r e s . E x p e r i e n c e s w h i c h

i n v o l v e d le ss t im e a n d e x p e n d i t u r e , b u t w e r e n e v e r -the le s s s ign i f i can t i n the l i ves o f t he pa r t i c ip an t s ,b e c o m e o v e r l o o k e d .

T h i s c o n v e n t i o n a l i m a g e i s a ' c o l o n i a l ' v i e w o ft o u r i s m h i s t o r y, w h e r e b y a n a c ti v it y d e f in e d b y a n dr e s e a r c h e d i n w e s t e r n c u l t u r e s is s e e n t o h a v e b e e nb r o u g h t o v e r ti m e t o n e w p e o p l e s a n d s o c ie t ie s . Ye t ,w e k n o w r e m a r k a b l y l i t t l e a b o u t t h e h i s t o r y o fl e i s u r e i n c u l t u r e s s u c h a s C h i n a , I n d i a a n d J a p a na n d i t is h a r d t o b e l i e v e t h a t f o r m s o f to u r i s m d i d n o tex i s t in the pas t i n these soc ie t i e s . So f a r, a l l we ha ves t u d i e d i s a w e s t e r n m o d e l o f to u r i s m e v o l u t i o n , n o th o w i t h a s v a r i e d i n d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s i n d i f f e r e n t

t imes .

W h y h a s t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l v i e w p r e v a i l e d ?T h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f r e a s o n s w h y t h is p a r t ic u l a rv e r s i o n o f t o u r i s m ' s h i s t o ry h a s e n d u r e d . T h e n a t u r eo f t h e s o u r c e m a t e r i a l m o s t r e a d i l y a v a il a b l e t e n d s t oe m p h a s i z e p a r t i c u l a r s o c i al g r o u p s a n d a c t iv i t ie s . 5To u r i s t s ' d i a r i e s , l e t t e r s a n d j o u r n a l s g e n e r a l l y r e p -r e s e n t t h e w e a l t h y a n d p o w e r f u l i n s o c i e t y a n d t h eh i g h s u r v i v al r a t e o f t h e s e d o c u m e n t s i n c r e a s e s t h es o c ia l b ia s in t h e r e c o r d . D i a r i e s a n d j o u r n a l s t e n d t ob e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e m o r e r e m a r k a b l e t r a v e l

e v e n t s i n p e o p l e ' s l i v e s r a t h e r t h a n t h e r o u t i n e .T h u s , t h e G r a n d To u r is m u c h r e s e a r c h e d b u t o n l yo c c a s i o n a l l y h a v e d o c u m e n t s r e l a t e d t o v i s i t s t of r i e n d s a n d r e l a t iv e s s u r v i v e d i n d e t a i l e d f o r m . 6L a r g e - s c a l e a n d o r g a n i z e d t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t ss u c h a s s p a s , s e a s id e r e s o r t s , m a s s e n t e r t a i n m e n t s o rt r a v e l c o m p a n i e s h a v e t e n d e d t o g e n e r a t e t h e i r o w nl i te r a t u r e a n d c o m m e n t a r y. 7 S m a l l- s c al e , i n f o r m a la c t iv i t ie s t e n d t o g o u n r e c o r d e d . I n a d d i t i o n , t h es t a ti s ti c a l m e a s u r e m e n t o f t o u r i s m o n l y b e g a n i n th e1 9 20 s ~ a n d , e v e n h e r e , t h e b i a s t o w a r d s i n t e r n a t i o n a lt o u r i s m d a t a u n d e r p l a y s d o m e s t i c a c t i v it y. 4

