Duncanrig Secondary SchoolDept. of Design, Engineering & Technology

National 4 / 5

Design & Manufacture - Revision Notes

Contents01 Exam Preparation Technique02 The Design Process03 The Design Team04 Design Brief and Design Brief Analysis05 Initial Research and Specifications06 Design Factors Overview07 Function and Performance08 Fitness for Purpose09 - 10 Ergonomics and sample answers11 – 12 Aesthetics and Sample answers13 – 14 Market15 Society and the Environment16 Idea Generation Techniques17 Idea Development and Modelling Techniques18 Graphics and Illustration Techniques19 Evaluation Techniques20 Materials Properties21 Selecting Materials22 Planning for manufacture, seq. of operations and cutting lists23 Wooden Materials24 – 25 Wood hand tools26 – 27 Wood Carcase and Flat Frame Joints28 Sample answer for answering manufacture type questions.29 Wood finishes30 – 31 Wood Lathe32 – 33 Metal Materials34 Metal and Plastic Hand Tolls35 Metal Joining Techniques36 Metal Finishes37 Sand Casting38 Die Casting, Piercing/Blanking and Shearing/Notching39 – 40 Metal Lathe41 Threading Metal42 Hot Forming Metal43 Cold Forming Metal44 Extrusion of Metal and Plastic45 Plastic Materials46 Forming Plastics, Injection Moulding and Vacuum Forming47 Rotational Moulding, Joining and Finishing Plastics48 Vices, Clamping and Gluing49 Screws, Nails and Knock down fittings.50 Drilling51 Power Tools52 Computer Aided Manufacture53 3D Printing and Laser Cutting54 Manufacturing affecting Society55 Safety in the Workshop

Exam PreparationWhat makes up my grade in Design and Manufacture?The exam has written questions to test Knowledge and Understanding in Design and Manufacture. A grade A, B, C or D is awarded at National 5. 55% of your course award is made up of the practical assignment where you design and manufacture an item for a task set by the SQA. The exam is worth 45%. All of these elements are equally important and are combined to give you an overall grade for Design and Manufacture

Study Tips• Start revising as early as possible in S3 and S4• Choose a study room that is quiet and comfortable• Use study methods that suit you and check with your teacher to get ideas on how to do this. Similarly

research study techniques online.• Make a study timetable and keep to it. Short revision periods with regular breaks are better than all day

cramming.• Use your revision notes and past paper questions to prepare for Knowledge and Interpretation

Exam Technique• Make sure you know the time and place of each exam Read over all

the questions on the paper• Answer easier questions first. Don’t get bogged down on difficult questions—come back to them later• Answer all the questions even if you're not sure. writing something is better than nothing.• Keep drawings and written answers neat and tidy• Take all the time that is allocated for the exam—try to allow time to read over/check all your answers

at the end.• Make sure you read the question carefully and that you answer what has been asked.

Answering State, Describe and Explain type questions1. StatePresent in brief form. Similar words: give, identify, list, state.

Example: Q: State the colour and shape of the following diagram. A: Blue, Square

2. DescribingGive details of characteristics and/or features of something. More detail is required than what you wouldgive for state. For example you may describe the process/stages for a concept, process, experiment,situation or facts, but do not simply list words, you must write descriptive sentences. You should outlinea description but do not require justification.

Example: Q: Describe the colour blue. A: Blue is a cold, sophisticated colour which can also create emotions of sadness.

3. Explaining:When you explain, you don't just write information - you also need to give reasons that backup/justifywhat you are saying – the “because” part.

Example: Q: Explain the geometric form of a square. A: A square is considered geometric because it is made from straight lines, has four equal sides and all corners are at 90 degrees.

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Design and the Design ProcessWHAT IS DESIGN?•It is how we as designers solve everyday problems in our environment but, it is much more than simply problemsolving.•It helps us to realise and create many ideas that will lead to innovative new products that will help people intheir daily lives.

•Through continuous design, new and innovative products are constantly being created.

•It is a large process that involves many steps to create effective working products from initial thoughts through totesting, manufacture and evaluation.•It affects our society and ourselves. Imagine life without transport, iPods, television and computers. How do some ofthese designs affect you?

•Outside factors affect design such as current technologies and fashions etc.

•Designers can gives us good and bad design that can help or disrupt our way of life/working.

•Every product you use, from clothes to food and entertainment has been designed using a common design process.

The Design Process 1. PROBLEM/BRIEF

2. ANALYSIS

5. INITIAL IDEAS7. SOLUTION

9. EVALUATION/TESTING

10. MANUFACTURE

4. REQUIRED SPECIFICATION

3. RESEARCH AND INVESTIGATION

6. IDEAS DEVELOPMENT

8. PLANNING FORMANUFACTURE

DESIGN CYCLE

STAGE WHAT IS IT? WHAT HAPPENS HERE

Problem/Brief At this stage a problem is realised and a design brief written up which explains 1. the problem and 2. gives an indication of a very early solution (the brief).

Analysis(See next page for design factors/considerations)

At this stage the designer will consider the various design factors that may affect the products design (e.g. materials, manufacture, economics and so on). A mind map/brainstorm/bubble diagram is usually drawn to show your line of thought. (See the next page for design factors/issues that should be considered).

Research/Investigation More detailed than analysis. At this stage you will begin to focus your research based on what design considerations you feel are the most important from your analysis.

Required Specification A specific list of all of the things that your design must achieve to ensure that the problem/brief is solved.

Initial Ideas Begin sketching ideas of possible solutions to your problem and evaluate each to find the best poten- tialsolutions.

Ideas Development Develop your best idea or ideas to determine the final solution and continue to evaluate these ideas in relation to your specification.

Solution Draw up your final solution and evaluate it.

Planning for manufacture A list of the steps you will take to construct your solution. This will also have to consist of working drawings and a cutting list.

Evaluation and Testing The client, consumers, design team and safety technicians can begin testing the product to see if it is fit for purpose. Any problems that arise will have to solved. The design team will go back to previous stages of the design process to evaluate how best to resolve these problems. After which, they will apply these changes and test the product again until it is right.

Manufacture Once the product is finished and everyone involved is completely satisfied the product can go into final production, ready to be sold to the consumer.

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The Design TeamPeople often think of design as being the product of one person. However, working alongside the designer is a number of people that make up a design team. Each person has a specific job to do and is a specialist in their area. Although the designer will normally provide the vision for the solution the rest of the design team must advise them on matters such as costing, manufacture and market to ensure the product is feasible and will appeal to consumers. Good design teams communicate effectively and will capitalise on the skills of each member to ensure the best design is achieved. The following members of the design team listed below are instrumental in ensuring successful product development.

Designer: Person who designs a product for a client. The designer will have a wide area of knowledge ranging from: market, manufacture, consumer wants and needs. This allows the designer to design a product that satisfies a particular clients needs.

Market Team: Marketing teams research the market, compiling data from consumers. The team will then inform the design team to ensure a successful end product can be made.

Ergonomist: Person who specialises in ergonomic data such as anthropometrics etc.

Economist: Person who deals with market economics. This may involve looking at the current cost of certain products on the market, costing of competitor products and the cost of materials.

Engineers: Person who deals with the technical aspects of building and producing a product. The engineer will have specialist knowledge of materials and how to construct any given product.

Manufacturer: Person who deals with manufacture. Unlike the engineer, the manufacturer will focus specifically on the processes required to make a product and what machinery/processes can be used to dothis.

Accountant: Person who deals with costing and budgeting. The accountant will look over project finances and ensure that the project stays within its budget.

Retailer: A company or business that will stock and sell the end product.

Consumer: The end user of a product, the person who buys and uses it.

How do members of the design team link together?

The following diagram shows how each member of the design teams links with another during the product design process.

•Has to work with everyone to ensure the best possbile outcome is reached.Designer:

•Designer, Marketing Team, Consumer, Retailer.Market Researcher:

•Designer, Manufacturer, Economist, Retailer.Accountant:

•Manufacturer, Designer, Economist.Engineers:

•Designer, Accountant, Engineer, Economist. Manufacturer:

•Consumers, Designer, market researcher.Ergonomist:

•Manufacturer, Designer, Accountant.Economist:

•Retailer, Designer, Consumers, Market Researchers.Marketing Team

•Marketing Team, Designer, Consumers, Market Researchers.Retailer:

•Retailer, Marketing Team, Market Researcher.Consumer:

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Design Brief and Brief AnalysisOnce a problem has been identified, a design brief is produced. A design brief is often the starting point of the design process. A design brief will outline the problem, provide the designer with an indication of what must be done, and set down any restrictions that must be adhered to in the design. Design briefs often take two forms:

• Open briefs are very open to interpretation and will have few restrictions placed upon the designer. Open briefs allowthe designer to be more expressive and have more say over the final design.

• Closed briefs are restrictive. They will normally tell the designer what must be adhered to and will limit the amount ofsay a designer will have in the final design.

