Reflecting the Bases of Vocabulary Selection for Materials Production: Towards Reforming Teacher-Education Agenda

Dr. Hamoud M. Kadha Dean of Faculty of Education-Zabid

Hodeidah University, Republic of Yemen Abstract

Students, when first confronted with studying a high level... subject matter in their new language, are to be provided with a backup of language assistance, so that they do not feel overwhelmed and fall back on desperate dictionary searching and mental translation into the first language. Such a traumatic experience often hampers language learners considerably in their progress and destroys their fragile enthusiasm for developing new skills of natural expression in their new language. Such a backup, or alternate vocabulary learning strategies, needs to be fostered during students' initial encounter with the new target language. Yet, commonsensical ELT knowledge and my experience in training student-teachers over the last decade and a half compel me to posit an assumption that teachers ( in school and college-level in Yemeni context) are not trained adequately or given flexible and proper ways whereby they could encourage their learners construct such a backup. The present paper begins an exploration into the problematized phenomenon- of teachers' vocabulary teaching competence that would foster autonomous vocabulary learning skills and looks into the rationalized bases for and/or reflected-upon approaches to lexical selection for materials production . The paper would develop the argument that the vocabulary control movement in ELT has imposed a powerful and

ideological stance ( reflected, in for example, in choosing familiar lexical items) vis--vis vocabulary selection and instruction ; it would posit that creating an awareness through the reflection among, teachers (trainees or practitioners ) of their activities before and during the actual instruction might offer a way of supervening the inhibitive effects of such a stance. Introduction

The most obvious point to make about this study is that there is so little importance has been given to vocabulary in modern language teaching. Both the structural model and the communicative model, in their different ways, consistently underplay it. In the recent years, however, research into vocabulary teaching/learning has been clearly on the increase and its long neglected importance being brought to our attention by the poineers in the field (for example, Aebersold and Field , 1997; Carter, 1987; Gairns and Redman, 1987 and Willis, 1981). Their studies along with developments in pedagogical lexicography and coursebook design, has continued to aid the teacher and learner in the work of improving vocabulary teaching/learning in the classroom.

It is now accepted that it is difficult to have a tight lexical control over the number of words to be taught, because the items which can be singled out for teaching are an individual matter between readers and texts. it is based on the linguistic level of texts and students , as well as their interest and background knowledge of the topic area. In any case, language preparation does not mean that the teacher should explain every possible unknown word in the text, but that he should ensure that the learners will be able to deal with the text tasks without being totally frustrated by language difficulties. As a guideline, Fry (1963) suggests introducing only one new word in thirty-five words for foreign/second language learners. In

addition, the language preparation should be carried out by the teacher as well as by the learners.

The introduction of newly selected words, however, should be presented in texts, utterances or sentences. In particular, a good retention of new words requires that the traces of meaningful related words be connected in many different ways. Working with texts can lead to a good retention of the new words, but certain textual and psychological conditions should be met. With respect to the textual conditions, it proves to be essential that not all the new words a text contains are to be learned. A selection should be made of words which occur in an appropriate context and which, moreover, belong to the appropriate frequency range for the learner. There are strong reasons to assume that semanticaly related words are stored together in the mental lexicon. Several studies have shown that the occurrence of a particular word tends to bring into learners minds not only that word but also clusters of other words closely related to it. This suggests that word frequency and regency of use are the two most important factors that affect the storage and retrieval of words in the learners mental lexicon. Therefore, the teaching of vocabulary related to concepts and semantic relationships will undoable make the task of learning easier for the students. This means that at this point of the activity, the learners have not only activated their productive vocabulary knowledge but they have also reviewed some of the target language vocabulary receptively or productively.

On the other hand, the psychological conditions concern the actions on learning texts which may enhance retention of the selected target words. A sequence of three actions proves to be most effective, i.e. guessing the meaning of the unknown word from the context and from word form clues, verifying this in a dictionary. So , whether we use the oldest Structural

Approach where words are presented in vocabulary lists or the contemporary Communicative Approach which emphasizes language use, it is necessary that the vocabulary selection for learning should be based on psychological and didactic principles. Accordingly, vocabulary should be acquired mainly through reading with certain textual and psychological conditions.