A n o t h e r r e a s o n f o r t h e p r e v a il in g c o n v e n t i o n a l

v i e w o f t o u r i s m h i s t o r y r e l a te s t o t o u r i s m r e s e a r c hi t s e l f . M o s t r e s e a r c h ( i n c l u d i n g h i s t o r i c a l w o r k )t a k e s p l a c e i n B r i ta i n , o t h e r p a r t s o f We s t e r nE u r o p e a n d N o r t h A m e r i c a . ~ T h i s w o r k h a s b o t hd e f i n e d a n d d o m i n a t e d s t u d i e s o f th e s u b j e c t. R e -s e a r c h f r o m o t h e r r e g i o n s i s r a r e a n d l i n g u i s t i cb a r r i er s c o m p o u n d t h e w e s t e r n f o c u s o f r e se a r c h . I n

a d d i t i o n , l i n k s b e t w e e n t o u r i s m s t u d i e s a n d h i s t o r ya r e p o o r. M u c h o f th e b e s t w o r k o n t o u r is m h i s to r yh a s c o m e f r o m h i s t o r i a n s i n v e s t i g a t i n g l e i s u r e b u tthe i r f ind ing s r a re ly pen e t r a t e tou r i s m l i t e r a tu re . 5"'~T h u s , s o c i a l h i s t o r y h a s s u g g e s t e d i m p o r t a n t l o c a land r eg ion a l v a r i a t ions in l e i su re p rac t i ces "~'j l a sw e l l a s q u e s t i o n i n g s i m p l i s ti c n o t i o n s o f c la s se m u l a t i o n , j2 '1 3 T h e r e m a y a l s o b e a n e l e m e n t o fw h a t G r e e n 14 t e r m s ' m e t a p h o r i c a l t o u r i s m ' , i n t h ep r e f e r e n c e s o f r e s e a r c h e r s f o r p a r t i c u l a r e r a s a n df o r m s o f l e is u r e . C e r t a i n l y, i n t h e m o r e p o p u l a rh i s t o r ic a l s t u d ie s o f t o u r i s m t h e r e h a s b e e n a s t r o n gnos ta lg i c s t r ea k fo r ' go ld en ages ' o f tr ave l . 15"~

L i n k e d t o t h e a b o v e r e a s o n s i s t h e t e n d e n c y f o rt o u r is m r e s e a r c h t o h a v e b e e n c o n c e p t u a l i z e d b y t h ef u n c t i o n a l n e e d s o f t h e t o u r i s t i n d u s t r y. 17 T h i s h a sr e s u l t e d i n a p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t v i e w s t h e p a s t m o r e i nt e r m s o f k e y p e r s o n a l i t i e s , f i r m s a n d o rg a n i z a t i o n s( C o o k , L u n n , B u t l i n a n d D i s n e y ) , t e c h n o l o g i c a li n n o v a t i o n ( r a i lw a y s , o c e a n l i n e r s , m o t o r c ar s , a e r o -p l a n e s ) a n d b u s i n e s s i n n o v a t i o n s ( t r a v e l l e r s ' c h e -q u e s , p a c k a g e t o u r s , c h a r t e r f l i g h t s ) , t h a n m o r ein fo rma l ac t iv i t i e s .

Va r i a ti o n s o n w e l l -k n o w n t h e m e s

R e f e r e n c e t o a n u m b e r o f a p p a r e n t l y w e l l - k n o w ne p i s o d e s i n t o u r i s m ' s h i s t o r y ca n s e r v e t o d e m o n s -t r a t e h o w t h e p a s t i s m o r e v a r i e d a n d c o m p l e x t h a ni s g e n e r a l l y d e p i c t e d .

T h e 1 8 t h -c e n tu r y G r a n d T o u r o f E u r o p e h a s b ee nm u c h s t u d i e d w i t h r e s e a r c h u t i l i z i n g t h e e x t e n s i v er a n g e o f j o u r n a l s , l e t t e rs , d i a r i es a n d g u i d e b o o k sw h i c h h a v e s u r v i v e d . 2 'j~ F r o m t h is e v i d e n c e , t h et a s t es a n d a t t i t u d e s o f a p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p o f t r a v e l le r sc a n b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d , a s w e l l a s t h e i r r o u t e s a n dd e s t i n at i o n s , f o r m s o f t r a n s p o r t , a c c o m m o d a t i o na n d l e n g t h s o f v is it . L i n k s b e t w e e n t h e t o u r a n d a r ta n d a r c h i t e c t u r e i n B r i t a i n h a v e a l s o b e e n e x t e n s i v e -