Design-brief analysisAfter the design brief is produced, the design team will analyse all of it. This normally takes the form of a mind map and seeks to identify everything to be done, including areas for further research. Here is an example design brief:

Problem: We are a popular restaurant chain looking to expand into the student market, offering fast-food restaurants with affordable produce and a relaxed setting.

Brief: We would like you to design seating and tables that would be suitable and appealing to the student market.

The analysis of this brief may include the following:

This basic example shows some of the questions or aspects the design team will have to consider. Once these are identified, research can begin to find answers to these aspects so that an effective solution can be developed.

RESEARCHAfter a brief has been written up, the design team will begin conducting research. Note that research can also be carried out before the brief to help to establish new markets and products for development. Market research helps to:• establish what it is consumers need/want• find potential gaps in the market• assess current products on the market to see what they offer• establish areas for improving these products• gain data on how to best design your product.

During the design process, designers will also look for research to be carried out during the ongoing development of ideas. This ensures that any products being developed will meet the requirements of the client, consumer and design specification. There are many evaluation techniques that can be used to conduct research. (see next page).

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Research TechniquesThe following two research techniques are often used to conduct research as part of a design brief analysis.

Questionnaires/surveysQuestionnaires/surveys are a good way of collecting a large number of responses quickly. They are useful when evaluating factors such as aesthetics, where pictures can be shown and questions asked to determine the consumer’s preferences with regard to appearance and styling. We can also evaluate factors like function; however, doing this in depth would be difficult via a survey, as the user cannot physically use the product and can only guess how it works from a picture and questions.

Once the design brief has been analysed and key areas of research considered, the marketing team will write up questions to distribute to consumers. These questions will seek to answer the issues outlined in the brief analysis. Survey questions must be well considered to ensure the responses collected are useful and give us the information we require. For example:

• Do you like the kettle shown? Yes or No.This only tells us whether or not a user likes the kettle and nothing specific about its aesthetics therefore our results arelimited.• To improve responses and get more information, we may include pictures of several kettles and ask the consumer: On ascale of 1–5, with 5 being excellent, how would you rate the colour scheme of each of the following kettles?• We could go further by asking the user to provide reasons to the previous question to gain more insight into consumeropinion.• This response will ensure the data generated from the survey provides us with useful information we can take forwardinto the design stage.

User tripsA user trip involves the designer physically using and testing a product. This design analysis can relate to points highlighted from a brief analysis and will help the designer to determine potential issues/areas for improvement for the product in question. User trips can also be used to identify market opportunities for new product developments.

To carry out a user trip, the designer will outline specific activities that are to be carried out in relation to the users in question. The designer may then consider questions such as:

• Who will be using the product and what issues may occur for different types of users?• What does the user want the product to do?• How will the product be used?• How will the product perform when carrying out specific functions before, during and after use?• In what sort of environment will the product be used?• What are the priorities when using the product? For example, which functions will be used most often?

The designer can record this information in several ways such as note taking, audio recordings and/or photographic and video evidence. The data can then be used to drive the design of the product during the design phase.

SpecificationsAfter research has been carried out and decisions made, a design specification is written up. A specification is a list of the things the product must do. This will then be discussed with the client to ensure they are happy with what the specification sets out to achieve. Once agreed, the specification can then be used to begin generating ideas that solve the brief. The specification may provide specific information on a variety of design factors such as function, styling (aesthetics) and materials to be used. For example, a specification produced for the design of a new child’s garden play zone may include the following specifications:

1. Function1.1 must fit within the average back garden.1.2 must include slides and climbing areas.

3. Materials3.1 must be durable, hardwearing and withstand varying weather types.3.2 must be suitable for children to ensure the product is safe.

Obviously, the above specification is a basic example and specifications in the real world will be much more detailed. They will likely consider many more design factors and include information that details key decision made from research that has been carried out.

2. Aesthetics2.1 must be colourful and appealing to children.2.2 must use simple shapes that are easily understood and appealing to children.

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Design FactorsDesign factors are extremely important in design. They allow designers to consider the many aspects and issues that will affect the outcome of a solution for any given product. Effective consideration of these factors will ensure that the end product is a success. No one factor is more important than another as each and every product will require specific factors to be considered. For example if we take a high end, high spec one-off design for a sports car, cost will not be an important issue. Whereas, if we were to consider the design of a more affordable mid-range sports car, cost will be a very important factor in ensuring the consumer will pay for the end product.

There are several factors that must be considered during the design process. There are five key factors that you must learn for your National 5 exam including the individual aspects of each. These are as follows:

Function Performance Aesthetics Ergonomics Market

These are all explained in more detail later in this chapter and you must be familiar which the key aspects of each. Aside from these five key factors you must also be able to discuss safety, cost, sustainability and the environment in relation to design and manufacture.

Function - What is the primary and secondary function of the design. The primary function is the main thing that the design will need to do i.e. a coffee table is made to sit cups/mugs/glasses on. The secondary function is any extra functions that the design could have i.e. a coffee table may also have a magazine rack underneath. It may be that style is as important as a secondary function. (Further information on page 04).

Performance – How well does a product perform its functions. Performance is all about how well products perform in doing there jobs. There a number of things that will affect this such as materials, quality of manufacture, can it be maintained easily, is it durable to withstand constant use.

Aesthetics - See Aesthetics revision sheet. (Page 06)

Ergonomics - See Ergonomics revision sheet. (Page 05)

Materials - Consider the range of materials available to you and research how these could effect your final design in terms of strength, aesthetics, properties and suitable processes. (See bottom of page 13 for material properties).

Manufacture - Consider how you will actually manufacture the design. Look at different ways in which the design can be constructed and how difficult each manufacturing method would be. How durable, strong, will the design have to be?

Cost - Consider issues relating to cost. How much will materials be? How much will it cost to construct? How much will it cost to transport? How much will it be sold for? These factors will effect what you can do with your design.

Market - Who will be buying the product? Will this affect the final design? Market research is very important to a designer, as it helps them to focus on what a particular client wants or identify a gap in the market. (Page 07)

Safety - What are the safety considerations? Will it conform to British standards?

Environment - Will it be used indoors or outdoors? If indoors where? If outdoors where? Should it fit in or stand out from its environment. Could the design be more environmentally friendly? What extreme conditions might it have to withstand? What about sustainability and recycling?

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Ease of Maintenance

Ease of Maintenance is how difficult it is for a user tokeep a product in good working order throughout itslife. A cheaper product is probably intended to bethrown away after use and will need no maintenance.A more expensive product is likely to last much longerand will require periodic maintenance to keep it ingood order.

Materials

In order to decide which materials to use we must have an idea of what properties we wish them to have. Forinstance, a car wing-mirror must be water-proof, resistant to sunlight, impact resistant, chemi-callyresistant and corrosion resistant. On top of this, theshape of the wing mirror must be able to be formedeasily as it is a mass produced’ product.

Choice of Materials will have a direct effect on sever-al aspects of the design, including: The manufactur-ing processes that can be used, The finishes that can be applied, The disposal of a product at the end of its life, The cost of the product, The lifespan of the prod-uct, The product’s performance in terms of strength,weight etc. .

Durability

Durability is the life expectancy of a product, or how long it is expected to last. This is decided by the materials that the product is made from and planned obsolescence.

For example, washing machines are designed to be replaced after about six years, this allows the manufacturer to constantly sell new models, bringing in more business by continuing to satisfy the buyer’s desire to have thelatest, most fashionable model.

Ease of UseEase of use or ‘Usability’ is how easy the final user finds the product to use. Is the product self explanatory or does it require an instructionmanual ?

ConstructionWhen designing a product, various construction methods and materials must be evaluatedbasedonhte desired properties of the final item.

Primary and secondary functions

What does the product do? Does it only do one thing, or does it domany things? Normally products have one main function, this is called the Primary Function and it is usually decided early in the design cycle when the design brief is being written. Along with the Primary function, the product may also have many other functions that are less important. These are called Secondary Functions.

The Primary function of the desk pictured on the right is to provide the user with a work area.

The Secondary functions are Storage (it has storage areas within the legs) and to be aesthetically pleasing (it is not your average flat pack desk).

PerformancePerformance determines how well a product performs its primary function. Consumers often want products that have a good life expectancy and perform their jobs well. However, a product’s success in relation to performance can differ based on its cost and value for money. Cheap sunglasses, for example, may be purchased for a holiday where the user only requires the product for a short period of time. We would not expect these to last as long as a designer pair, to be as comfortable to wear or to perform as well in terms of blocking out sunlight. Various aspects affect a product’s performance, and the designer must considerthes

Function

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Performance - Fitness for PurposeFITNESS FOR PURPOSEAnother important aspect of function and performance is fitness for purpose. Fitness for purpose describes how well a product carries out its intended job. It is obvious that a product should carry out its job; but how well should a product do its job? Some products do not perform as well as intended due to poor design, and this can also depend on whether or not the product is being used in the correct situation.

