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Introduction toEducational Research
Week 1
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Discussion Topics
Ways of knowing
Educational research as scientific inquiry
Types of research designs
Quantitative Qualitative
Analytical
Mixed methods
Functions of research Ethics of educational research
Research report formats
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Ways of knowing
All of us frequently make decisions related toour professional lives
Some decisions are very, very important, othersquite trivial
Some decisions are made in very formal,deliberate manners, others quite capriciously
Where do we turn for such knowledge?
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Ways of knowing
What is the likely basis upon which each ofthe following questions could be answered?
What is the best way to relax, today?
What are we going to do for the holidays thisyear?
What are the legal implications of the new
attendance policy?
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Ways of knowing
Three legitimate ways for making decisions of thisnature
Personal experience
Tradition Authority
Characteristics of these ways
Idiosyncratic
Informal
Subjective in nature
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Ways of knowing
What is the likely basis upon which each ofthe following questions could be answered? Will students benefit by being held back in the
second grade next year if they do not yet learn toread?
How many students should be scheduled into Ms.Salmas third grade class?
Does block scheduling have an effect uponstudents achievement?
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Ways of knowing
Research is the mostlegitimate way of findinganswers to questions of this nature
Research is a systematic process that is guided by
accepted procedures to establish credibility Data collection
Data analysis
Interpretation
The systematic, testable, and objective nature of researchpermits careful examination of the process and results
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Ways of knowing
Describe some of the more important
decisions youve made recently in yourwork with other students, lecturer, or otheruniversity staffs.
On what basis did you rely to make thesedecisions?
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Research as Scientific Inquiry
Scientific inquiry is the search for knowledge usingrecognized methods in data collection, analysis, andinterpretation
The purpose of scientific inquiry is to Describe phenomena
Develop knowledge
Examine empirical relationships between or amongphenomena
Test whether such relationships are causal in nature
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Research as Scientific Inquiry
Knowledge is typically presented in the formof theories
A theory is a set of propositions that explain therelationships among phenomena
A theory is a means of simplifying andunderstanding complex realities
Examples of learning theories
http://www.funderstanding.com/theories.cfmhttp://www.funderstanding.com/theories.cfm -
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Brief Definition of Research
A carefully prescribed process of collectingand analyzing data with the intent ofproducing findings and drawing conclusions
that are valid.
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Educational Research
No single, appropriate methodologicalapproach to study education
Two major approaches
Quantitative
Qualitative
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Educational Research
Differentiating characteristics
Goals
Quantitative: tests theory, establishes facts, shows
relationships, predicts, or statistically describes Qualitative: develops grounded theory, develops
understanding, describes multiple realities, capturesnaturally occurring behavior
Research design
Quantitative: highly structured, formal, and specific
Qualitative: unstructured, flexible, evolving
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Educational Research
Differentiating characteristics Participants
Quantitative: many participants representative of the groupsfrom which they were chosen using probabilistic sampling
techniques Qualitative: few participants chosen using non-probabilistic
sampling techniques for specific characteristics of interestto the researchers
Data, data collection, and data analysis
Quantitative: numerical data collected at specific times fromtests or surveys and analyzed statistically
Qualitative: narrative data collected over a long period oftime from observations and interviews and analyzed usinginterpretive techniques
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Educational Research
Differentiating characteristics
Researchers role
Quantitative: detached, objective observers of events
Qualitative: participant observers reporting participantsperspectives understood only after developing long-term,close, trusting relationships with participants
Context
Quantitative: manipulated and controlled settings
Qualitative: naturalistic settings
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Types of Research Designs
Descriptive
Comparative
Correlational
Causal Comparative
Non-Experimental
True
Quasi
Single Subject
Experimental
Quantitative
Case Study
Phenomenaology
Ethnography
Grounded Theory
Qualitative
Concept Analysis
Historical Analysis
Analytical Study Mixed Method
Research Designs
Copyright Allyn & Bacon 2008
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Quantitative Designs
Two major categories
Experimental
The investigation of causal effects through direct
manipulation of an independent variable and control ofextraneous variables
Non-experimental
The investigation of the current state of a variable or
the relationships, other than causal, between variables
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Quantitative Designs
An example of an experimental design
Randomly assign students to one of two classrooms in which thesame social studies unit is being taught. Teach the first classusing the traditional lecture approach, the second class using co-
operative learning groups. Examine the achievement differencesbetween the two groups to see if the type of approach to
instruction had an effect.
