towner tourisms history

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I ~ UTTE RWO RTH E I N E M A N N 0261-5177(95)00032-1 Current issues Tourism Management, Vol. 16, No. 5, pp. 33%343, 1995 Copyrigh t © 1995 Elsevier Sci ence Ltd Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved 0261-5177/95 $10.00 + 0.00 What is tourism' s history ? John Towner School of Geography and Environmental Management, University of Northumbria at Newc astle, Newcas tle Upon Tyne N E1 8ST, UK The conventional view of tourism's past is dominated by the history of western cultural experience. Tourism starts with the wealthy, with images of prestigious visits to spas and seaside resorts, Grand Tours and the activities of business entrepreneurs such as Thomas Cook, before it begins to filter down the social ladder. This paper argues that more attention should be paid to tourism's past in non-western societies and cultures and to the more ordinary and routine practices of a wider cross-section of the population. It is too simplistic to portray tourism's evolution as a geographical process of diffusion from one or two core areas and a social process of downward movement from the affluent. Reasons for the prevailing image of tourism's past are suggested and several ideas are proposed for broadening research into its history. One summer's day in August 1887, an ll-year-old girl and her nine-year-old brother set out from their Oxfordshire village to walk the eight miles to the local town to spend a month's holiday with their aunt and uncle. The journey itself was full of novel experiences: A streak of clear water was to them what a cataract might have been to more seasoned travellers; and the wagons they met, with names of strange farmers and farms painted across the front, were as exciting as hearing a strange language.l A new world was encountered in the small town, with different customs and sights; where even visit- ing the local shops was a memorable event. The holiday, informally organized, a short distance from home, and involving little expenditure, became a vital experience in the lives of these relatively poor children. Furthermore, their visit forms just as much a part of the history of tourism as a trip to a spa or seaside resort, a Grand Tour, or an exotic journey under the care of Thom as Cook. Yet, it is the latter images which dominate our ideas of tourism's past (and here I plead guilty myself), 2 and which have created a particular view of how tourism has evolved over time. In this review, it is argued that much of what we know and think is important about the evolution of tourism is conditioned by certain histor- ical perspectives and that a conventional view of the past requires considerable revision. A conventional view of tourism's history Tourism history as it appears in much tourism litera- ture can be summarized briefly. It is largely con- cerned with the activities of the affluent, occurring in particular tourism settings such as resorts or lengthy tours. These forms of tourism are prestigious events which occurred periodically in people's lives and their significance is generally assessed in quantifiable terms such as length of visit and economic outlay. But, fundamentally, this is a history of western cultural experience; beginning with the leisured 61ites of ancient Greece and Rome, the re- emergence of tourism in the Renaissance, and the development of spas and Grand Tours in the 17th and 18th centuries. The story continues with the seaside resorts of the 19th century and the spread of international tourism through the agency of Thomas Cook and his successors. From the mid-20th cen- tury, the whole movement is accelerated by the jet aeroplane and charter flights. Within this process, 33 9

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Page 1: Towner Tourisms History

7/30/2019 Towner Tourisms History

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/towner-tourisms-history 1/5

I ~U T T E R W O R T HE I N E M A N N

0261-5177(95)00032-1

C u r r e n t i s s u e s

Tourism Management, Vol. 16, No. 5, pp. 33%343, 1995Copyrigh t © 1995 Elsevier Science Ltd

Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved0261-5177/95 $10.00 + 0.00

W h a t is t o u r i s m ' s h i s to r y ?

J o h n T o w n e r

School of Geography and Environmental Management, University of Northumbria at Newcastle,Newcastle Upon Tyne NE1 8ST, UK

T h e c o n v e n t i o n a l v i e w o f to u r i s m ' s p a s t is d o m i n a t e d b y t h e h i st o r y o f w e s t e r n c u l t u r a le x p e r i e n c e . To u r i s m s t a r ts w i t h t h e w e a l t h y, w i t h i m a g e s o f p r e s t ig i o u s v i s it s to s p a s a n d s e a s i d er e s o r t s , G r a n d T o u r s a n d t h e a c ti v it i es o f b u s i n e s s e n t r e p r e n e u r s s u c h a s T h o m a s C o o k , b e f o r ei t b e g i n s t o f il te r d o w n t h e s o c i a l l a d d e r . T h i s p a p e r a r g u e s t h a t m o r e a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d b e p a i d t ot o u r i s m ' s p a s t i n n o n - w e s t e r n s o c i e t i es a n d c u l t u r e s a n d t o t h e m o r e o r d i n a r y a n d r o u t i n ep r a c t i c e s o f a w i d e r c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n . I t is t o o s im p l i s t ic t o p o r t r a y t o u r i s m ' se v o l u t i o n a s a g e o g r a p h i c a l p r o c e s s o f d i f f u si o n f r o m o n e o r t w o c o r e a r e a s a n d a s o c ia l p r o c e s so f d o w n w a r d m o v e m e n t f r o m t h e af f lu e n t . R e a s o n s f o r th e p r e v a il in g i m a g e o f to u r i s m ' s p a s ta r e s u g g e s t e d a n d s e v e r a l i d e as a r e p r o p o s e d f o r b r o a d e n i n g r e s e a r c h i n t o it s h i s t o r y.