Case studyThe primary function of a vacuum cleaner is to remove dirt, and its secondary functions are to be easily emptied and easily manoeuvred. Look at the three vacuum cleaners shown:

If we consider the primary and secondary functions, each of the vacuum cleaners performs well. However, if we swap each vacuum cleaner’s recommended place of use, we will quickly find that each product no longer performs in the way it should do.

Handheld vacuum cleaner: This is used for small jobs such as vacuuming the seats ofa car. If we tried to clean an entire house with this device, it would no longer be fit forpurpose, as it would not be able to hold as much dirt as the household vacuum cleaner.It would take far too long to clean an entire house with such a small product.

Household vacuum cleaner: If we were to try vacuum-cleaning an industrial sitecontaining large amounts of debris, then the household machine would not be fit forpurpose. A household vacuum cleaner is designed for lifting general domestic dirt andwould not be able to cope with lifting large debris, which could damage its workings.

Industrial vacuum cleaner: If we were to use the industrial vacuum cleaner in ourhomes, it would no longer be fit for purpose. It would be awkward to manoeuvre aroundthe house and to take upstairs due to its size. Also, the power of suction from thevacuum could lift and damage carpets, making it impractical.

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ErgonomicsErgonomics can be described as the study of how we as humans interact with products in everyday life. Every well designed product must be easy, comfortable and safe to use.

Not every part of a product needs to be ergonomically designed however. Things like the inside components of a DVD player would not need to be, as we would not have to operate them or touch them. It can be said that the parts of products we need to operate and touch need ergonomic design.

PhysiologyPhysiology is the area of ergonomics that deals with thephysical capabilities of the human body. This can involvelooking at strength, posture, movement, flexibility,reaction speed and muscle control. The data collectedin this study will define any constraints a designer hasto apply to make any given product easy to use. Forexample, think about a standard games controller. Howmuch effort must a user apply to press its buttons? Howheavy should it be so that it is easily lifted and balancedin the hand? Should there be finger indents, curvaturesor materials that make it easier to grip and hold? If anyof these issues are overlooked, then users may encounterseveral problems when using the product.

We should also consider percentiles in relation tophysiology. For example, the effort required to pressa button would be focused at the 5th percentile. If themajority of people who are considered to be weakerthan average can press the button easily, then everyoneelse, being stronger, should have no problem pressingit. Considering percentiles will ensure we get thephysiological aspects of the design correct.

PsychologyBefore choosing to use a product, we look at it first. This allows us to assess whether a product appeals to us. It makes us consider the functionality of the product, and it allows us to assess any safety issues that the product may present. If a product looks good, easy to use, safe or interesting, we will be more likely to interact with it. Therefore, it is very important that designers consider human psychology when designing products. Designers must know how we will perceive a product and process information when using it to ensure that we understand what to do when operating it. Thorough consideration of this allows users to operate the product correctly and safely, while also saving us from becoming frustrated by the product if we can’t work out how to use it. When considering psychology, we should think about how colour, symbols/images, sounds and our sense of touch will help us to understand the product better. If you consider a power switch, the fact that it lights up green tells us that it is on. The colour green also represents ‘go’ or ‘on’. The power symbol is a common symbol that we understand as a power switch. The button may also make a clicking noise when pressed, or we may feel a click when we press it. These psychological aspects of design are extremely important when considering how we understand and interact with products.

In the examErgonomics is guaranteed to come up in the exam and therefore you must be able to discuss products in relation to this.

Over the page is a an example answer of how you can attempt these questions and what kind of things you can say about a product in relation to ergonomics.

> 5th percentile shows us the extreme range of smaller sizes in people.> 50th percentile shows us the mean average of sizes in people.> 95th percentile shows us the extreme range of larger sizes in people.

Designers tend to design somewhere in between the 50th and 5th percentiles or 50th and 95th percentiles. That means the 5% of extreme sizes are normally not catered for and need specialist products made for them. For example someone with a size 15 shoe will have to go to a specialist shoe maker.

AnthropometricsWhen designing a product a designer needs to ensure thatthe sizes of the product are designed ergonomically correct.To do this a designer would look at anthropometric data.

This data shows all measurements from different parts of the human body for men, women, children and ethnicity of different ages, and is displayed in a range of tables.

To help decide on what sizes to use in terms of whether something is to be designed for a large size or small size designers use percentiles.

Determining critical sizesIf we were designing a chair and determining what widththe seat should be, we would consider hip breadth. Ananthropometric data table would help us determine therequired size.

User group to be considered

From this data, we can establish that the 95th percentilesize for females gives our required width. If we design thechair to be no less than 435 mm wide, then the majorityof users could sit on it comfortably.

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Ergonomics – Sample Answers

Size to be determined Percentile range

Reason

1. Diameter of the handle

5th – 50th If the smallest hand can comfortably grip the kettle, then so can the largest.

2. Gap between the handle and kettle

95th If the largest hand can fit through the gap comfortably then so can the smallest.

3. Size of the switches50th If the buttons are designed for the average finger width, then the majority of users could

press them comfortably as they will not be too big or too small.

4. Position of the lid switch on the handle.

5th The switch that operates the lid cannot be too far from the users thumb when gripping the handle, as this may require the user to overstretch.

Q: Describe the ergonomic considerations for the design of the kettle below

Possible answers: the following demonstrates the various answers you could give for this question using your knowledge of ergonomics.

REMEMBER – unless directly asked to discuss anthropometrics, physiology and psychology, make sure you make reference to each of these in your answer.

Anthropometric Considerations:

Physiology:

• Weight: 5th percentile. The kettle must be easy to lift and tip in relation to its weight when empty or full.

• Grip: The materials and shape of the handle must be easy to grip in relation to weight, to limit the possibility of

dropping the kettle.

• Pressing switches. 5th percentile. The user would expect this to be easy and therefore they should not require

significant force to operate the kettle.

Psychology:

• Colour: The parts the user must operate are silver in colour. This makes it easier for the user to identify how to use the

product.

• Sound: When switches are pressed they make a clicking sound. This noise tells the user that something has been

switched on.

• Light: The filling indicator turns blue when the kettle is on indicating that the kettle is in use. Some kettles do this in

even more intuitive ways where the colour of the light changes from blue to red as the water temperature increases.

• Symbols: The filling indicator has a key that tells us how many cups can be made in relation to the water level. This

saves the user from over or under filling the kettle which could lead to damage.

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AestheticsAesthetics is an important consideration for the designer because it concerns the way things look. Consumers are more likely to buy products based on their appearance. The following are the main considerations that a designer would make when considering aes-

Contrast•

•

•

The opposite of harmony where designs are made to stand out and be bold.This can sometimes make a design more eye-catching.Contrasting colours (purple/yellow) and a mixture of shapes can make designs bold and contrasting.

Shape and Form•

•

This describes the shape of a design. Will it begeometric (squares, triangles, circles and so on) or will it be organic (free flowing curves, naturaldesigns).Form is also 3D and is developed from initial 2D shapes.

Proportion•

•

Small changes to the proportion of a shape can make it look more elegant, classy, stable or sleek.This example of a 1980’s BMW 3 series and amodern 2007 BMW 3 series shows how simple changes to proportion can make designs more modern sleek and elegant.

Fashion and Style• A fashion is something that is current. It is something

that has been accepted by consumers are will remainpopular for a period of time.

• A style is more distinct and can be classed as a mode of expression. Styles remain constant and can be popular at different times. A style will always come back into fashion or design and can be used when designingproduct to achieve a certain theme.

It is important that designer design within current fashions whilst also utilising popular stylising when producing products.

TextureDifferent textures can make designs look more stylish orinteresting. Effects such as glass, concrete, wood grain, hard, soft,glossy (shine), Matt (flat dull finish). colour) and so on.

Colour and Shape• The two aesthetic properties that are easiest to understand.• Both colour and shape can be used to create contrast or harmony.• Colour can be used to target specific markets i.e. bright colours would be used for

children's toys, sophisticated colouring for high class products and so on.

Harmony• This is where parts of a design work well together or the

design fits in with a specific environment• It creates a sense of peace and relaxation.• Simple shapes and colours that work well together

should be used to achieve this.

Balance• Most products are designed to be symmetrical.

Others can be designed asymmetrically.• Experimenting with different shapes or colours can add

interest to your design.

PatternRepeating a design feature tocreate a pattern can create aunified and organised lookingdesign.

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Aesthetics – Case StudyIn the exam you will be asked to consider the aesthetics of various products. To help you prepare for this, we will consider the aesthetics used in the design of this drill.

Question: Describe the aesthetics of the drill shown – 3 marks

Possible answers: the following demonstrates the various answers you could give for this question using your knowledge of aesthetics.