ly r ev ie we d . 19-22 Bu t t he r e a re s ign i f i can t om iss ionsf r o m t h e r e c o r d . We k n o w v e r y l it tl e a b o u t t h e h o s ts o c i e t ie s , w h e t h e r d i r e c t l y c a t e r i n g f o r t h e n e e d s o fv i s i t o r s o r s i m p l y a s d e t a c h e d o b s e r v e r s . T h e r e i sr e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e w r i t t e n a b o u t t h e o t h e r n a t i o n a l i t i e st r a v e l l in g E u r o p e a t t h e s a m e t i m e . 22 I n a d d i t i o n , a st h e G r a n d To u r i s s t u d i e d a s a n i s o l a t e d e v e n t , i t i sr a r e l y p l a c e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f p a r t i c u l a r l e is u r el i f e s t y l e s a n d l i f e c y c l e s , s u c h a s c o u n t r y h o u s ev i s it in g , t h e L o n d o n s e a s o n , a n d v i s it s t o s p a s a n ds e a s i d e r e s o r t s . Wa s , f o r in s t a n c e , t h e t o u r r e p e a t e di n m o d i f i e d f o r m i n l a t e r y e a r s ? H o w d i d t h e e x p e r i -e n c e o f a G r a n d To u r i n f l u e n c e l ei s u re a n d t o u r i s m

3 40 Tourism Management 199.5 Volume 16 Number 5

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i n l a t e r l i fe ? T h e d a t a t o i n v e s t i g a t e s u c h q u e s t i o n sa r e s c a r c e , b u t t h e p o i n t i s t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n s h a v er a r e ly b e e n p o s e d . O n l y o c c a s i o n a l ly d o w e s e e t h eG r a n d To u r w i t h in t h e w i d e r p i c t u r e o f 1 8 th - c e n t u r ylife a nd leis ur e. 23"24

T h e g r o w t h o f s p e c i a l i z e d t o u r i s t p l a c e s s u c h a ss p a s a n d s e a s i d e r e s o r t s h a s a l s o a t t r a c t e d m u c h

a t t e n t io n . T h e y g e n e r a t e d a w e a l th o f r e s e a rc hm a t e r i a l b u t a t t e n t i o n h a s t e n d e d t o f o cu s o n t h ev i s i t o r s t o s u c h p l a c e s a n d , w i t h s o m e n o t a b l e e x c e p -t i o n s , w e k n o w m u c h l e s s a b o u t t h e r e s o r tw o r k e r s . 2-~2 7 T h e r e h a v e a l s o b e e n f e w s t u d i e s o ft h e f u n c t i o n o f r e s o r ts a s c e n t r e s o f c o n s u m p t i o n : o fl u x u r i e s a n d o t h e r g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s c r e a t i n g d i s -t i n c t p a t t e r n s o f s u p p l y a n d d e m a n d . 2~ C u l t u r a lv a r i a t i o n s i n r e s o r t d e v e l o p m e n t r e m a i n t o b e e x -p l o r e d f u ll y. T h e c o n t i n u i t y o f s p a l i f e i n H u n g a r ya l w a y s a t t r a c t e d a w i d e s o c i a l c l i e n t e le . 2 j T h e s p a s o ft h e s o u t h e r n s t a t e s o f t h e U S A i n t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r ys e r v e d a r u r a l m a r k e t , w h i l s t s p a s i n t h e n o r t h w e r e

l a rg e l y u r b a n i n c h a r a c t e r : ° L e i s u r e h a b i ts f o r t h eG e r m a n b o u r g e o i s i e in t h e m i d - 18 0 0 s w e r e o f t e nh i g h l y l o c a l i z e d a n d t h i s c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e l a c k o fr e s o r t d e v e l o p m e n t o n t h e n o r t h G e r m a n c o a s t u n t i lt h e e a r l y y e a r s o f t h i s c e n t u r y. 3~ I n c o n t r a s t , a f f l u e n tI t a l ia n s o c i a l l i fe i n th e s a m e p e r i o d e m b r a c e d l o c alt o w n , c o u n t r y s p a s a n d s e a s i d e r e s o r t s , y e t t r a v e la b r o a d w a s l im i t e d a n d r a re l y e x t e n d e d b e y o n dS w i t z e r l a n d a n d t h e S o u t h Ty r o l . 32