O n e s u m m e r ' s d ay in A u g u s t 1 88 7, a n l l - y e a r - o l dg i rl a n d h e r n i n e - y e a r - o l d b r o t h e r s e t o u t f r o m t h e i rO x f o r d s h i r e v i l l a g e t o w a l k t h e e i g h t m i l e s t o t h el o c a l t o w n t o s p e n d a m o n t h ' s h o l i d a y w i t h th e i r a u n ta n d u n c l e . T h e j o u r n e y i ts e l f w a s f u ll o f n o v e le x p e r i e n c e s :

A s t r eak o f c lea r wa te r was to t hem wha t a ca t a r ac tmigh t have been t o more s ea soned t r ave l l e r s ; andthe wagons t hey m e t , w i th names o f s tr ange f a rmer sand farms pa in ted across the f ront , were as exci t ingas hear ing a s t range language . l

A n e w w o r l d w a s e n c o u n t e r e d i n t h e s m a l l t o w n ,

w i t h d i f f e r e n t c u s t o m s a n d s i g h t s ; w h e r e e v e n v i s i t -i n g t h e l o c a l s h o p s w a s a m e m o r a b l e e v e n t . T h eh o l i d a y, i n f o r m a l l y o r g a n i z e d , a s h o r t d i s t a n c e f r o mh o m e , a n d i n v o l v i n g l it tl e e x p e n d i t u r e , b e c a m e av i ta l e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e l i v es o f th e s e r e l a t iv e l y p o o rc h i l d r e n . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e i r vi si t f o r m s j u s t as m u c ha p a r t o f t h e h i s t o r y o f t o u r i s m a s a t r i p t o a s p a o rs e a s i d e r e s o r t, a G r a n d To u r , o r a n e x o t ic j o u r n e yu n d e r t h e c a r e o f T h o m a s C o o k . Ye t , i t is t h e l a t t e ri m a g e s w h i ch d o m i n a t e o u r i d e a s o f to u r i s m ' s p a s t( a n d h e r e I p l e a d g u i l ty m y s e l f ) , 2 a n d w h i c h h a v ec r e a t e d a p a r t i c u l a r v i e w o f h o w t o u r i s m h a s e v o l v e do v e r t i m e . I n th i s r e v i e w, i t is a r g u e d t h a t m u c h o f

w h a t w e k n o w a n d t h in k i s i m p o r t a n t a b o u t t h ee v o l u t i o n o f t o u r i s m i s c o n d i t i o n e d b y c e r t a i n h i s t o r -i ca l p e r s p e c t i v e s a n d t h a t a c o n v e n t i o n a l v i e w o f t h ep a s t r e q u i r e s c o n s i d e r a b l e r e v i s i o n .

A c o n v e n t i o n a l v i e w o f t o u r i s m ' s h i s t o r y

To u r i s m h i s t o r y a s i t a p p e a r s i n m u c h t o u r i s m l i te r a -t u r e c a n b e s u m m a r i z e d b r i e fl y. I t is l a r g e l y c o n -c e r n e d w i t h t h e a c t i v i ti e s o f t h e a f f l u e n t , o c c u r r i n g i np a r t i c u l a r t o u r i s m s e t t i n g s s u c h a s r e s o r t s o r l e n g t h yt o u r s . T h e s e f o r m s o f t o u r i s m a r e p r e s t ig i o u s e v e n t sw h i c h o c c u r r e d p e r i o d i c a l l y i n p e o p l e ' s l i v e s a n d

t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e i s g e n e r a l l y a s s e s s e d i n q u a n t i f i a b l et e r m s s u c h a s le n g t h o f v i si t a n d e c o n o m i c o u t l a y.B u t , f u n d a m e n t a l l y, t h is i s a h i s to r y o f w e s t e r nc u l t u r a l e x p e r i e n c e ; b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e l e i s u r e d6 1i te s o f a n c i e n t G r e e c e a n d R o m e , t h e r e -e m e r g e n c e o f t o u r i sm i n th e R e n a i s s a n c e , a n d t h ed e v e l o p m e n t o f s p a s a n d G r a n d To u r s i n th e 1 7 tha n d 1 8 t h c e n t u r i e s . T h e s t o r y c o n t i n u e s w i t h th es e a s i d e r e s o r t s o f t h e 1 9 th c e n t u r y a n d t h e s p r e a d o fi n t e r n at i o n a l t o u r i s m t h r o u g h t h e a g e n c y o f T h o m a sC o o k a n d h i s s u c c e s s o rs . F r o m t h e m i d - 2 0 t h c e n -t u r y , t h e w h o l e m o v e m e n t i s a c c e l e r a te d b y t h e j e ta e r o p l a n e a n d c h a r t e r f l i g h t s . Wi t h i n t h i s p r o c e s s ,