REMEMBER – if it’s worth three marks then give three points

The colour scheme uses a bold black and yellow design that would normally alert us to a hazard. However, in this case it forms an industrial looking design, strong brand identity, fits the drills environment and makes it easily seen. Notice also, that all of the parts we would operate are black, helping us in understanding how to operate the drill.

The shape is geometric again relating to the structural nature of the products environment. The handle and button shape consider the contours of the hand and shape of the fingers. This makes it easy to identify where to hold the drill and what to press.

The asymmetrical proportion of the drill allows us to easily identify the front and back. The drill is well balanced proportionally and the base of the drill looks stable.

The textured grip on the handle make it easy to grip as does the rubber material selected.

Being able to evaluate a products aesthetics in this way will help you in completing your exam and coursework.

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Market

Niche Marketing

Niche marketing describes the process of targeting specific groups of people within a market segment and finding a product to suit their particular needs. Products developedthrough niche marketing will not readily appeal to the wider marketplace and will instead focus on a profitable area of the market. If a company identifies a niche market, it cancapitalise on this – and quickly, gaining a majority hold over the market, where no one else will have developed the product yet. A good example of this is camping stoves. Camping is a specific market, and the need for a small portable camping stove is something consumers in this market demand. Various designs have been created to capture this market niche.

Market SegmentsMarket segments can be thought of as groups of people who have something in common that will affect their choice of product. There are many ways to define a particular market group but generally they can be grouped into four categories:

GEOGRAPHIC: such as countries, regions, cities

DEMOGRAPHIC: such as age, sex, income, education, race

PSYCHOGRAPHIC: such as personality, lifestyle, social class.

Market MixOnce the market has been defined and the target group has been identified and researched, the company is ready to begin planning the details of the marketing mix. The marketing mix consists ofeverything that can be done to influence the demand for the product.There are many factors that can influence the demand for a productbut these can all be grouped together under four headings known asthe Four P’s

Product: anything that can be offered to the market in order to satisfy a want or need.Price: the amount charged by the company or exchanged by the consumer for a product.Place: all the company’s activities that make the product available to the consumer.Promotion: any activity which will advertise the product and its benefits to potential buyers.

The four P’s sets out the marketing tools which can be used to influence potential buyers

MARKET PULL VS TECHNOLOGY PUSH (MARKET PUSH)Market pull and technology push are two of the main driving forces for new product development. Market pull is where demand on the market is pulling designers towards designing new products, and technology push (market push) is where new product developments are pushed upon us, creating a demand for them.

Market pullMarket pull happens when a demand is created for a product to fulfil a need or want. A good example of this is the development of filmless cameras. The first portable cameras required a film to capture photographs, which then had to be developed before the photograph could be produced. This was a time-consuming process for the consumer, and the market demanded a more efficient way to capture and produce photographs. This eventually led to the development of the digital camera. This sort of demand forces designers and manufacturers to continually seek to improve products for their market, satisfying the consumer.

Technology push (market push)Technology push can be achieved through product evolution, where existing products are continually updated and improved to create demand for the latest version. Alternatively, a new product can be developed that hasn’t been seen before due to scientific research, advances in technology and new materials and advances in manufacturing processes. Designers can then use these developments to create new products. Once a product hasbeen developed, it is then combined with a high-quality marketing campaign to create demand for the product, pushing it onto the consumer. This is a risky strategy, however, as product development costs a lot of money. For example: The development of miniature electronics has revolutionised the size of our electronic devices such as phones, cameras, televisions and computers. Touch-screen technology has also revolutionised the way we use these products. Smart watches, touch-screen TVs, tabletcomputers and e-readers that were once new products are now commonplace in society. The development of smart eyeglasses, however, is an example of technology push thathasn’t quite worked. Although these products have utilised good marketing campaigns, consumers and society have not seen the need for such a product, and this has stuntedthe product’s development and growth, costing companies money and time.

A market can be described as any place where businesses and consumers trade products. Markets constantly change, and businesses must be aware of current market trends as well as of the changing needs and wants of consumers. This keeps businesses competitive and allows for the development of new products and markets.

There are several aspects of market that you must learn for your National 5 exam.

Target Market

The target market is the group of users you are aiming your product at. It is important that the marketing team carries out effective research to understand the target market and provide the design team with the relevant information that will allow them to produce a final design that meets the need/wants of the target market.

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MarketWANTS VS NEEDS

Consumer Needs

Human needs can be described as the feeling of being deprived. There are many human needs such as the basic physical need for food and clothing. There are other more socially interactive needs such as the needs to belong and for affection. There are also private individual needs for knowledge and self-expression. These needs are a basic part of human make-up and are not created by design companies or advertising campaigns. When any of these needs are not satisfied the individual may do one of twothings: Look for an object or a product to satisfy the need; or try to reduce or eliminated the need.

A person will try to satisfy the most important need first.When that is done the individual will move on to look to satisfy the next most important need. Market researchers and designers often use this when marketing products toconsumers.

Consumer Wants / Demands

Products too can fulfil different needs. Toys provide children with the opportunity to learn, relax and interact with their peers.However, children living in advanced economies would find it socially unacceptable to play with primitive toys that might be found in third-world cultures. They expect the latest toys andeven at an early age they become image conscious, using material things to fulfil their needs for social acceptance, respect and friendship.

Customers view products as providing a social benefit. They will choose the product that gives them the greatest benefit for their money. Given their wants, resources and interests, people will demand products that provide them with the greatest benefit.

If a designer can tap into the needs or wants of the target market then they can effectively produce new designs or improve on existing ones, allowing them to capture the market.

BRANDINGBranding tells us who a company is and what they are about. It plays a crucial part in influencing our purchasing decisions and our expectations of a product. A company’s name and logo are two of its biggest assets, as they allow consumers to identify the brand. Branding can influence the consumer in the following ways:

• It creates loyalty to a product, where we believe in it and define it as a reliable, successful and good brand.• It makes us feel part of something, as our family and friends may have the same brands, or because it is a popular choice among the majority of consumers.• It can satisfy our needs and wants.• It can affect how we see a product. We associate brands that we like with quality regardless of other people’s perceptions.

CAPTURING CONSUMERS THROUGH ADVERTISINGPromotion of a product is vital to its success. Products are advertised in various waysto heighten interest in the product and to make us want it. Companies can do this in thefollowing ways:• TV and internet adverts• promotional adverts such as billboards, magazines and posters• celebrity endorsement of a product• special discounts, such as discounts for buying a product within a certain time, or ‘buy one, get the other half-price’

SOCIAL EXPECTATIONSConsumers now, more than ever, are aware of design and how it affects us – so much so that we have now created expectations of what specific products should be like. Forexample, we expect modern mobile phones (i.e. smartphones) to do more than just make calls and send texts. Designers therefore cannot simply design a similar smartphone or one with fewer features than the previous model. Due to the continual development of products and the social expectations placed upon them, we expect new products to:

• perform better• have better aesthetics• be more environmentally friendly• represent better value for money• give us more choice• come with newer technologies and more features.

The designer must therefore consider market research to ensure that new products meet consumer expectations.

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Society and the ENVIRONMENTKey considerations of the environment should be kept in mind: Pollution, Aesthetics, Sociology Environment. Pollution is created by the manufacturer – during the making of the product, its use and/or its disposal at the end of its life.Designers have a large responsibility to the environment and must try to keep pollution to a minimum in their designs.

Product lifespan and the environmentDuring each stage of a product’s life, its human, environmental and economic needs should be considered and investigated. Products that function/perform poorly in these areas and those that are not fit for purpose are likely to be discarded more quickly, meaning they will end up in landfills. This is often referred to as the cradle to the grave approach which examines the environmental impact from the production of the raw materials all the way through to the disposal of the products at the end of its life. This is highlighted on the diagram

In addition to this, obsolescence will also determine a product’s life span. For example, products are often discarded for the next ‘best thing’ because of:

• ordinary obsolescence, where products naturally go out of fashion or become obsolete due to changes in consumer demand and new technologies. Or

• planned obsolescence, where designers/companies design products to wear and brake down over a period of time, so that new products which utilise new manufacturing technologies, styling and technologies can be introduced to the market.

With this in mind, it is now more important than ever that designers and manufacturers consider the implications of the decisions they make when designing products. We, as consumers, also have a responsibility to consider how we use and recycle products at the end of their useful life. If we continue to fail to design, use and recycle products effectively, we are at risk of continuing to damage and destroy our environment.

The impact of design on the environment and societyWith new developments in technology and manufacturing, new products are constantly being produced. As consumers, we are continually buying and demanding these to improve our lives and satisfy our needs and wants. This is the rise of consumerism.In addition to this, we are demanding newer products that represent value for money and that are lower in cost. We often buy these products without any consideration for the environment or our society. Demanding continual product development andcheaper products can result in many issues such as:

• products being made in sweatshops using lower-paid workers with less access to workers’ rights and safe working conditions;

• products being made in countries with limited regulations over waste disposal from manufacturing;

• old products being replaced unnecessarily;

• newer versions of products being made because technology is constantly changing.