This study is characterized by the investigation of cause(instructional approach) and effect (achievement), manipulation
(choice of instructional approach), and control (same unit beingtaught, random assignment, etc.)
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Quantitative Designs
Differentiating the three types of experimentaldesigns
True experimental Random assignment of subjects to groups
Quasi-experimental
Non-random assignment of subjects to groups
Single subject Non-random selection of a single subject
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Quantitative Designs
Examples of non-experimental designs
Approximately 10% of Louisianas public school students do not finish high
school.
The GPA of students participating in extra-curricular activities is higher thanthat of student who do not participate
Student attitude is moderately related to achievement
Several factors are related to the high dropout rate in Louisiana. Theseinclude the students age, academic record, repetition of grade(s), gender,
and ethnicity.
These studies are characterized by descriptions (dropout rate,
GPA differences, opinions) or relationships (attitudes andachievement, factors related to dropping out)
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Quantitative Designs
Differentiating the four types of non-experimental designs
Descriptive Makes careful descriptions of the current situation or status of a
variable(s) of interest
Comparative Compares two or more groups on some variable of interest
Correlational Establishes a relationship (i.e., non-causal) between or among variables
Ex-post-facto Explores possible causes and effects among variables that cannot be
manipulated by the researcher.
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Qualitative Designs
Much less precision in the definitions of anddistinctions between qualitative designs incomparison to quantitative designs
Four major categories of designs Case study
Phenomenology
Ethnography
Grounded theory
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Qualitative Designs
Case Study
An examination of a specific instance of aphenomena in its natural context viewed fromthe perspective of the participants
This study explored the meaning of inclusion for three
disabled students who had been placed in a regulareducation setting.
This study examines in-depth a phenomena of interestto the researcher (i.e., the meaning of inclusion) in anatural context viewing it from the participants
perspectives
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Qualitative Designs
Phenomenology
A description of the meaning of an experience
The purpose of this study was to examine the
meaning of being left out for an adolescent
This study examines in-depth the experiences of being
left out from the perspectives of the adolescent
experiencing this phenomena
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Qualitative Designs
Ethnography
A description of the beliefs and practices of a cultural orsocial group or system
The purpose of this study was to identify and describethe conflicts that experienced second-grade teachersencountered as they switched from a traditionalapproach to teaching mathematics to a constructivist-sociological approach
This study examines the beliefs and practices of secondgrade teachers experiencing a common phenomenonrelated to their approach to teaching
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Qualitative Designs
Grounded theory A description of a conceptual understanding of a particular
phenomenon
The purpose of this study was to understand the
relationship of the bar to the teachers who frequented it onFriday evenings. We found that teachers used the bar tofacilitate their movement from professional to personalself.
This study examined a phenomena of interest to the
researcher (i.e., teachers congregating at a particular baron Friday evenings) and developed a conceptualunderstanding of it.
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Analytical Designs
Descriptions of historical, legal, or policy issuesthrough an analysis of documents, oral histories,and relics
Two basic approaches Concept analysis the study of educational concepts
(e.g., co-operative learning, leadership, etc.) todescribe the different meanings and the uses of theconcept
Historical analysis the systematic collection andcriticism of documents that describe past events ofrelevance to education
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Analytical Designs
An example of a concept analysis
The purpose of this study is to examine the
meanings and uses of the term standards-based curriculum.
This study examined the varied meanings,interpretations, and uses of an important
curricular concept.
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Analytical Designs
An example of an historical analysis
The purpose of this study is to examine thechanges in standardized testing over the last40 years.
This study addresses the historical
developments characterizing the use ofstandardized tests over a 40 year period.