339

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Current issues

t o u r i s m i s s e e n a s d i s p e r s i n g g e o g r a p h i c a l l y e v e ro u t w a r d s f r o m i t s o r i g i n s i n B r i t a i n a n d We s t e r nE u r o p e , c r e a t in g a s e r ie s o f ' p l e a s u r e p e r i p h e r i e s ' , 3a n d s p r e a d i n g s o c i a l l y f r o m t h e u p p e r c l a s se s , d o w nt h r o u g h t h e m i d d l e r a n k s a n d u l t im a t e l y t o th e m a s sw o r k i n g c l a s s e s . I m p o r t a n t a g e n t s i n t h i s m o v e m e n ta r e s o c i a l e m u l a t i o n , i m p r o v e m e n t s i n t e c h n o l o g y

( e s p e c i a l ly t r a n s p o r t ) 4 a n d t h e r o l e o f i n n o v a t o r s a n de n t r e p r e n e u r s .B u t , i s t h is r e a l l y t h e e s s e n c e o f t o u r i s m ' s h i s t o r y ?

T h e e m p h a s i s i s o n t h e o c c a s i o n a l a n d p r e s t i g i o u se p i s o d e a n d a m e c h a n i s t i c p o r t r a y a l o f t o u r i s ms p r e a d i n g o u t w a r d s f r o m a E u r o p e a n h e a r t l a n d a n dp e r m e a t i n g d o w n w a r d s f r o m a w e a l t h y 6 1 i t e t o t h em a s s o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n . I t i s t o u r i s m t h a t w a se s s e n t i a ll y o rg a n i z e d a n d i n v o l v e d t h e m o s t t i m e a n dm o n e y. S u c h a v i ew, h o w e v e r , u n d e r p l a y s t h e i n f o r-m a l , t h e r o u t i n e , t h e ' o r d i n a r y ' , m o r e l o c a l i z e d ,t o u r i s m p r a c t i c e s a s t h e y h a v e v a r i e d b e t w e e n a n dw i t h i n c o u n t r i e s a n d c u l tu r e s . E x p e r i e n c e s w h i c h

i n v o l v e d le ss t im e a n d e x p e n d i t u r e , b u t w e r e n e v e r -the le s s s ign i f i can t i n the l i ves o f t he pa r t i c ip an t s ,b e c o m e o v e r l o o k e d .

T h i s c o n v e n t i o n a l i m a g e i s a ' c o l o n i a l ' v i e w o ft o u r i s m h i s t o r y, w h e r e b y a n a c ti v it y d e f in e d b y a n dr e s e a r c h e d i n w e s t e r n c u l t u r e s is s e e n t o h a v e b e e nb r o u g h t o v e r ti m e t o n e w p e o p l e s a n d s o c ie t ie s . Ye t ,w e k n o w r e m a r k a b l y l i t t l e a b o u t t h e h i s t o r y o fl e i s u r e i n c u l t u r e s s u c h a s C h i n a , I n d i a a n d J a p a na n d i t is h a r d t o b e l i e v e t h a t f o r m s o f to u r i s m d i d n o tex i s t in the pas t i n these soc ie t i e s . So f a r, a l l we ha ves t u d i e d i s a w e s t e r n m o d e l o f to u r i s m e v o l u t i o n , n o th o w i t h a s v a r i e d i n d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s i n d i f f e r e n t

t imes .

W h y h a s t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l v i e w p r e v a i l e d ?T h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f r e a s o n s w h y t h is p a r t ic u l a rv e r s i o n o f t o u r i s m ' s h i s t o ry h a s e n d u r e d . T h e n a t u r eo f t h e s o u r c e m a t e r i a l m o s t r e a d i l y a v a il a b l e t e n d s t oe m p h a s i z e p a r t i c u l a r s o c i al g r o u p s a n d a c t iv i t ie s . 5To u r i s t s ' d i a r i e s , l e t t e r s a n d j o u r n a l s g e n e r a l l y r e p -r e s e n t t h e w e a l t h y a n d p o w e r f u l i n s o c i e t y a n d t h eh i g h s u r v i v al r a t e o f t h e s e d o c u m e n t s i n c r e a s e s t h es o c ia l b ia s in t h e r e c o r d . D i a r i e s a n d j o u r n a l s t e n d t ob e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e m o r e r e m a r k a b l e t r a v e l

e v e n t s i n p e o p l e ' s l i v e s r a t h e r t h a n t h e r o u t i n e .T h u s , t h e G r a n d To u r is m u c h r e s e a r c h e d b u t o n l yo c c a s i o n a l l y h a v e d o c u m e n t s r e l a t e d t o v i s i t s t of r i e n d s a n d r e l a t iv e s s u r v i v e d i n d e t a i l e d f o r m . 6L a r g e - s c a l e a n d o r g a n i z e d t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t ss u c h a s s p a s , s e a s id e r e s o r t s , m a s s e n t e r t a i n m e n t s o rt r a v e l c o m p a n i e s h a v e t e n d e d t o g e n e r a t e t h e i r o w nl i te r a t u r e a n d c o m m e n t a r y. 7 S m a l l- s c al e , i n f o r m a la c t iv i t ie s t e n d t o g o u n r e c o r d e d . I n a d d i t i o n , t h es t a ti s ti c a l m e a s u r e m e n t o f t o u r i s m o n l y b e g a n i n th e1 9 20 s ~ a n d , e v e n h e r e , t h e b i a s t o w a r d s i n t e r n a t i o n a lt o u r i s m d a t a u n d e r p l a y s d o m e s t i c a c t i v it y. 4