Not every new version marks a significant development in the product, so do we need to buy it? It could be that our only reason for purchasing it is because of social and peer expectations.

As consumers, we must consider these issues when making purchasing decisions. Furthermore, we must also consider the sustainability issues with products. Products that are sustainable are produced on an understanding that they will not damage the environment unnecessarily. This can include:

• using materials that are sustainable, and can be recycled or upcycled

• using transport logistics that reduce carbon emissions (for example, flat-packed furniture allows more furniture to be loaded

onto lorries etc., meaning fewer journeys have to be made to deliver the product);

• recycling our products at the end of their useful life to ensure they do not end up in landfill.

Designers and consumers therefore have a responsibility to ensure that the products they design and use do not impact on our society and environment. If we do not consider the issues outlined above, we will only further damage our environment and create more problems for our societies across the world.

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Idea GenerationAfter research has been carried out a designer will have to begin producing ideas to solve the problem and brief. To develop ideas a designer may choose to use any of the following idea generation techniques:

Lifestyle BoardA lifestyle board is used to build an idea of the target market. Itfocuses on the intended market looking at pictures that relate to their lifestyle. This allows the designer to ensure they design a product that fulfils the needs of the target market. There are norules for creating a lifestyle board and it takes the form of a page of collated images.

Mood BoardThis is similar to a lifestyle board however unlike a lifestyle board, the aim of creating a mood board, is to focus primarily on anatmosphere/emotion. This can help the designer produce aproductthat conveys a certain style, them or mood to enhance the overall image of a product, giving it a unique appeal.

Lateral thinkingThis method is used to stimulate the imagination. Lateral thinkinguses each of the other idea generation techniques in a way that allows the designer to create less obvious solutions to a problem. For example. The book shelving unit designed below created by Mark Newson, was based on a bee hive honeycomb. The lemon squeezer designed by Philippe Stark was based on insects .

Thought Showers (brainstorming, mind mapping)Probably the best known and most widely used technique. Analogyworks best when carried out in a group. It works by writing the name of a product/task in the middle of a blank sheet. Then, from that word/title the designer creates branches of potential solutions to the problem, writing down ideas centred around design factors.

Morphological AnalysisThis is a very structured way of generating ideas. It is a visualmethod where a list of headings for design factors are created. Then underneath each heading, a range of potential solutions are written. The designer can then mix and match these to begin generating ideas for potential solutions. Each unique mix of words from each heading will allow the designer to create diverse ideas.

Design StoriesThis method requires the designer to write a story surrounding the design problem. To do this the designer do the following:

• Imagine that you are the product. What would life be like?

••

•

Imagine what life would be like without the product.Imagine that you are in a shop trying to sell the product. How would persuade the consumer to buy it?

Imagine you are trying to explain the product to an alien or someone who has never seen it.

By doing this, the designer may discover solutions that they hadn’t though about, as they get their head inside the idea of product.

Technology TransferNew products, new ideas and inventions are often the result of a process called associative thinking. This means that a designer willmake anassociation with technology, manufacturing process or material in one area or field of design and use it to provide a new idea or solution in another.

For example:Laser technology, which was developed for space and defence programmes is now used in domestic applications such as DVD/Blu-Ray players games consoles and stereo systems to play data held on discs. Memory foam was developed by NASA when they were designing soft material to reduce the impact of crash landing on astronauts. Designers then used this technology to produce memory foam mattresses.

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Idea DevelopmentOnce ideas have been generated, the next stage is to develop the best ideas towards a final design proposal. Many of the graphics techniques outlined previously are used when developing ideas to effectively communicate what changes are being made and how this will improve the design. Annotations should also be included, as well as justifications that explain exactly why you have decided to develop an idea in a certain way. This may be a justification that explains how the development fully meets the specification or further solves/improves design issues such as ergonomics or function.

What ideas to develop?Developing ideas requires you to evaluate and think about what improvements or modifications are required to improve your design ideas and turn them into potential solutions. A good way to do this is to review all of your ideas, including your annotation of design issues, and then use an evaluation technique to assess how well each idea solves each specification point from your specification. One technique is to use an evaluation matrix such as the one shown here.

An evaluation matrix allows you to quickly identify the strengths and weaknesses of each idea,where a tick or cross is used to indicate whether the idea satisfies each specification point.

Evaluation matrices also display the overall total for how well an idea meets the specification, allowing you to see which ideas are the strongest to take forward. It is important to note, however, that even though an idea doesn’t meet all of the specification points, you can still take it forward. This may be because you feel the idea has good potential and that, with further development, it could become a viable solution that fully meets the specification.

Beginning design developmentYou should think of development as an exploration of your chosen ideas. This can include:

• Synthesis of ideas: the combination of the strongest elements from different ideas to produce a new idea that fully solves the specification. However, great care has to be taken when doing this to avoid making random developments that are actually worsethan the original idea. All synthesis should be based on solid reasoning that has come from your evaluation of ideas.

• Idea exploration: exploring an individual idea to improve its areas of weakness, looking at potential ways to solve design issues. Further research may have to be carried out to help you find solutions.

• Refinement: refining the idea, looking at enhancements you can make with regard to design issues to ensure the idea fully satisfies the brief and specification.

Modelling TechniquesTo help further communicate the development process, designers will often use models. This can help the designer to physically see and gain a better idea of the proportions of the design. It can also allow testing to be carried out, testing materials, function, ergonomics and safety. It is important to note that modelling can also be used during the initial ideas stage. There are various types of models, and you must be aware of each and when they are used:

• Sketch model: a quick, easy to make and inexpensive technique where a 3D model based on your initial sketches is produced to helpyou visualise the shape and form of an object in physical 3D. Sketch models are rarely to scale and are often made from paper, card orthin foam boards. They allow you to quickly communicate and evaluate aesthetics making edits as required to improve designs.

• Block model: a model, as its name suggests, made from one block of material. Unlike the sketch modelling, a block model is more accurate and focuses directly on the physical appearance of the product. A block of material is shaped and prepared to represent the physical appearance of the product and will contain no internal components. Block models are very useful in evaluating and editing aesthetics and function to improve your designs.

• Scale model: a physical model made full-scale or to a portion of the actual size of the final design. These allow the designer to evaluate and determine final sizes and also see how the model works ergonomically to ensure the design will work for the intended end user. Scale models require a reasonably good level of skill to make, and the cost can vary depending on material choices.

• Computer-generated model: a 3D computer model made using CAD software. This can be used to accurately reflect aesthetic choices, to test safety issues through computer simulation and to determine sizes for the final design. A software specialist is required to design the computer model. The cost of making the model is low, but the computer hardware and software required are expensive. The downside to computer models is that they are not physical, which limits some of the testing that can be carried out.

• Prototype: a physical full-scale working version of the final design using exact or as close to the final material choices as possible. Prototypes function exactly as the final product would and allow full testing of the final design. These are very expensive to make andrequire the expertise of manufacturers and engineers to create a working final design.

Modelling materialsModels can be made from almost anything. The key to modelling is to try to create a model that accurately represents the design you are modelling. Obviously, the materials chosen should reflect the intended purpose of the model, as is outlined above. The following materials are commonly used in model-making due to their good workability:

> paper > card > corrugated card > metal wire > pipe-cleaners > foam > expanded foam > plastic sheets > MDF> balsa wood > modelling compound > modelling clay > smart materials > construction kits.

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Graphic TechniquesWhen producing ideas, developing ideas, drawing final solutions and producing manufacturing drawings the designer may employ a variety of the graphics techniques outlined below.

SketchingSketching is the basis for all ideas. The designer will utilise sketchesto quickly produce visual design for a problem. These can be shown to the client and manufacturers, allowing them to assess potential ideas before deciding where to go next.

Often used when generating ideas and developing designs to visually communicate your thoughts.

Illustration and PresentationThis technique is utilised to apply colour to design sketches or drawings. This allows the designer to give a drawing realismfocusing on potential colour schemes or materials. This will allowthe client to fully visualise what the final solution could look like. Various methods can be used, with the most common being pencil rendering, marker pen rendering and pastel rendering as shown below.

MARKER: Bold and highly effective

PENCIL: General application but quick and effective

PASTEL: Soft tones and delicate

Working DrawingsThis style of drawing is used when a design is being prepared forproduction. Working drawings will detail specific information such as dimensions, cutting lists, materials required, individualcomponents and working/moveable parts. These drawings allow manufacturers and engineers to communicate the constructionrequirements for a design. They normally take the format of anorthographic drawing. This 2D method consists of various views of a product from the front (elevation) side, (end elevation ) and top (plan).

Often used during the manufacture planning phase of a design project.