Statement of the Problem

Knowledge of vocabulary is a prerequisite for understanding any language text. In my experience as a teacher in school and college for about 15 years, it has been found that most learners are very concerned about the difficulty of learning and remembering new words in English. This reflects a real problem which both learners and teachers are constantly trying to solve. One important step toward better vocabulary learning is to identify the learner/learning strategies and teacher/teaching techniques for good vocabulary acquisition , as it has been established that successful language teachers and learners vary their teaching techniques and learning strategies , evaluate their performance and adapt their strategies accordingly.

Aims of the Research: The aims of the present research are of twofold:

1- To develop teachers awareness and knowledge (in pre-service and in-service) of relevant and recent approaches in ELT.

2- To develop teachers practical ability (trainees and practitioners) with relation to the criteria of selection and classroom techniques of teaching and learning vocabulary.

Research Questions

The present research attempts to answer three open-ended questions related to vocabulary teaching/learning:

1- What are the words to pre-teach? 2 - What are the reasons for selection?

3- How are they taught?

Methodology To achieve the aims of this study and answer the three questions

mentioned above, an extensive pilot study was undertaken at the Faculty of Education Hodeidah and Zabid, Hodeidah University, Republic of Yemen, where a number of a random set of student-teachers (about 80 fourth year pre-service trainees) alongside with their teachers (about 15 teachers holding MAs and PhDs with several years of experience in language teaching) specialized in English were given two prose texts of appropriate length (from 600 words to 1100 words in length) drawn from different disciplines on the basis of their presumed interest value and readability. Both teachers and learners were informed that the materials were intended to be presented to the students of second year English majors in the College. Because, the choice of words to be taught, the reasons for choosing them , and the techniques employed would all depend greatly on the level of students at which the texts were intended to be taught. Both teachers and student-teachers were asked to answer the inquiry stated above in order to ensure an equal share of responsibility and commitment. The choice of texts was based on intuition and experience. The fourth year students were used for conducting the work because, at this stage, it is assumed that the student-teachers have reached the necessary level of theoretical and practical experience in teaching English after four

years of study in the College of Education. In the context of this research, the results were analysed using some descriptive statistics and the data obtained from the analysis were considered for their implications in the classroom.

Results and Analysis

In response to question 1, Table 1 shows that the number of words selected for teaching - the text entitled "Doctor in the House" (623 words in length , Appendix 1 ) ranged from 15- 50 words by the teachers and ranged from 8-30 words by the students and for the fable entitled The Crystal Ball (1069 words in length, Appendix 2), the words selected for teaching ranged from 10 -50 words by teachers, and ranged from 10-40 by students. The dichtonomy between teachers and students concerning the type and number of words chosen for teaching might be due to the lack of enough experiences on the part of student-teachers and consequently they overestimated the level of the second year students whom the texts were supposed to be presented while a more realistic estimate was probably reflected in responses of teachers. However, samples of the students and teachers' words selection are mentioned in Appendices 1 and 2. The students' choices are underlined while those of the teachers are italized.

TABLE 1 NUMBER OF WORDS SELECTED

FOR TEACHING

Range of Number of Words Selected for Teaching Title of the passage

Students Teachers

8-30 15-50 Doctor in the House 10-40 10-50 The Crystal Ball

This means that there is no restrictive rule regarding the number of words to be taught in a lesson or a lecture. The selection of words, as mentioned earlier, depends on the difficulty level of the text, usefulness and availability of lexical items and the needs and interests of the learners. In other words, allow the students more autonomy in lexical decision-making through self-selection vocabulary approach. In this view, there is a need for texts which are in use in real- life transactions. These can be called authentic texts i.e texts which are not doctored or simplified. In most cases, the topics of these texts are related to the learners own world, culture, background and experience. Thus, helping the learners use whatever communicative resources available to them to make meaning. Moreover, the students can be asked to recall or anticipate some words related to the topic with the help of the title of the text. The idea is that the area or frame of reference suggested by the title will constrain the number and the kind of selection of likely words. This is likely to enable the students to recognise and remember other words and concepts associated with the subject area being read.

Having said that, pre-teaching is time-consuming; it will sustain students interest and curiosity. Furthermore, in the Yemeni context, where there are limited resources and exposure to the language outside the classroom is not available, pre-teaching is an effective way in tackling text vocabulary.