A n o t h e r r e a s o n f o r t h e p r e v a il in g c o n v e n t i o n a l

v i e w o f t o u r i s m h i s t o r y r e l a te s t o t o u r i s m r e s e a r c hi t s e l f . M o s t r e s e a r c h ( i n c l u d i n g h i s t o r i c a l w o r k )t a k e s p l a c e i n B r i ta i n , o t h e r p a r t s o f We s t e r nE u r o p e a n d N o r t h A m e r i c a . ~ T h i s w o r k h a s b o t hd e f i n e d a n d d o m i n a t e d s t u d i e s o f th e s u b j e c t. R e -s e a r c h f r o m o t h e r r e g i o n s i s r a r e a n d l i n g u i s t i cb a r r i er s c o m p o u n d t h e w e s t e r n f o c u s o f r e se a r c h . I n

a d d i t i o n , l i n k s b e t w e e n t o u r i s m s t u d i e s a n d h i s t o r ya r e p o o r. M u c h o f th e b e s t w o r k o n t o u r is m h i s to r yh a s c o m e f r o m h i s t o r i a n s i n v e s t i g a t i n g l e i s u r e b u tthe i r f ind ing s r a re ly pen e t r a t e tou r i s m l i t e r a tu re . 5"'~T h u s , s o c i a l h i s t o r y h a s s u g g e s t e d i m p o r t a n t l o c a land r eg ion a l v a r i a t ions in l e i su re p rac t i ces "~'j l a sw e l l a s q u e s t i o n i n g s i m p l i s ti c n o t i o n s o f c la s se m u l a t i o n , j2 '1 3 T h e r e m a y a l s o b e a n e l e m e n t o fw h a t G r e e n 14 t e r m s ' m e t a p h o r i c a l t o u r i s m ' , i n t h ep r e f e r e n c e s o f r e s e a r c h e r s f o r p a r t i c u l a r e r a s a n df o r m s o f l e is u r e . C e r t a i n l y, i n t h e m o r e p o p u l a rh i s t o r ic a l s t u d ie s o f t o u r i s m t h e r e h a s b e e n a s t r o n gnos ta lg i c s t r ea k fo r ' go ld en ages ' o f tr ave l . 15"~

L i n k e d t o t h e a b o v e r e a s o n s i s t h e t e n d e n c y f o rt o u r is m r e s e a r c h t o h a v e b e e n c o n c e p t u a l i z e d b y t h ef u n c t i o n a l n e e d s o f t h e t o u r i s t i n d u s t r y. 17 T h i s h a sr e s u l t e d i n a p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t v i e w s t h e p a s t m o r e i nt e r m s o f k e y p e r s o n a l i t i e s , f i r m s a n d o rg a n i z a t i o n s( C o o k , L u n n , B u t l i n a n d D i s n e y ) , t e c h n o l o g i c a li n n o v a t i o n ( r a i lw a y s , o c e a n l i n e r s , m o t o r c ar s , a e r o -p l a n e s ) a n d b u s i n e s s i n n o v a t i o n s ( t r a v e l l e r s ' c h e -q u e s , p a c k a g e t o u r s , c h a r t e r f l i g h t s ) , t h a n m o r ein fo rma l ac t iv i t i e s .

Va r i a ti o n s o n w e l l -k n o w n t h e m e s

R e f e r e n c e t o a n u m b e r o f a p p a r e n t l y w e l l - k n o w ne p i s o d e s i n t o u r i s m ' s h i s t o r y ca n s e r v e t o d e m o n s -t r a t e h o w t h e p a s t i s m o r e v a r i e d a n d c o m p l e x t h a ni s g e n e r a l l y d e p i c t e d .

T h e 1 8 t h -c e n tu r y G r a n d T o u r o f E u r o p e h a s b ee nm u c h s t u d i e d w i t h r e s e a r c h u t i l i z i n g t h e e x t e n s i v er a n g e o f j o u r n a l s , l e t t e rs , d i a r i es a n d g u i d e b o o k sw h i c h h a v e s u r v i v e d . 2 'j~ F r o m t h is e v i d e n c e , t h et a s t es a n d a t t i t u d e s o f a p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p o f t r a v e l le r sc a n b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d , a s w e l l a s t h e i r r o u t e s a n dd e s t i n at i o n s , f o r m s o f t r a n s p o r t , a c c o m m o d a t i o na n d l e n g t h s o f v is it . L i n k s b e t w e e n t h e t o u r a n d a r ta n d a r c h i t e c t u r e i n B r i t a i n h a v e a l s o b e e n e x t e n s i v e -