S t u d i e s o f r e s o r t e v o l u t i o n a l s o t e n d t o t r a c e t h eh i s t o r y o f s u c c e s s , w h e r e a s a f u l l e r p i c t u r e i s ac o m p l e x p a t t e r n o f su c c es s a n d f a i l u re . T h e p e r i o do f s p a g r o w t h i n E n g l a n d ( c . 1 5 5 0 - 1 8 2 0 ) w a s m a r k e d

b y a m u l t i t u d e o f s p a b ir t h s a n d d e a t h s , n o t a s m o o t hpro jec t ion o f r i s e and dec l ine . 33 An d , i t is a lso to os i m p l i s t i c t o s e e t h e s e E n g l i s h s p a s o p e r a t i n g i ni s o l a t i o n f r o m a m u c h w i d e r u r b a n l e i s u r e s y s t e m . I na d d i t i o n t o L o n d o n , m a n y t o w n s a n d c i t i e s i n t h e1 7 t h a n d 1 8 t h c e n t u r i e s a c q u i r e d a l e i s u r e f u n c t i o n ,o f w h i c h s p a s w e r e r e a l l y t h e m o s t s p e c i a l i z e de x t r e m e . 3 43 5 L e i s u r e d s o c i e ty m o v e d b e t w e e n b o t hs p a a n d l e i s u r e t o w n .

S e c o n d h o m e s , t h o s e t e m p o r a r y r e t r e a t s f r o mu r b a n t o r u r a l s e t t in g s , h a v e a l o n g h i s t o r y.A l t h o u g h t h e u s u a l p i c t u r e i s g e n e r a l l y c o n f i n e d t ow e s t e r n s o c i e t ie s , t r a c i n g d e s c e n t f r o m t h e R o m a n

3 6 - 8

a n d R e n a i s s a n c e v i ll a, - " t h e r e i s e v i d e n c e o f t h i sp r a c t i c e in o t h e r c u l t u r e s . B o t h s i d e s o f t h e B o s p o r -u s , a r o u n d I s t a n b u l , h a d c o u n t r y h o u s e s . T h e r e w e r et h e ' r a i s ' o f A l g i e r s o n t h e S a h e l h i ll s a n d i n d i c a -t io n s , f r o m t h e l l t h c e n t u r y o n w a r d s , o f C h i n e se' p l e a s u r e h o u s e s ' w i t h t h e i r w a t e r g a r d e n s a n dg r o v e s . I f t h e p h e n o m e n o n is l es s o b v i o u s in t h e F a rE a s t , t h i s h a s i n p a r t b e e n a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e i n a d e -

39 O S Wq u a c y o f d o c u m e n t a t i o n . - S e c o n d h u s e e r e n o ts i m p ly t h e p r e s e r v e o f t h e w e a l th y e i t h e r. G r e e n h a ss h o w n h o w a v a r i e t y o f s o c i al c la s s e s a c q u i r e ds e c o n d h o u s e s a r o u n d P a r i s i n t h e l a s t c e n t u r y a n de a c h g r o u p h a d d i f f e r i n g m o t i v e s f o r r u r a l h a v e n s . 14

Current issues

T h e d e v e l o p m e n t b y t h e r e l at i v el y p o o r o f c h e a ph o l i d a y h o m e s o n s m a l l p lo t s o f la n d i n l a t e r 1 9 t hc e n t u r y B r i t a i n o w e d m o r e t o s e l f - h e l p t h a n s o c i a le m u l a t i o n 4 ° a n d r e i n f o r c e s w i d e r n o t i o n s o f m i d d l e -a n d w o r k i n g - c l a s s f a m i l ie s c r e a t i n g t h e i r o w n l e i s u r epa t te rn s and pra ct ice s . 7'11>~3

T h e s e l i m i te d e x a m p l e s s u g g e st t h a t , e v e n f o r

e p i s o d e s i n t o u r i s m ' s h i s t o r y t h a t a r e f a i r l y w e l ld o c u m e n t e d , c o n v e n t i o n a l i m a g e s a re t o o r e s t r ic t e da n d o v e r l o o k t h e i m m e n s e v a r i e t y o f e x p e r i e n c e st h a t w e r e t a k i n g p l a c e i n t h e p a s t .