The analysis of the results given by teachers and student-teachers of questions 2 and 3 is summarised in Table 2. The responses provide some suggestions regarding the bases of selection and the techniques of instruction. The similarity of some answers shown in the table indicates that both students and teachers have the same awareness in respect of the criteria for selection and the use for instructional techniques. However, in some other aspects, the table shows that the learners are more

sophisticated in realizing the vocabulary teaching principles. This might be due to the number of the sample of students involved in the study is more than the teachers. Most important, the students are expected to become qualified teachers as they study so many courses related to teaching and education in the college, whereas some of the teachers participated in the study did not have necessary educational qualifications or formal training in teaching the language . The analysis of the results, however, is by no means exhaustive.

TABLE 2 REASONS FOR SELECTION AND

TEACHING TECHNIQUES

STUDENT TEACHERS RESPONSES TEACHERS RESPONSES Reasons for

Selection Teaching

Techniques Reasons for

Selection Teaching

Techniques -related to the text - unfamiliar words - important archaic words - key words-familiar - difficult context - self-selection voc - related to backg - related to context/ experience - theme main idea - compound words

- depend on the level of Ss - synonyms - visual aids - gestures - translation - group work - miming - level-age - examples - pictures - meaningful context - context - direct method - real objects - guesting from context - elicitation - explanation - antonyms - using title to check meaning - using Arabic - definition - illustration - glossary - drawing - pronounce - dictionary - words in sent

- target words - lexical field - content word - core meaning - thematic reasons - difficult key words - message - awareness of concepts - important significant - grouping words - general mood acquainted with words - everyday com - high frequency - active vocab - related voc expansion - necessary for com but not part of active vocabulary

- meaningful context - examples on bb - eliciting - definition - clues pictures - synonyms acting - illustration - mime-action - explaining - translating meaningful sent - parts of speech - word formation - connotation - guessing from cont. - examples - using title - pictures - familiar real context - group work - pair work - ss personal experience - dictionary - everyday situation

Note: The information in the table is not listed according to priorities.

The fact is that students cannot make any sense of texts, if they are linguistically deficient. Without having sufficient vocabulary knowledge, access to information will be vague and uncertain. This implies that teachers need to prepare themselves to help students develop their skills to deal with unknown words, and also guide students to learn how to take responsibility for their own vocabulary development.

It has become quite apparent that vocabulary and new words should always be offered in context and not in isolation, or else the rate of retention will be quite low. A context provides the learner with cognitive and contextual clues as it relates situation to word-recognition and meaning. When a text is read it is therefore necessary to concentrate on all the words essential to understand the text, and not on irrelevant, exceptional and minor words. The teacher should encourage the learner to search for clues and to try and come to a solution himself. Some words may initially seem to be unknown, but with a little help, the learner-reader may discover clues in the context or in the word itself, or in his own knowledge that trigger off an answer or a step in the right direction.

Therefore, the learners should be provided with practical strategies of learning to help them deal with new vocabulary of different texts properly if they are to become effective independent learners. Within this context, the teachers have also to reflect on, evaluate and improve their professional practice as to become advanced skilled teachers.(Ray, 2008).

Table 2 also shows that teachers and students under investigation have an eclectic approach to teaching vocabulary. They do not subscribe to any one school of thought. At this point, they need to be more critical of the assumptions about learning that underline the techniques they choose to

use. Therefore, trainers and trainees involved in this study, need to make a close examination of techniques they use when handling a text. Such an approach can enhance teachers and learners understanding of useful and actual techniques and thus provide a critical basis for selection or rejection.

In addition, it is clear from Table 2 that the responses to questions 2 and 3 are interrelated. This raises the question, "Are words selected for techniques or techniques selected for words?"

It seems that it is not a matter of a choice but togetherness, involving a conjoined activity, a balancing act-encouraged/engendered through reflection on selection and teaching. Teaching Implications

The theory is not questioned here, but its relevance to contexts such as Yemen where teachers have to choose the most economical means of enabling learners to learn English.

As we have aleady pointed out in the preceding paragraphs, there are a number of variables to be taken into account in selecting the most effective procedures for teaching and learning vocabulary in a foreign language situation like Yemen. It is impossible to single out any procedure for vocabulary teaching/learning which will be optimal in all teaching situations. Some of the obvious factors which will have to be considered are the motivation of the learners; aspects of the actual teaching situations, such as the characteristics of the teacher and his expertive skills, some characteristics of the material to be learned and learner/learning styles.