ly r ev ie we d . 19-22 Bu t t he r e a re s ign i f i can t om iss ionsf r o m t h e r e c o r d . We k n o w v e r y l it tl e a b o u t t h e h o s ts o c i e t ie s , w h e t h e r d i r e c t l y c a t e r i n g f o r t h e n e e d s o fv i s i t o r s o r s i m p l y a s d e t a c h e d o b s e r v e r s . T h e r e i sr e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e w r i t t e n a b o u t t h e o t h e r n a t i o n a l i t i e st r a v e l l in g E u r o p e a t t h e s a m e t i m e . 22 I n a d d i t i o n , a st h e G r a n d To u r i s s t u d i e d a s a n i s o l a t e d e v e n t , i t i sr a r e l y p l a c e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f p a r t i c u l a r l e is u r el i f e s t y l e s a n d l i f e c y c l e s , s u c h a s c o u n t r y h o u s ev i s it in g , t h e L o n d o n s e a s o n , a n d v i s it s t o s p a s a n ds e a s i d e r e s o r t s . Wa s , f o r in s t a n c e , t h e t o u r r e p e a t e di n m o d i f i e d f o r m i n l a t e r y e a r s ? H o w d i d t h e e x p e r i -e n c e o f a G r a n d To u r i n f l u e n c e l ei s u re a n d t o u r i s m

3 40 Tourism Management 199.5 Volume 16 Number 5

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i n l a t e r l i fe ? T h e d a t a t o i n v e s t i g a t e s u c h q u e s t i o n sa r e s c a r c e , b u t t h e p o i n t i s t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n s h a v er a r e ly b e e n p o s e d . O n l y o c c a s i o n a l ly d o w e s e e t h eG r a n d To u r w i t h in t h e w i d e r p i c t u r e o f 1 8 th - c e n t u r ylife a nd leis ur e. 23"24

T h e g r o w t h o f s p e c i a l i z e d t o u r i s t p l a c e s s u c h a ss p a s a n d s e a s i d e r e s o r t s h a s a l s o a t t r a c t e d m u c h

a t t e n t io n . T h e y g e n e r a t e d a w e a l th o f r e s e a rc hm a t e r i a l b u t a t t e n t i o n h a s t e n d e d t o f o cu s o n t h ev i s i t o r s t o s u c h p l a c e s a n d , w i t h s o m e n o t a b l e e x c e p -t i o n s , w e k n o w m u c h l e s s a b o u t t h e r e s o r tw o r k e r s . 2-~2 7 T h e r e h a v e a l s o b e e n f e w s t u d i e s o ft h e f u n c t i o n o f r e s o r ts a s c e n t r e s o f c o n s u m p t i o n : o fl u x u r i e s a n d o t h e r g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s c r e a t i n g d i s -t i n c t p a t t e r n s o f s u p p l y a n d d e m a n d . 2~ C u l t u r a lv a r i a t i o n s i n r e s o r t d e v e l o p m e n t r e m a i n t o b e e x -p l o r e d f u ll y. T h e c o n t i n u i t y o f s p a l i f e i n H u n g a r ya l w a y s a t t r a c t e d a w i d e s o c i a l c l i e n t e le . 2 j T h e s p a s o ft h e s o u t h e r n s t a t e s o f t h e U S A i n t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r ys e r v e d a r u r a l m a r k e t , w h i l s t s p a s i n t h e n o r t h w e r e

l a rg e l y u r b a n i n c h a r a c t e r : ° L e i s u r e h a b i ts f o r t h eG e r m a n b o u r g e o i s i e in t h e m i d - 18 0 0 s w e r e o f t e nh i g h l y l o c a l i z e d a n d t h i s c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e l a c k o fr e s o r t d e v e l o p m e n t o n t h e n o r t h G e r m a n c o a s t u n t i lt h e e a r l y y e a r s o f t h i s c e n t u r y. 3~ I n c o n t r a s t , a f f l u e n tI t a l ia n s o c i a l l i fe i n th e s a m e p e r i o d e m b r a c e d l o c alt o w n , c o u n t r y s p a s a n d s e a s i d e r e s o r t s , y e t t r a v e la b r o a d w a s l im i t e d a n d r a re l y e x t e n d e d b e y o n dS w i t z e r l a n d a n d t h e S o u t h Ty r o l . 32

S t u d i e s o f r e s o r t e v o l u t i o n a l s o t e n d t o t r a c e t h eh i s t o r y o f s u c c e s s , w h e r e a s a f u l l e r p i c t u r e i s ac o m p l e x p a t t e r n o f su c c es s a n d f a i l u re . T h e p e r i o do f s p a g r o w t h i n E n g l a n d ( c . 1 5 5 0 - 1 8 2 0 ) w a s m a r k e d

b y a m u l t i t u d e o f s p a b ir t h s a n d d e a t h s , n o t a s m o o t hpro jec t ion o f r i s e and dec l ine . 33 An d , i t is a lso to os i m p l i s t i c t o s e e t h e s e E n g l i s h s p a s o p e r a t i n g i ni s o l a t i o n f r o m a m u c h w i d e r u r b a n l e i s u r e s y s t e m . I na d d i t i o n t o L o n d o n , m a n y t o w n s a n d c i t i e s i n t h e1 7 t h a n d 1 8 t h c e n t u r i e s a c q u i r e d a l e i s u r e f u n c t i o n ,o f w h i c h s p a s w e r e r e a l l y t h e m o s t s p e c i a l i z e de x t r e m e . 3 43 5 L e i s u r e d s o c i e ty m o v e d b e t w e e n b o t hs p a a n d l e i s u r e t o w n .