Conclus ion: explor ing tour ism 's h is toryH a v i n g a r g u e d t h e n e e d t o e x p a n d o u r h o r i z o n s o v e rw h a t c o n s t i t u t e s t o u r i s m ' s h i s t o r y, a n u m b e r o fs u g g e s t i o n s a r e o f f e r e d a s a s t i m u l u s f o r f u r t h e rr e s e a r c h .

N e w g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a s n e e d t o b e i n c o r p o r a t e di n t o to u r i s m h i s to r y s tu d i e s. W e s t e r n c o n c e p t s o f

l e i s u r e a n d t o u r i s m s h o u l d b e p l a c e d w i t h i n a m u c hw i d e r h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e . S t r o n g e r i n t e r d i s c i p l i n -a r y l i n k s w i t h h i s t o r y a l s o r e m a i n a p r i o r i t y w i t h i nt h e f i e l d . B a i l e y ' s c o n c l u s i o n o n t h e e v o l u t i o n o fl e i s u r e a s ' e r r a t i c , c o m p l e x a n d c o n t e n t i o u s ' h a s ac l e a r m e s s a g e f o r t o u r i s m h i s t o r y. 12 U n l e s s t o u r i s mh i s t o r y e n g a g e s i n t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a n d i d e o l o g i c a ld e b a t e t h a t e x i s t s a m o n g l e i s u r e h i s t o r i a n s , t h e n i tw i l l r e m a i n a s a s u p e r f i c i a l p r e f a c e t o c o n t e m p o r a r yt o u r i s m r e s e a r c h .

P a r t o f t h is p r o c e s s r e q u i r e s a c l o s e r i n t e g r a t i o n o fl e is u r e , r e c r e a t i o n a n d t o u r i s m r a t h e r t h a n c o m p a r t -m e n t a l i z i n g t h e m i n t o s e p a r a t e a r e a s . H i s t o r i a n s

h a v e b e e n u n e n c u m b e r e d b y th e s e d i v is i on s a n d s oh a v e p r o d u c e d r i c h e r c o n t e x tu a l s t u d i es o f l ei s u rea n d t o u r i s m . B y m o v i n g a w a y f r o m s e e i n g t o u r is mj o u r n e y s a s is o l a te d e v e n t s , r e s e a r c h s h o u l d e m b r a c ew i d e r t o u r i s t l i f e st y l e a n d l i fe - c y c l e f r a m e w o r k s .C l o s e r e x a m i n a t i o n i s a ls o n e e d e d o f c o n d i ti o n so p e r a t i n g i n t h e c e n t r e s o f d e m a n d w h e r e t h e r e h a v eb e e n i m p o r t a n t l o c a l a n d r e g i o n a l v a r i a t i o n s i n l e i -su re cu l tu res .41 44 Th i s m or e ho l i s t i c sy s t em sa p p r o a c h a l so h ig h l i g h ts t h e m e s o f c h a n g e a n d c o n -t i n u it y w i t h in t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t . S o m e s y s t e m sh a v e h a d r e m a r k a b l e l o n g - t e r m e n d u r a n c e , o t h e r sh a v e e x p e r i e n c e d r a p i d r is e a n d d e c li n e . We r e s o m e

c h a n g e s t h e r e s u l t o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l in n o v a t i o n s( s i m p l y c r e a t i n g d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n s ) o r t h e r e s u l t o fm o r e d e e p - s e a t e d p r o c e s s e s o f c u l t u ra l c h a n g e ?

To u r i s m h i s t o r y a l s o n e e d s t o b e c o m e m o r ei d e o lo g i c a ll y a w a r e . U n s t a t e d v a l u e ju d g e m e n t sp e r m e a t e m a n y c o m m o n l y h e l d v ie w s o f t h e p a st .T h e i d e a o f ' d e c l i n e ' f o r re s o r t s , f o r i n s t a n c e , h a so f t e n r e l a t e d m o r e t o a c h a n g e i n s o c i a l c l a s s t h a nt h e n u m b e r s o f v i s i to r s . T h e v i s io n o f a ' g o l d e n a g e 'o f to u r i s m b e f o r e t h e m a s s e s o w e s m o r e t o s o c i ala t t i t u d e s t h a n r e a l i ty. E l s e w h e r e , i t is o n l y re l a t i v e l yr e c e n t l y th a t t h e r o l e o f w o m e n , b o t h a s to u r i s ts a n da s t o u r i s m w o r k e r s h a s b e e n a c k n o w l e d g e d 2 s-2 v'4 s-4 v