In this way, it is important to mention that the research available so far has not indicated a clear cut superiority of one approach over another. In other words, language teaching as Hubbard et al (1988) points out, has always been subject to change, but the process of change has not resulted from the steady accumulation of knowledge about the most effective ways

of teaching language. It has been the production of changing fashion. This means that, though teachers have tended to leap from one method to another as each new fashion turns up, they do not seem to have become any wiser. For instance, if you ask this question, "How many of you have learned with the Structural Approach?" and see how proficient they are in the language and by the same token, "How many of you have learned with the Communicative Approach" and see how deficient they are in the language ? In this view, the problem is not in the approach or method that we use rather than in the circumstances which make things learnable. So which should we adopt and which we reject? The answer is simple: adopt those techniques which result in successful learning: if they work, use them without any hesitation, bearing in mind the following observations and recommendations:

Typical Vocabulary Teaching:

Most vocabulary teaching is not from context Haphazard selection of materials Different vocabulary topic in each unit Too many words at once Rare words are favoured over common words Focus on single words not lexical chunks All students learn the same words word teaching = definition and spelling Teachers translate meanings Low recycling of vocabulary in coursebooks Low recycling of vocabulary by teachers Teachers leave vocabulary learning to learners Vocabulary learning strategies are rarely taught Vocabulary learning techniques are rarely taught Vocabulary learning goals are rarely set

Dictionary skills are rarely taught Vocabulary notebooks are not encouraged Words are kept in lists Vocabulary exercises test not taught Teachers trust the coursebook to deal with vocabulary

When Selecting Vocabulary to Teach

Perform a needs analysis Teach students something they are going to meet again soon Teach words found in a wide range of texts (range)

before specialized vocabulary Teach words with a wide meaning (coverage) Teach words that will be easy to learn building the

start-up vocabulary and empower the learner Teach culture-specific vocabulary Teach the classroom vocabulary

Teach instructions vocabulary Teach the base meaning first Work hard on common words with many meanings

The Most Important Things for Teachers Use a systematic approach (set realistic goals) Select the vocabulary carefully Single words as well as phrases and collocations Give students opportunities to meet new words Focus on concept check understanding Recycle, re-visit, review, recapitulate, reiterate,

reconsider, repeat, revise, re-examineetc. Plan the recycling of repetition in various contexts Connect old learning to new learning Give opportunities for incidental learning

Give opportunities for developing fluency an automaticity Give opportunities for guessing words from context Initial meetings are followed by deep thinking processing Give opportunities for elaborating word knowledge Let students experiment (individual/pair/group work) Understand the vocabulary exercises in your textbooks Teach students to use a dictionary properly Teach students word learning strategies When Looking at Vocabulary Activities Look for what the activity is trying to do Single words or phrases Work with collocation Emphasise natural context Is the meaning clear and unambiguous? Are the words too similar (interference)? Are illustrations (e.g. pictures) clear and unambiguous? Is the vocabulary relevant for the learners? Is the exercise just a test? What new connections can learners make? Do definitions fit smoothly into the context? Conclusion

In Conclusion, one would say that both students (in pre-service) and teachers (in-service) should be made well aware of the effects of the theoretical and practical principles underlying lexical selection and instruction for materials production, and critical awareness will in someway help provide better insights into this area through the close analysis of the different features of written texts. More importantly, in the era of a learner-centered approach, teacher-education should include skills that aim to develop the confidence , awareness, self-reliance and self-

esteem of practicing teachers (teacher development) and the learner has to take over part of the responsibility for what, why and how he /she is learning (teacher training). In this educational context, we may enable student-teachers and teacher-trainers to develop skills, knowledge and understanding which will be practical, relevant and applicable to their current role or career aspiration.

References Aebersold, J. and Field, M. (1997). From Reader to Reading Teacher

Cambridge: Cambridge University press Carter, R. (1987). Vocabulary. London: Allen and Unwin. Fry, E. (1963). Teaching Faster Reading: A Manual. Cambridge: Cambridge

Press. Gairns, R. and Redman, S. (1990) . Working with Words. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hubbard, P. Jones, H. Thorunton, B and Wheeler, R. (1985). A Training Course for TEFL . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

McEldowney, P. (1988). The Process of Communication: A Model for Teachers. School of Education: University of Manchester.