S e c o n d h o m e s , t h o s e t e m p o r a r y r e t r e a t s f r o mu r b a n t o r u r a l s e t t in g s , h a v e a l o n g h i s t o r y.A l t h o u g h t h e u s u a l p i c t u r e i s g e n e r a l l y c o n f i n e d t ow e s t e r n s o c i e t ie s , t r a c i n g d e s c e n t f r o m t h e R o m a n

3 6 - 8

a n d R e n a i s s a n c e v i ll a, - " t h e r e i s e v i d e n c e o f t h i sp r a c t i c e in o t h e r c u l t u r e s . B o t h s i d e s o f t h e B o s p o r -u s , a r o u n d I s t a n b u l , h a d c o u n t r y h o u s e s . T h e r e w e r et h e ' r a i s ' o f A l g i e r s o n t h e S a h e l h i ll s a n d i n d i c a -t io n s , f r o m t h e l l t h c e n t u r y o n w a r d s , o f C h i n e se' p l e a s u r e h o u s e s ' w i t h t h e i r w a t e r g a r d e n s a n dg r o v e s . I f t h e p h e n o m e n o n is l es s o b v i o u s in t h e F a rE a s t , t h i s h a s i n p a r t b e e n a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e i n a d e -

39 O S Wq u a c y o f d o c u m e n t a t i o n . - S e c o n d h u s e e r e n o ts i m p ly t h e p r e s e r v e o f t h e w e a l th y e i t h e r. G r e e n h a ss h o w n h o w a v a r i e t y o f s o c i al c la s s e s a c q u i r e ds e c o n d h o u s e s a r o u n d P a r i s i n t h e l a s t c e n t u r y a n de a c h g r o u p h a d d i f f e r i n g m o t i v e s f o r r u r a l h a v e n s . 14

Current issues

T h e d e v e l o p m e n t b y t h e r e l at i v el y p o o r o f c h e a ph o l i d a y h o m e s o n s m a l l p lo t s o f la n d i n l a t e r 1 9 t hc e n t u r y B r i t a i n o w e d m o r e t o s e l f - h e l p t h a n s o c i a le m u l a t i o n 4 ° a n d r e i n f o r c e s w i d e r n o t i o n s o f m i d d l e -a n d w o r k i n g - c l a s s f a m i l ie s c r e a t i n g t h e i r o w n l e i s u r epa t te rn s and pra ct ice s . 7'11>~3

T h e s e l i m i te d e x a m p l e s s u g g e st t h a t , e v e n f o r

e p i s o d e s i n t o u r i s m ' s h i s t o r y t h a t a r e f a i r l y w e l ld o c u m e n t e d , c o n v e n t i o n a l i m a g e s a re t o o r e s t r ic t e da n d o v e r l o o k t h e i m m e n s e v a r i e t y o f e x p e r i e n c e st h a t w e r e t a k i n g p l a c e i n t h e p a s t .

Conclus ion: explor ing tour ism 's h is toryH a v i n g a r g u e d t h e n e e d t o e x p a n d o u r h o r i z o n s o v e rw h a t c o n s t i t u t e s t o u r i s m ' s h i s t o r y, a n u m b e r o fs u g g e s t i o n s a r e o f f e r e d a s a s t i m u l u s f o r f u r t h e rr e s e a r c h .

N e w g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a s n e e d t o b e i n c o r p o r a t e di n t o to u r i s m h i s to r y s tu d i e s. W e s t e r n c o n c e p t s o f

l e i s u r e a n d t o u r i s m s h o u l d b e p l a c e d w i t h i n a m u c hw i d e r h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e . S t r o n g e r i n t e r d i s c i p l i n -a r y l i n k s w i t h h i s t o r y a l s o r e m a i n a p r i o r i t y w i t h i nt h e f i e l d . B a i l e y ' s c o n c l u s i o n o n t h e e v o l u t i o n o fl e i s u r e a s ' e r r a t i c , c o m p l e x a n d c o n t e n t i o u s ' h a s ac l e a r m e s s a g e f o r t o u r i s m h i s t o r y. 12 U n l e s s t o u r i s mh i s t o r y e n g a g e s i n t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a n d i d e o l o g i c a ld e b a t e t h a t e x i s t s a m o n g l e i s u r e h i s t o r i a n s , t h e n i tw i l l r e m a i n a s a s u p e r f i c i a l p r e f a c e t o c o n t e m p o r a r yt o u r i s m r e s e a r c h .