Tourism Management 1995 Volume 16 Number 5 341

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7/30/2019 Towner Tourisms History

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C u r r e n t i ssu e s'

a n d t h e r o l e o f c h i l d r e n h a s h a r d l y b e e n t o u c h e du p o n .

E x p l o r i n g t h e s e a l t e r n at i v e p e r s p e c t i v e s r e q u i r e s as e a r c h f o r d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s o f m a t e r i a l . O r a l h i s t o r yo f f e r s m a n y e x c i t i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r s t u d i e s o f l e i -s u r e a n d t o u r i s m i n t h e r e c e n t p a s t a n d h a s t h ep o t e n t i a l t o p la c e t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h i n th e c o n -

t e x t o f e v e r y d a y l i v e s . a l - 4 a W o r k s o f fi c t io n , e s p e -c i a l ly s o c i a l n o v e l s , a r e a n o t h e r s o u r c e t h a t d e s e r v e sf u r t h er a t t e n t i o n . N o v e l s c a n p r o v i d e v a l u a b le i n -s i g h t s i n t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n l e i s u r e a n dt o u r i s m a n d t h e m e n t a l i t y o f a p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r e . F o rB r i t a in , t h e w o r k s o f S m o l l e t t , J a n e A u s t e n , D i c k -e n s , T r o l lo p e , H G We l l s a n d A r n o l d B e n n e t t a re ar i c h s o u r c e w h i c h c a n b e q u a r r i e d e i t h e r f o r f a c t u a li n f o r m a t i o n o r f o r d e e p e r e n q u i r i e s i n t o t h e m e s s u c ha s s e n s e o f p l a c e , a s S i m i l a r i d e a s a p p l y t o u s i n g t h ev i s u a l a r t s. P a i n t i n g s , d r a w i n g s a n d p h o t o g r a p h s c a nb e u s e d a t o n e l e v e l f o r f a c t u a l e v i d e n c e o f l e i s u r es c e n e s b u t c an a l s o b e a n a l y s e d f o r a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g

o f c o n t e m p o r a r y c u l t u r e. H e r b e r t , f o r e x a m p l e , h a se x p l o r e d t h e r e l a ti o n s h i p b e t w e e n I m p r e s s i o n i st a r t ,l e i s u r e a n d P a r i s i a n s o c i e t y, c o m b i n i n g p i c t u r ea n a l y s i s w i t h s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l m a t e r i a l , a n d h a s i n d i -c a t e d h o w a r t c a n g i ve a v ie w o f p h e n o m e n a r a r e lyr e c o r d e d e l s e w h e r e . 49

T h u s , p a i n t i n g s o f t h e n o r t h F r e n c h c o a s t i n t h e1 8 6 0s o f t e n s u b t ly d e p ic t e n c o u n t e r s b e t w e e n t h eg r o w i n g n u m b e r o f v i s i t o r s t o t h e a r e a a n d t h e l o c a lp o p u l a t i o n . A t a n e ar l ie r d a t e w e h a v e L u d o l f d eJ o n g h e ' s ' F a r e w e l ls B e f o r e a C o u n t r y H o u s e ' w h i c h ,S c h a m a c l a i m s , p o r t r a y s a w h o l e w o r l d o f 1 7 t h -c e n t u r y D u t c h l e is u r e c u l t u r e , s ° A l e x a n d e r C a r s e 's

( 1 8 1 2 ) ' T h e Vi s i t o f t h e C o u n t r y R e l a t i o n s '5~ n o to n l y s h o w s t h e m e e t i n g o f u r b a n a n d r u r a l c u l t u r e sb u t h o w t h i s e n c o u n t e r a f f e c t s m a l e s a n d f e m a l e s i nv e r y d i f f e r e n t w a y s . T h u s , l i t e r a r y s o u r c e s f r o mf i c t i o n a n d t h e v i s u a l a r t s a r e n o t m e r e l y s u r r o g a t e si n t h e a b s e n c e o f m o r e ' h a r d ' d a t a , b u t c o n s t i t u t e av a l u a b l e s o u r c e i n t h e i r o w n r i g h t f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n gl e i s u r e a n d t o u r i s m i n p a s t a g e s .