Nuttal, C. (1987). Teaching Reading Skills in a Foreign Language . London : Heinemann. Ray, H. (2008). "Defining and Achieving Standards of Excellence in Higher

Education: A Paper Presented in the Higher Education Conference in the Arab World: Past, Present and Future" . Qatar University: Doha.

Sinclair, J. (1986). Collocation: A Progress Report. Birmingham : University of Birmingham.

Smith, F. (1990). Reading . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Statman, S. (1981). "The activation of semantic memory". ELT Journal. Vol. 35, No. 3, 232-235.

Wallace, M. (1982). Teaching Vocabulary. London: Heinemann

Widdowson, H. (1978). Teaching Language as Communication . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Willis, D. (1990). The Lexical Syllabus. London: Collins

Appendix 1

DOCTORS IN THE HOUSE

Society has changed and what expected of doctors has changed with it. So said the General Medical Council in a far-reaching report on what is expected of the training that equips doctors for a medical career in the twenty-first century.

It is a viewpoint Richard Hobbs, head of the Department of General Practice, not only endorses but has been involved in implementing when similar establishments may have been more cautious.

The GMC - the body responsible for standards at medical schools identified in its 1980 report the need for student doctors to acquire more than facts and a set of practical skills... important though they are. It called on medical schools to rethink fundamentally their teaching approach.In its 1991 report the GMC declared that it was 'more convinced than ever' of the general principles laid down ten years previously, said Professor Hobbs. Tomorrow's medics, he believes have to be geared up now for a changing world of health.

'The plan is to introduce a problem-solving approach and create a lifelong desire for education and learning among doctors. Courses were too demandingand students expected to digest too much information. Some courses were so full they may have suffocated students' ability to think critically,' said Professor Hobbs.

Innovative changes, particulary in creating primary care opportunities for students, have made Birmingham's Medical School a poineer in teaching approach.

In a move that would have actors in Doctor in the House spluttering into their kidney bowls, the school has pioneered pre-clinical patient attachments.'In the first year students "adopt" a family... it could be a conventional family, a single parent or even alone elderly person. The common factor is that all have a condition, say pregnancy or a long-term disability, which affects them and those around them,' said Professor Hobbs.

Students see the patient in the community over twelve months. It exposesthem to a range of experiences in learning how health problems affect the patient, their careers and the health services. It enables them to think about why a patient becomes ill; they have to take into account non-medical factors such as unemployment, housing, the environment, etc. There is more opportunity in primary care to explore these issues.

The newly-qualified doctor is contending with a shifting emphasis in medicine. With the introduction of National Health Service hospitals, general practitioners getting real purchasing power for patient services and health authorities negotiating contracts on what and how much will be provided. 'We've been looking at this for the past decade and our curriculum review working party is continually evaluating the medical course and finding ways of doing things better', said Professor Hobbs.

'There is still a tremendous amount of fact-giving in the course but we also make more use of the skills students already have. Students come to Birmingham articulate and with a range of experiences which they bring to their course. It is important not to delate them.'

The next stage may bring even more emphasis on community-based teaching, with support from specially trained general practitioners. A pilot scheme will put some student medics on attachment with a GP in year three as well as in the final year. If it works well, all students will eventually participate in this extra community teaching. Such innovations like this will make Birmingham popular with potential students. The 160 places on offer last year had more than 1,600 applicants.

In July 1992 the Government brought out its Health of Nation White Paper,a document which sets targets for improvements with the aim of a national health not sickness service. With it has evolved pressures on all doctors to respond to a broader spectrum of patient needs.

'We're the single medical school in the largest regional health authority in the country--- around 10 percent of the population live within our region,' said Professor Hobbs. 'Many hospitals participate in teaching, so students see a range of patients. The hospital teaching linked with their community experience should offer students the best of both worlds.'