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Evaluation TechniquesAs part of detailed research it is very important to carry out EVALUATIONS and TESTS, to ensure the product is satisfactory for the market.

This is very important, if we want the customer to buy theproduct being designed we need to ensure it is what they want/ need and that the product is fit for its intended purpose.

Search enginesFrom the advent of the internet inthe mid 1990’s search engines havebeen used to collect and view data as part of a research process.Google, Yahoo, Wikipedia and Facebook all collect vast amounts of data about their users. This can then be sold on to marketing companied for large sums of money.

When using the internet for research you have to be very careful about the source of the information you are using. It is very easy to use false information if you don’t check sources.

Measuring and RecordingWhen designing products it is useful to establish how the user willinteract with the product. So far we have discussed designing things to suit our needs i.e. ensuring anything which we design will fit us.

Anthropometrics is the study of the size of individual body parts and allows us to establish required sizes of products based on the human body. A designer will record and use these sizes to effectively design a product that suits our body ergonomically making it easier for us touse. More info on this is available in the Ergonomics section of this book.

Product Measurement: The design team may also measure parts of other products that will be used along with the product they are designing. This will ensure the product functions correctly. For example if designing a bookshelf we may need to investigate the sizes of a variety of books to ensure our bookshelf can hold and store them effectively.

Test Rigs

A test rig is a machine used to test a product before it is put on sale. In the example shown, a machine has beendevised to simulate a person sitting down in a chairseveral times. The advantage of using amachine to do this task isthat themachine can exactlyreplicate the same actions continuously without error.

A proportion of the products produced are selected and tested as it would not be feasible to test every item that was produced in aproduction batch.

The results of each test are catalogued by the production company and are kept as a record of quality assurance .

User trials

Different from ‘user trips’, user trials require the consumer to test a product. This is an excellent method for evaluating function and ergonomics. The person completing theuser trial is usually given a series of tasks to complete. For example, if we were testing a kettle, the user may be asked to evaluate:

• How easy it is to understand and use?• How easy it is to lift and move?• How easy are the buttons to press?• How comfortable is the handle to grip?

The results would then be recorded and conclusions drawn.

Product Use DiaryThis involves getting a user to live with a product for a number of days weeks or months. As they live with the product they are expected to keep a diary that details how fit for purpose they have found the product to be. They should record both what they found to be good and what they found to be bad.

This sort of data, allows the designer to assess a product over a longer period of time and provides good consumer feedback on how toimprove or develop a product.

Product comparisonA product comparison compares similar products within a similar market area and price range. This can be useful for evaluating many factors such as function, product features and aesthetics to establish what is currently on the market and what our competitors are doing. However, it is particularly effective in evaluating value for money and cost. For example, if we compare toasters, we could conduct the following evaluation:

From the comparison, we can conclude that toaster 3 is the best option based on cost and value for money, as it clearly has more attractive features at a lower price. It is important, however, that we do not compare products designed for different markets.

Focus GroupsThis method of research is similar to questionnaire/surveys, however it provides the designer with face to face feedback. Users are put into a group and asked to discuss a product based on various questions surrounding different design factors. They will also be able to get “hands on” with the product and this allows the designer to easily see how users interpret using a product.

During these discussions the designer will not influence the users opinion but record everything they say to establish what needs to be done to improve or effectively market the product.

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Property DescriptionTensileStrength

The maximum force material can withstand before breaking when pulled apart, crushed or twisted.

Ductility The length to which material can be stretched before breaking.

Hardness How hard it is to cut or mark the metal.

Toughness The amount of energy a material can absorb before it breaks when hit with something like a hammer.

Malleability The amount of shaping that can be done with a material before it breaks in terms of bending, twisting and so on.

Brittleness The material will break very easily when any stress or pressure is applied to it.

Elasticity The length to which material can be stretched and still return to its original shape.

Conductivity How well does the material conduct heat or electricity.

Corrosion Does the material corrode (rot, weaken, discolour etc.) easily due to rusting or exposure to chemicals

Material PropertiesWood:Warping - This is the name given to any defect in the shape of a piece of wood. Wood warps in the following ways:

Cupping - A curve across the grain.

Bowing - A curve along the grain

Twisting - curved in a spiral shape.

Metal and Plastics:

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Selecting MaterialsMATERIALSWHAT MATERIAL?During the ideas stage of the design process, product designers attempt to be as innovative and creative as possible. As designers develop these ideas towards manufacture, they must consider how an item will be manufactured with specific regard to material choices and manufacturing processes. Different materials offer designers all sorts of properties that can affect the aesthetics, cost, production and functionality of items.

When selecting a material, designer and manufacturers must consider the following:• Is the material readily available?• What properties should the material possess?• Where will the product be used? How will this affect the choice of material?• What is the environmental impact of using this material?

MATERIAL AVAILABILITY, STANDARD LENGTHS, SIZES AND COMPONENTS

Readily available is a term used to describe how easily accessible a material is and if there is a sufficient stock of it. Materials that are readily available will be cheaper and will allow manufacturing to begin more quickly. However, where materials are not readily available, order times can slow the manufacturing process and can also raise costs.

Standard lengths and sizes refer to materials or parts that are easily available and cut to a specific size. For example, wooden manufactured boards can come in standard sizes of 2400 mm by 1200 mm, or 1200 mm by 600 mm. They also come in different thicknesses such as 12 mm, 16 mm and 22 mm. Metal and plastic sheets also come in readily available sizes similar to these. Solid timber, metal and plastic bars/rods also come in pre-cut lengths and thicknesses. These standard lengths and sizes reduce the cost of manufacture, as materials do not have to be cut to a specific size. Manufacturers can also calculate exactly what they need, working with the given sizes to reduce both cost and waste. This also makes it easy to order materials for a particular job.

Standard components are common parts that are used in products such as screws, brackets, wheels, handles, circuits and so on. Using standard components makes design and manufacture easier. It also benefits the consumer, as replacement parts can be bought when items break.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTWe should also consider a material’s practicability in terms of where it will be used and its impact on the environment. For example:

• Is the choice of material suitable for its intended use and place of use? Metals that rust would be no good in environments where they are constantly exposed to water. This could result in them corroding if not properly maintained, which means they willeventually be discarded.

• Is the material sustainable or renewable? For example, can trees be replanted and grown quickly to reduce the impact of logging for timber and deforestation on the environment? Softwoods are a good example of this when compared with hardwoods. Metals, on the other hand, cannot be replaced once mined from the earth.

• Can the material be recycled or reused? Recycling materials means that products do not end up in landfill at the end of their useful life. However, recycling alone creates by-products such as gases and chemicals that can be harmful to the environment. Also, some materials can only be recycled so many times before they become unusable. Upcycling, where we reuse materials and components that are still in good condition, is a much better way to reduce environmental impact. Glass bottles are a good example of this, as they can be cleaned and reused without being wasted.

If products are designed without any consideration of the materials we use, then we risk further damaging our environment, where products are simply discarded at the end of their life. Taking the time to look at alternatives is therefore very important in ensuring that materials can be replaced and reused as much as much as possible, to reduce the impact of waste.

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Planning for ManufactureSTAGES OF PLANNINGBefore manufacturing a product, it is extremely important that you are well prepared. This will limit mistakes during the manufacturing process, reducing waste and ensuring the project is completed to the correct standard, and on time.

Selecting materialsThis stage involves selecting the best materials for the job. Once the designer has decided on which materials to use, the next stage is to source them. Working with an engineer, a cutting list will be produced such as the one given here used to design the wooden box shown.

A cutting list outlines the number, size and type of materials required for each part. The box shown will also require standard components such as the locking mechanism and hinges.

Preparing the materialOnce the materials are purchased, they may need to be prepared. This varies for differing materials and includes cutting materials to size, smoothing surfaces, removing saw marks, cutting the material to required shapes/ patterns using templates and removing any imperfections where possible.

Planning: sequence of operationsThis may be done before the materials are prepared, but you must already know what materials you are using before you can accurately decide on suitable manufacturing processes and techniques. Planning a sequence of operations requires manufacturers, in consultation with designers and engineers, to list all of the steps required to manufacture the product from start to finish. It is important to establish the most efficient and cost-effective way to build the design.

Planning includes:• how the materials will be prepared• what tools, moulds, jigs or templates will be required for the chosen processes• how the manufacturing processes will be carried out• how the materials will be assembled• what finishes will be applied.

Working drawings and diagramsTo help manufacturers understand how the product will be made, engineers will create production engineering drawings, also known as working drawings. One of the key types of graphic produced at this stage is an orthographic drawing. Two main types of orthographic drawing are often drawn, namely component and assembly drawings. Component orthographics are produced to show specific details for each individual component of a product. These will include detailed sizes and manufacturing notes. Assembly orthographics are used to show how the product is assembled and will not contain many, if any, dimensions. Orthographic drawing is a graphics technique where views of a 3D object are drawn in 2D, looking straight on at every side of the object. The most common views are the elevation (front), end elevation(s) (side(s)) and the plan (top). The elevation is the first view to be drawn, with the end elevations positioned directly to the side of this and the plan view directly above it. This layout method is known as third-angle projection. Orthographic drawings are extremely useful in providing a working drawing, as engineers can easily show key features of the product and include precise dimensions (sizes). To further explain the working of the drawing, engineers will also use pictorial views, exploded views and sectional views and will also include assembly/production notes detailing what has to be done.