P a r t o f t h is p r o c e s s r e q u i r e s a c l o s e r i n t e g r a t i o n o fl e is u r e , r e c r e a t i o n a n d t o u r i s m r a t h e r t h a n c o m p a r t -m e n t a l i z i n g t h e m i n t o s e p a r a t e a r e a s . H i s t o r i a n s

h a v e b e e n u n e n c u m b e r e d b y th e s e d i v is i on s a n d s oh a v e p r o d u c e d r i c h e r c o n t e x tu a l s t u d i es o f l ei s u rea n d t o u r i s m . B y m o v i n g a w a y f r o m s e e i n g t o u r is mj o u r n e y s a s is o l a te d e v e n t s , r e s e a r c h s h o u l d e m b r a c ew i d e r t o u r i s t l i f e st y l e a n d l i fe - c y c l e f r a m e w o r k s .C l o s e r e x a m i n a t i o n i s a ls o n e e d e d o f c o n d i ti o n so p e r a t i n g i n t h e c e n t r e s o f d e m a n d w h e r e t h e r e h a v eb e e n i m p o r t a n t l o c a l a n d r e g i o n a l v a r i a t i o n s i n l e i -su re cu l tu res .41 44 Th i s m or e ho l i s t i c sy s t em sa p p r o a c h a l so h ig h l i g h ts t h e m e s o f c h a n g e a n d c o n -t i n u it y w i t h in t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t . S o m e s y s t e m sh a v e h a d r e m a r k a b l e l o n g - t e r m e n d u r a n c e , o t h e r sh a v e e x p e r i e n c e d r a p i d r is e a n d d e c li n e . We r e s o m e

c h a n g e s t h e r e s u l t o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l in n o v a t i o n s( s i m p l y c r e a t i n g d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n s ) o r t h e r e s u l t o fm o r e d e e p - s e a t e d p r o c e s s e s o f c u l t u ra l c h a n g e ?

To u r i s m h i s t o r y a l s o n e e d s t o b e c o m e m o r ei d e o lo g i c a ll y a w a r e . U n s t a t e d v a l u e ju d g e m e n t sp e r m e a t e m a n y c o m m o n l y h e l d v ie w s o f t h e p a st .T h e i d e a o f ' d e c l i n e ' f o r re s o r t s , f o r i n s t a n c e , h a so f t e n r e l a t e d m o r e t o a c h a n g e i n s o c i a l c l a s s t h a nt h e n u m b e r s o f v i s i to r s . T h e v i s io n o f a ' g o l d e n a g e 'o f to u r i s m b e f o r e t h e m a s s e s o w e s m o r e t o s o c i ala t t i t u d e s t h a n r e a l i ty. E l s e w h e r e , i t is o n l y re l a t i v e l yr e c e n t l y th a t t h e r o l e o f w o m e n , b o t h a s to u r i s ts a n da s t o u r i s m w o r k e r s h a s b e e n a c k n o w l e d g e d 2 s-2 v'4 s-4 v

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C u r r e n t i ssu e s'

a n d t h e r o l e o f c h i l d r e n h a s h a r d l y b e e n t o u c h e du p o n .

E x p l o r i n g t h e s e a l t e r n at i v e p e r s p e c t i v e s r e q u i r e s as e a r c h f o r d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s o f m a t e r i a l . O r a l h i s t o r yo f f e r s m a n y e x c i t i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r s t u d i e s o f l e i -s u r e a n d t o u r i s m i n t h e r e c e n t p a s t a n d h a s t h ep o t e n t i a l t o p la c e t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h i n th e c o n -

t e x t o f e v e r y d a y l i v e s . a l - 4 a W o r k s o f fi c t io n , e s p e -c i a l ly s o c i a l n o v e l s , a r e a n o t h e r s o u r c e t h a t d e s e r v e sf u r t h er a t t e n t i o n . N o v e l s c a n p r o v i d e v a l u a b le i n -s i g h t s i n t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n l e i s u r e a n dt o u r i s m a n d t h e m e n t a l i t y o f a p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r e . F o rB r i t a in , t h e w o r k s o f S m o l l e t t , J a n e A u s t e n , D i c k -e n s , T r o l lo p e , H G We l l s a n d A r n o l d B e n n e t t a re ar i c h s o u r c e w h i c h c a n b e q u a r r i e d e i t h e r f o r f a c t u a li n f o r m a t i o n o r f o r d e e p e r e n q u i r i e s i n t o t h e m e s s u c ha s s e n s e o f p l a c e , a s S i m i l a r i d e a s a p p l y t o u s i n g t h ev i s u a l a r t s. P a i n t i n g s , d r a w i n g s a n d p h o t o g r a p h s c a nb e u s e d a t o n e l e v e l f o r f a c t u a l e v i d e n c e o f l e i s u r es c e n e s b u t c an a l s o b e a n a l y s e d f o r a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g

o f c o n t e m p o r a r y c u l t u r e. H e r b e r t , f o r e x a m p l e , h a se x p l o r e d t h e r e l a ti o n s h i p b e t w e e n I m p r e s s i o n i st a r t ,l e i s u r e a n d P a r i s i a n s o c i e t y, c o m b i n i n g p i c t u r ea n a l y s i s w i t h s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l m a t e r i a l , a n d h a s i n d i -c a t e d h o w a r t c a n g i ve a v ie w o f p h e n o m e n a r a r e lyr e c o r d e d e l s e w h e r e . 49