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Mixed Method Designs
The use of quantitative and qualitativedesigns and methods within a single study
Allows the researcher to better match theapproach to gathering and analyzing datato the research questions
Relative emphasis given to any particular
method varies widely
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Action Research Design
Systematic investigation
Emphasis on teachers, counselors, andadministrators
Brings together characteristics of systematicinquiry and practice
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Four Functions of Research
Basic: research designed to test or refinetheory
Applied: research conducted in a field ofcommon practice and concerned with theapplication and development of researchbased knowledge
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Four Functions of Research
Action: research designed to solve a specificclassroom or school problem, improvepractice, or make a decision at a single local
site
Evaluation: research designed to assess themerit and worth or a specific practice in terms
of the values operating at a site
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Ethics of Educational Research
Ethical considerations are an important partof research.
Researchers must be aware of and attend to
ethical considerations. Two main overarching ethical rules guide
researchers.
Participants should not be harmed.
Researchers obtain participants informed consent.
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Ethics of Educational Research
Most societies for behavioral researchershave similar codes for ethical researchlargely due to the National Research Act
of 1974 which Created a code for theprotection of human subjects.
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Ethics of Educational Research
Most institutions have review groups thatassure participant protections. IRB (Institutional Review Board) or HSRC
(Human Subjects Review Committee) Researchers must submit their proposal
for review and approval.
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Ethics of Educational Research
Informed consent and protection fromharm
Research participants must not be harmed in
any way Physically, mentally, socially
Research participants freely agree to participate
Informed consent: Researchers provide
information about the study and any potentialdangers
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Ethics of Educational Research
Researchers ensure freedom from harm
No undue risks
Personal privacy and confidentiality
Limit access of data to those whoneed to know
Participants involvement should not be reported
E hi f Ed i l
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Ethics of Educational
Research
Anonymity
Study participants have completeanonymity when their identities are
unknown to the researcher.
Confidentiality
Study participants are known to
researcher but are not disclosed. e.g., removing names from data
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Ethics of Educational Research
The Buckley Amendment (The Family
Educational Rights and Privacy Act of 1974)
Data that identifies a student is not available
without written permission Must describe what data, for what purposes, and to
whom
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Ethics of Educational Research
Deception poses an ethical dilemma. If theparticipants know the purpose of a study, itmay change their behavior.
e.g., gender, race, attitudes, medical status When a study must use deception it causes
problems for informed consent. These typesof studies must undergo strict ethical review.
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Ethics of Qualitative Research
In addition to ethics of educational researchgenerally, qualitative research often posesadditional ethical challenges. The nature of the research changes so informed
consent is challenging. The close relationship between the researcher
and the participant may allow the researcher toknow personal and perhaps ill-acts of theparticipant that may pose ethical challenges.
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Ethical Guideposts
A researcher should have an ethicalperspective with regard to the researchthat is very close to her personal ethicalposition.
Informed consent should be obtainedthrough a dialogue between theresearcher and the participants.
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Ethical Guideposts
Be cognizant of the broader socialprinciples that define your ethical stance.Potential results do not drive ethicalstandards.
Minimize the potential for harm to yourparticipants.
Attend to confidentiality and omitdeception.
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Gaining Entry to the Research Site
Researchers need cooperation to conducttheir studies. Identify and follow procedures for gaining approval
at any given site.
e.g., superintendent or school board Procedures generally require filling out forms that
describe the study. Researchers may need permission from principals
or teachers. Written permission from parents is often required.
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Gaining Entry to the Research Site
Gaining entry and obtaining permission oftentakes considerable time.
Schools and other research communities
may request something in return for theirparticipation in your study.
e.g., a final report prior to dissemination,professional development, parent education
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Educational Report Formats
Title and author
Abstract
Introduction Quantitative: specific research questions
Qualitative: general problem statement
Review of the literature
Quantitative: extensive Qualitative: brief
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Educational Report Formats
Research problem statement or questions
Quantitative: specific, narrow questions and hypotheses
Qualitative: general, foreshadowed questions
Method and design Quantitative: participants, instruments, and procedures
Qualitative: participants and settings/sites
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Educational Report Formats
Results
Quantitative: statistical explanations
Qualitative: narrative descriptions
Discussion
Conclusions
References