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Materials - WoodThere are three categories of wood:

Choosing Softwood:Softwoods:These come from coniferous trees (trees that have needle like leaves and last throughout the year). Unlike hardwoods these grow quickly and can be replaced quickly after being cut down. Softwoods are cheap.

Choosing Hardwoods:Hardwood:These come from deciduous trees (trees that lose their leaves every winter). They grow slowly and sometimes have twisted trunks.They are often not replaced when cut down and take a long time togrow. Their wood is expensive and used for high quality products.

Choosing Manufactured Boards:Manufactured Boards:These are made from waste wood left over from machining or working. All excess such as thin sheets (plywood), small strips/blocks (block board), wood chips (chipboard) and saw dust (MDF) are used to make boards.

Name Properties Uses Cost

Red Pine Straight grained, but knotty, quite strong and easy to work. Red/orange in colour

Buildingconstruction. Needs good protection when used outside.

Low

Parana Pine Straight grained with few knots. Quite strong and durable but warps easily.

High quality interior construction and furniture.

High

Spruce (whitewood)

Quite strong with few knots.Resistant to splitting but notdurable.

Fitted furniture e.g. Kitch-en cabinets.

Low

Cedar Straight grained and knot free. Very light and durable. Quite soft

Shedconstruction and good quality fencing.

High

Name Properties Uses Cost

Ash Light in colour, flexible, tough bends well and varnishes well.

Tool handles, cricket/ baseball bats, snooker cues, ladders and veneers.

Med

Beech Mid-brown colour, hard, strong, tough, tends to warp but bends well.

High qualityfurniture, toys, tool handles and veneers.

Med

Oak Light brown, hard, tough, heavy and durable outside. Gets harder with age.

high qualityfurniture, garden furniture, boats and veneers.

High

Mahogany Red in colour, medium weight, quite strong, durable but warps easily.

high qualityfurniture, shop furniture, boat fittings and veneers.

High

Name Properties Uses Cost

Plywood Strong, stable, warps easily.Made by gluing layers of thin sheet wood together. It is important that the grain of each layer goes in a different direction to ensure maximum strength.

Bases of drawers or boxes. Backs of cabinets and wardrobes etc.

Med

MDF Very strong and doesn’t warp. Made from gluing and tightly compressing excess sawdust together.

Furniture and toys.

Med

Blockboard Very strong and rigid and doesn't warp. Very heavy. Made from gluing strips/ blocks of wood together.

Quality furniture, stage flooring and fire doors.

High

Chipboard Heavy, warps easily and needs a good finish. Made by gluing and tightly compressing wood chips together.

Kitchen cabinets and worktops, roofing boards.

Low

Hardboard Not very strong, warps easily and needs a good finish. Made similar to plywood.

Door panels, drawer bottoms and cabinet backs

Low

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Woodwork ToolsMarking out Tools

Cutting and Shaping ToolsSaws and Sawing

Planes

Try Square Steel Rule For measuring sizeson wood, metal andplastic. Measures inMillimetres (mm)

For marking lines at right angles to an edge of a piece of wood.

Marking Gauge For marking out the width of a mortise and Tenon joint.

Mortise Gauge

StockThumb ScrewStem

Mainly used for cutting out joints in wood. This is because the blade is very rigid (stiff) due to the brass back at the top of the saw.(Cross-Cut Saw)

Tenon Saw

Mainly used for making straight cuts in large pieces of timber. (Rip Saw)

Coping Saw

Panel Saw

A thin saw used for making curved cuts. The blade can be set to almost any angle and is very flexible.

Bench Hook/Sawing BoardMakes it easier to secure and saw small pieces of wood.

It is important to note that there are two categories of Saw: Rip Saws and Cross-cut Saws. Rip Saws are used for cutting along the grain and Cross-cut saws are used for cutting across the grain.

KerfThe term Kerf refers to width of the cut that a saw blade makes.

Smoothing and Jack planesAlthough both Jack and Smoothing Planes look similar they are used for different jobs:

Jack planes are used to make long edges straight and square and are longer than smoothing planes.

Smoothing Planes are used to make surfaces smooth.

Plane Parts1. Blade Depth adjustment Screw. 2. Blade3. Sole 4. Blades lateral

adjustment lever.5. Lever Cap 6. Cap iron7. Toe 8. Heel

7

For marking lines parallel to an edge of a piece of wood.

Spur

Thumbscrew

Spur

Adjustment Screw- Adjusts width of the mortise joint.

Stem

Stock

7

61

2

5

3

4

8

24

Plough plane

Used for cutting grooves on the inside of a face on a piece of wood.

Rebate Plane

Used for cutting grooveson an edge of a piece ofwood.

1.

2.3.4.5.6.7.

Fence (For measuring how far in you want to cut).Fence adjustment screw. ToeHeel BladeBlade adjustment screw Depth gauge

Plane Safety- Always ensure that the blade is set correctly to ensure that there is no risk of accident or damage to your wood/plane.

- Always place your plane side up on the work bench to ensure that the blade is not damaged.

3

Router Plane Bullnose PlaneSmall Router Plane (Granny's Tooth)

Used for cutting or tidying joints such as a housing joint.

Same job as Router Plane only on a smaller scale.

Used for smoothing faces or edges of wood.

Blade

Blade adjustment Screw

Blade

Blade adjustment Screw

ChiselsChisels are used for chopping away waste wood when cutting a joint.Beech/Wooden Mallet

Used for driving a chisel through wood.

Bevel-Edged ChiselThe blade is sloped at the edges. This chisel is normally used for pairing wood or cleaning/tidying up joints.

ChiselsThe handle on a chisel is normally made from Ash which is a very strong hardwood or polycarbonate plastic so that it will offer resistance from splitting when being used.Chisels will always have some type of ferrule that helps stop the wood from splitting.

Firmer ChiselUsed for cutting away waste wood when cutting out joints.

MortiseUsed for cutting the mortise (hole) in a mortise and tenon joint. Note: that mortise chisels normally have a leather washer that helps to absorb the shock from hammering when

6

42

7

15

61

2 53

4

HandleBlade

Ferrule

Leather washer

Steel Ferrule

End view of a firm-er chisel in use.

End view of a bevel-edge chisel in use.

Spokeshave Plane

Used for smoothing faces or edges of wood.

Blade adjustment Screw

Blade

25

Stopped Housing

Can be either a plain or dovetail housing. It has the advantage of not showing the joint workings at the front, which improves a products aesthetics.

Woodwork JointsCarcase/Box Construction

Dowel Joint

This looks like a butt joint but is a lot stronger. It is difficult to line up the holes without using a dowelling jig.

Corner Joints

Housing Joints (for shelving)

Through Housing

Used for fitting shelves into cabinets or units and partitions in boxes.

Housing Joints

Base and Back Joints

Rebate Joint

This joint provides a groove for a hardboard/ plywood base/back for a carcase construction It is easily cut using a rebate plane.

Corner Joints

Butt Joint

This is a very weak joint unless it is strengthened with pins or screws.

Lap Joint/ Corner RebateJoint

Although stronger than a butt joint, the lap joint is best when reinforced with dovetail pinning or screws.

Comb or Finger Joint

A strong joint (a lot of side-grain to side-grain contact). The joint can be considered a design feature because, if it is well fitted, it adds to the appearance of the furniture.

Dovetail Joint

A very strong joint. Used for drawers where the front is pulled every time the drawer is used. It is difficult to mark out and cut. This joint can also be used as a design feature

26

Woodwork JointsFrame Construction

Corner Joints

Tee jointsCrossover Joints

Dovetail Halving

A stronger version of the Tee Halving. Used for medium weight frameworks.

Mortise and Tenon

A strong joint that is quite difficult to cut and fit by hand. Used for heavier frameworks and uncovered frameworks.

Crossover JointsCross HalvingThis joint is quite strong and resists twisting. This is the only crossover joint that is flush (flat) on both sides

Tee JointsTee Halving

Used for lightweight frames, especially those to be covered with boarding. The joint is quick and easy to cut.

Corner Joints Corner Halving

Used for lightweight frames and frames that are to be covered by boarding e.g. a door. The joint is quick and easy to cut.

Corner Bridle

Used for heavier, stronger frames because it has a large area of contact and cannot be twisted apart unlike the halving joint. The joint is quite difficult to cut.

Dowel

Used for lightweight frames. The holes are difficult to line up unless a dowelling jig is used. Can also be used as a Tee joint.