T h u s , p a i n t i n g s o f t h e n o r t h F r e n c h c o a s t i n t h e1 8 6 0s o f t e n s u b t ly d e p ic t e n c o u n t e r s b e t w e e n t h eg r o w i n g n u m b e r o f v i s i t o r s t o t h e a r e a a n d t h e l o c a lp o p u l a t i o n . A t a n e ar l ie r d a t e w e h a v e L u d o l f d eJ o n g h e ' s ' F a r e w e l ls B e f o r e a C o u n t r y H o u s e ' w h i c h ,S c h a m a c l a i m s , p o r t r a y s a w h o l e w o r l d o f 1 7 t h -c e n t u r y D u t c h l e is u r e c u l t u r e , s ° A l e x a n d e r C a r s e 's

( 1 8 1 2 ) ' T h e Vi s i t o f t h e C o u n t r y R e l a t i o n s '5~ n o to n l y s h o w s t h e m e e t i n g o f u r b a n a n d r u r a l c u l t u r e sb u t h o w t h i s e n c o u n t e r a f f e c t s m a l e s a n d f e m a l e s i nv e r y d i f f e r e n t w a y s . T h u s , l i t e r a r y s o u r c e s f r o mf i c t i o n a n d t h e v i s u a l a r t s a r e n o t m e r e l y s u r r o g a t e si n t h e a b s e n c e o f m o r e ' h a r d ' d a t a , b u t c o n s t i t u t e av a l u a b l e s o u r c e i n t h e i r o w n r i g h t f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n gl e i s u r e a n d t o u r i s m i n p a s t a g e s .

I h a v e a rg u e d i n t h i s r e v i e w t h a t m u c h o f t o u r i s mh i s t o r y, as s e e n t h r o u g h t h e e y e s o f t o u r is m s t u d i e s ,i s t o o n a r r o w a n d s i m p l i s t ic . I n q u e s t i o n i n g a n u m -b e r o f a s s u m p t i o n s a n d s u g g e s t i n g a l t e r n a t i v e p e r s -p e c t i v e s t h e a b o v e d i s c u s s i o n i s i n t e n d e d a s a s t a rt -

i n g p o i n t f o r d e b a t e a n d f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h ; v e r y f e wa n s w e r s h a v e b e e n p r o v i d e d . A t i ts h e a r t , h o w e v e r ,l i e s t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e h i s t o r y o f t o u r i s m i s m o r e t h es t o r y o f s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a t i o n s i n d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s a td i f f e r e n t t i m e s i n d i f f e r e n t p l a c e s , r a t h e r t h a n t h es t o r y o f a n i n e x o r a b l e s p r e a d o f We s t E u r o p e a nc o n c e p t s a n d p r a c t i c e s t o t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r l d .

R e f e r e n c e s

~Thompson, F Lark R i se t o Cand le fo rdPengu in , Harmond-sworth , UK (1939/1973)2Towner, J 'The Grand Tour: a key phase in the his tory oftourism" Anna l s o f Tour i sm Resea rch1985 12 (3) 297-333

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~( 'Ackerman, J SThe Vi l la : Form and Ideology of Country H ousesThames and Hudson , London (1990)37Casson, L Travel in the Ancient WorldA l i e n a nd U n w i n ,London (1974)3SMuraro, M Venetian Villas: The History and CultureRizzol i ,New Y ork (1986)3'~Braudel, FThe Structures o f Everyda y L ifeVo l 1 Civilizationand Capitalism Fontana Press , London (1985)4°Hardy, D and Ward , CArcadia for Al l : The Leg acy of aMakeshif t LandscapeMansel l , London (1984)41Abrams, LWorkers" Culture in Imperial GermanyRou t l edge ,London (1992)aaCrump, J 'Recreat ion in Coventry between the wars" in Lancas-ter, W and Mason, A (eds)Life and Labour in a TwentiethCentury Ci ty: The Exper ience o f CoventryCryf ie ld Press , London(1986)43Davies, ALeisure, Gen der and PoverO,, Wo rking Class Culturein Salford and M anchester, 1900-1939Open Un ive r s i ty P res s ,Buckingham (1992)

CuFgent issues

44King, E 'Popular cul ture in Glasgow" in Cage, R A (ed)TheWorking Class in Glasgow, 1750-1914C r o o m H e l m , L o n d o n(1987)a~Meyer, P J B 'No land too remote: women t ravel lers in theGeorg ian age ' doc to ra l d i s se r t a ti on , Un ive r s i ty o f Massachuse tt s(1978)46Bouquet , MFamily Servants and Visitors: The Farm Householdin Nineteenth and Twentieth Century DevonGeo Books , Norwich(1985)4VPemble, JThe Mediterranean PassionOxfo rd Un ive r s i ty P ress ,Oxford (1987)4SHerber t, D 'Place and socie ty in Jane Au sten 's England"Geography 1991 76 (part 3) 193-2084'~Herbert,R L Impressionism: Art, Leisure and Parisian SocietyYa le Un ive r s i ty P res s , New York (1988)5~Schama, SThe Embarrassm ent o f Riches: A n Interpreta t ion ofDutch Culture in the Golden AgeFontana Press , London (1987)S~Macmillan, DScottish Art, 1460-1990Mains t r eam Pub l i sh ing ,Edinburgh (1990)

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