I h a v e a rg u e d i n t h i s r e v i e w t h a t m u c h o f t o u r i s mh i s t o r y, as s e e n t h r o u g h t h e e y e s o f t o u r is m s t u d i e s ,i s t o o n a r r o w a n d s i m p l i s t ic . I n q u e s t i o n i n g a n u m -b e r o f a s s u m p t i o n s a n d s u g g e s t i n g a l t e r n a t i v e p e r s -p e c t i v e s t h e a b o v e d i s c u s s i o n i s i n t e n d e d a s a s t a rt -

i n g p o i n t f o r d e b a t e a n d f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h ; v e r y f e wa n s w e r s h a v e b e e n p r o v i d e d . A t i ts h e a r t , h o w e v e r ,l i e s t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e h i s t o r y o f t o u r i s m i s m o r e t h es t o r y o f s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a t i o n s i n d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s a td i f f e r e n t t i m e s i n d i f f e r e n t p l a c e s , r a t h e r t h a n t h es t o r y o f a n i n e x o r a b l e s p r e a d o f We s t E u r o p e a nc o n c e p t s a n d p r a c t i c e s t o t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r l d .

R e f e r e n c e s

~Thompson, F Lark R i se t o Cand le fo rdPengu in , Harmond-sworth , UK (1939/1973)2Towner, J 'The Grand Tour: a key phase in the his tory oftourism" Anna l s o f Tour i sm Resea rch1985 12 (3) 297-333

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~( 'Ackerman, J SThe Vi l la : Form and Ideology of Country H ousesThames and Hudson , London (1990)37Casson, L Travel in the Ancient WorldA l i e n a nd U n w i n ,London (1974)3SMuraro, M Venetian Villas: The History and CultureRizzol i ,New Y ork (1986)3'~Braudel, FThe Structures o f Everyda y L ifeVo l 1 Civilizationand Capitalism Fontana Press , London (1985)4°Hardy, D and Ward , CArcadia for Al l : The Leg acy of aMakeshif t LandscapeMansel l , London (1984)41Abrams, LWorkers" Culture in Imperial GermanyRou t l edge ,London (1992)aaCrump, J 'Recreat ion in Coventry between the wars" in Lancas-ter, W and Mason, A (eds)Life and Labour in a TwentiethCentury Ci ty: The Exper ience o f CoventryCryf ie ld Press , London(1986)43Davies, ALeisure, Gen der and PoverO,, Wo rking Class Culturein Salford and M anchester, 1900-1939Open Un ive r s i ty P res s ,Buckingham (1992)

CuFgent issues

44King, E 'Popular cul ture in Glasgow" in Cage, R A (ed)TheWorking Class in Glasgow, 1750-1914C r o o m H e l m , L o n d o n(1987)a~Meyer, P J B 'No land too remote: women t ravel lers in theGeorg ian age ' doc to ra l d i s se r t a ti on , Un ive r s i ty o f Massachuse tt s(1978)46Bouquet , MFamily Servants and Visitors: The Farm Householdin Nineteenth and Twentieth Century DevonGeo Books , Norwich(1985)4VPemble, JThe Mediterranean PassionOxfo rd Un ive r s i ty P ress ,Oxford (1987)4SHerber t, D 'Place and socie ty in Jane Au sten 's England"Geography 1991 76 (part 3) 193-2084'~Herbert,R L Impressionism: Art, Leisure and Parisian SocietyYa le Un ive r s i ty P res s , New York (1988)5~Schama, SThe Embarrassm ent o f Riches: A n Interpreta t ion ofDutch Culture in the Golden AgeFontana Press , London (1987)S~Macmillan, DScottish Art, 1460-1990Mains t r eam Pub l i sh ing ,Edinburgh (1990)

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