Appendix 2

THE CRYSTAL BALL

There was once an enchantress, who had three sons who loved each other as brothers, but the old woman did not trust them, and thought they wanted to steal power from her. So she changed the eldest into an eagle which was forced to dwell in the Rocky Mountains and was often seen sweeping in great circles in the sky. The second, she changed into a whale, which lived in the deep sea, and all that was seen of it was that it sometimes spouted up a great jet of water in the air. Each of them only bore his human form for only two hours daily. The third son, who was afraid she might change him into a raging wild beast a bear perhaps, or a wolf, went secertly away. He had heard that a king's daughter who was bewitched, was imprisoned in the Castle of the Golden Sun, and was waiting for deliverance. Those , however, who tried to free her risked their lives; three-and-twenty youths had already died a miserable death, and now only one other might make the attempt , after which no more must come. And as his heart was without fear, he caught at the idea of seeking out the Castle of the Golden Sun. He had already travelled about for a long time without being able to find it, when he came by chance into a great forest and did not know the way out of it. All at once he saw in the distance two giants, who made a sign to him with their hands , and when he came to them they said, "We are quarrelling about a cap , and which of us it is to belong to , and as we are equally strong, neither of us can get the better of the other. The small men are cleverer than we are, so we will leave the decision to thee." "How can you dispute about an old cap?" said the youth. "Thou dost not know what properties it has! It is a wishing-cap; whosoever puts it on, can wish himself away wherever he likes,

and in an istant he will be there". "Give me the cap," said the youth, "I will go a short distance off and when I call you, you must run a race, and the cap shall belong to the one who gets first to me." He put it on and went away, and thought of the king's daughter, forgot the giants and walked continually onward. At length he sighed from the very bottom of his heart, and cried, "Ah, if I were but at the Castle of the Golden Sun," and hardly had the words passed his lips than he was standing on a high mountain before the gate of the castle.

He entered and went through all the rooms, until in the last he found the king's daughter. But how shocked he was when he saw her. She had an ashen-gray Face full of wrinkles, blear eyes, and red hair. "Are you the King's daughter whose beauty the whole world praises? cried he. "Ah" she answered, "this is not my form; human eyes can only see me in this state of ugliness, but that thou mayst know what I am like, look in the mirror it does not let itself be misled it will show thee my image as it is in truth." She gave him the mirror in his hand, and he saw therein the likeness of the most beautiful maiden on earth, and saw, too, how the tears were rolling down her cheeks with grief. Then said he, "How canst thou be set free? I fear no danger." She said, "He who gets the crystall ball, and holds it before the enchanter, will destroy his power with it, and I shall resume my true shape. "Ah," she added, "so many have already gone to meet death for this, and thou are so young; I grieve that thou shouldst encounter such great danger." "Nothing can keep me from doing it," said he, "but tell me what I must do." "Thou shalt know everything," said the King's daughter, "when thou descendest the mountain on which the stands , a wild bull will stand below by a spring , and thou must fight with it , and if thou hast the luck to kill it , a fiery bird will spring out of it , which bears in its body a burning egg , and in the egg the crystall ball lies like a yolk. The bird will not, however, let the egg fall until forced to do so, and if it falls on the ground , it will flame up and burn everything that is near , and

melt even ice itself, and with it the crystal ball, and then all thy trouble will have been in vain."

The youth went down to the spring, where the bull snorted and bellowed at him. After a long struggle he plunged his sword in the animal's body, and it fell down. Instantly a fiery bird arose from it, and was about to fly away, but the young man's brother, the eagle, who was passing between the clouds, swooped down, hunted it away to the sea, and struck it with his beak until, in its extremity, it let the egg fall. The egg did not , however, fall into the sea , but on a fisherman's hut which stood on the shore and the hut began at once to smoke and was about to break out in flames. Then arose in the sea waves as high as a house, they streamed over the hut, and subduced the fire. The other brother, the whale, had come swimming to them, and had driven the water up on high. When the fire was extinguished, the youth sought for the egg and happily found it; it was not yet melted, but the shell was broken by being so suddenly cooled with the water, and he could take out the crystal ball unhurt.

When the youth went to the enchanter and held it before him, the latter said, "My power is destroyed, and from this time forth thou art the king of theCastle of the Golden Sun. With this canst thou likewise give back to thy brothers their human form." Then the youth hastened to the king's daughter, and when he entered the room, she was standing there in the full splendour of her beauty, and joyfully they exchanged rings with each other.