Mitre JointUsed to join corners only, a mitre joint is created by cutting both adjoining pieces at 45°to each other and then butting and gluing them together. It can be further strengthenedusing pins, heavy-duty staples or screws.

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Answering questions on woodworking jointsIn the exam you are likely to be asked questions on how particular joints are manufactured. The question will normally refer to a specific product and indicate what joints have been used. You will have to be able to describe how the joint is cut. To answer these questions effectively ensure that:

• Know your woodworking joints.• You know the common woodworking tools required to cut the joint.• You have prepared answers that describe how each joint can be manufactured.

An example question and answer is given below to help you in preparing for these types of question.

Question: A toy truck manufactured from wood is shown below.

(a) Name a suitable corner joint for the construction of the back trailer. (1 mark)

Advice: You could select a butt joint however this would not be durable enough to survive the kind of use it would be subjected to by a child. You could also select a finger joint which would offer good durability, however this could increase cost of manufacture and the aesthetic value offered would not be of high importance to a child.

Best answer: Lap Joint. This would be suitable as it is relatively cheap and quick to produce, reasonably strong and can be further strengthened by pins or screws to increase its durability.

(b) Describe how the joint you selected previously would be manufactured. (4 marks)

Advice: if the question is worth three marks then try to make three or more points that explain how the joint would be manufactured. Remember that every joint will require:• marking out• cutting • finishing and gluing

You can use these three points to build your answer and refer to tools as you do so.

1. Mark out the area to be removed on the end of the required piece of wood using a rule, try square and marking gauge. You should ensure the markings are: no more than half the depth, the correct width of the wood to be joined, square and parallel to the edges.2. Using a tenon saw, cut out the area to be removed by firstly sawing down no more than half way. Then saw down the line used to mark the length of the joint, to remove the waste material. 3. Using a bevel edged chisel, remove any excess material to ensure the joint surface is flat.4. Finally assemble, glue and clamp the joint.

Corner joint

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Wood Preparation and Finishes

Glass paper comes in various grades of coarseness.The higher the number the smoother the paper. Thelower the number the rougher the paper.

A rough paper should always be used first and then a smooth paper for finishing off.

Important Note: Always sand in the direction of the grain as sanding against the grain will only scratch theface of the wood.

VarnishThis is available in three finishes:

Matt - Dull finishSatin - Slight ShineGloss - High Shine

Clear varnishes allow the pattern of the grain to show through and usually darken the colour of the wood. This gives the wood a niceand interesting depth whilst being water and heat resistant.

Varnish is applied with a brush. A 1st coat should be applied and then left to dry. Once dry, a light sand paper should be used to smooth the rough surface that the 1st coat normally leaves. Then a second coat should be applied and left to set.

OilsVegetable Cooking Oil or special Teak Oil can both be used to give a water and heat resistant, satin finish. An oil finish will not crack or peel of as it soaks into the grain of the wood.

Oil is applied using a dry cloth and rubbing it into the grain .Three coats is normally sufficient for a good finish ensuring that each coat is left to set and dry.

Wood Preparation

The wood must be clean and smooth before any finish is applied.

Important Note: Always ensure that all of the faces that will be on the inside of your project are completely clean and sanded as these will be awkward to sand once you have glued your model together.

Sanding Wood Wax

Waxing wood gives a satin finish and like varnish, it allows the grain of the wood to show through.Wax must only be appliedto wood that has been sealed with a wood sealer, otherwise it soaks in and never shines.

Wax is normally applied by rubbing it into the woods surface using a dry cloth.

Once dry you should buff it up with a separate dry cloth. This is done a couple of times until a good finish is achieved.

Paint

All paints provide a water resistant, coloured protective coating.

Paint will only give a good finish if a number of thin coats are applied rather than one thick coat.

French Polish (Shellac)

This is a traditional polish made from shellac and used on high quality furniture and antiques. It provides a very high quality finish but is difficult to apply and is not water or heat resistant.

Stains

Stains are used to change the colour of light woods to make them more interesting or to blend in better with darker woods. It does not hide the grain. A stain is normally applied by rubbing it into the woods surface using a dry cloth. Stains will not protect the wood and will need a protective finish applied on top of them.

FineCoarse

Always sand in the direction of the grain.

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Wood Lathe

TailstockFork

Tool Rest

Bed

Natural wood products such as bowls, legs, spindles and lamp stands are made using a wood lathe.

Faceplate or Turning Chuck

Turning Between CentresThis is the method used for turning legs and spindles. The wood is held as shown.

Fork (held in the head stock)

Running Centre (Held in

the Tailstock)

Tool Rest

To prepare wood for turning you must:

1. Mark the diagonals on either end of the wood to find the centres.

2. Use a marking gauge to mark out the corners that are to be planed off.

3. Plane the sides of the wood from corner to corner to turnthe wood into the hexagonal shapeshown. This will help reduce friction whenturning

4. At one end a saw cutshould be made along oneof the diagonal lines. This allows the teeth of the fork to grip the wood.

Running Centre

Exam Type Diagram

Tailstock

Tool RestRunning Centre

Fork

Turning Tools

Turning is carried out using special chisels that havelong blades and handles (so they can be held safelyand give good leverage).

Gouge - for shaping the wood and clearing waste.

Scraper - for general shaping but leaves an untidy finish.

Parting - For cutting the job away from the excess wood.

Skew - For smoothing the wood.

Bowl TurningThe wood to be turned needs to be prepared by cutting it into an octagonal shape. This reduces the friction when turning. A face plate is then centred and screwed onto the wood. The face plate with wood attached is then secured to the headstock and then turning can begin.

Fork Running Centre

Secures the wood in the Headstock which hosts the gears that drive the lathe.

Secures the wood in theTailstock whichhelps support the wood when turning between centres.

Headstock

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Wood LatheSETTING UP THE LATHEWhen setting up a wood lathe, the following must be done:

• Wood prepared for turning (explained later in this chapter).

• Ensure you have marked out ‘dead areas’ at the ends of the wooden blank. These are areas that will not be worked (cut) and will ensure safety in stopping the chisels from coming into contact with the fork or centre.

• Secure the prepared wood centrally to the fork and centre. The fork has four prongs that grip the wood and a centre point to ensure the wood is centred. The fork is held in the headstock. Centres are held in the tail stock and two types can be used. A revolving centre spins, reducing the friction on the wood meaning that turning canbe carried out at higher speeds. A dead centre does not spin and creates significant friction. A lubricant should be used when using a dead centre.

• Set the vertical height of the tool rest to the correct height for the type of chisel and process being used. This is often just below the centre of the wood’s width.

• Set the position of the tool rest in between the centres of the lathe and ensure it is kept at a safe distance away from the wood.

• Ensure the lathe speed is correct for the type of wood being used and the process being carried out.

• Ensure you have the correct safety equipment on i.e. apron and face shield, and that you adhere to all safety requirements such as tying long hair/loose clothing back.3

WOOD LATHE PROCESSESYou must know and be able to describe the following processes on the lathe:

Parallel turning: Parallel turning is often carried out with a skew chisel for accuracy and quality of finish. To parallel turn, the chisel (rested on the tool rest) is kept at a steady and constant distance from the wood when taking the cut. The chisel is then moved from left to right and right to left at a steady/constant speed taking parallel cut from the wood.

Parting off: Parting off is a process used to: square off the end, or features of wood turning, cut square edges grooves(trenches) and separate the finished job from the wooden blank dead areas. This process is carried out with a parting off chisel. The chisel is held at a right angle to the wood and the cut taken by feeding the chisel directly into the wood.

FinishingSanding: Due to the complexities of the turned piece of wood, finishing by sanding can be difficult. Therefore, sanding is often carried out on the lathe. To do this, the tool rest is removed from the machine and a piece of sand paper, held firmly in the hand, is pressed against the wood whilst it is turning. The sand paper is then moved left to right/right toleft, creating a smooth finish. Waxing: To complete the finish turned pieces of wood are often waxed using a hardened block of wax. The wax is pressed into the wood whilst the lathe is turning and moved left to right/right to left creating an even finish. Wax can also be applied with a cloth using the same method for sanding.

OverviewMaterials usedTurning can be carried out using a variety of solid woods. It is important that the wood being used does not have any cracks or previous damage, as this could cause the wood to split during turning.

Products madeProducts made on a wood lathe include handrail spindles, tool handles, candlesticks and bowls.

IdentificationProducts turned on a wood lathe will be cylindrical.

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Materials - MetalThere are two classes of metal:

Ferrous - metals that contain iron. This means that they will rust easily and are magnetic, (except for stainless steel).

Non-Ferrous - do not contain iron. Therefore do not rust and are not magnetic.

Metals can also be grouped as:

Pure Metals - metals made up from only one chemical element.

Alloys - Metals made up from a mixture of elements.

Why do we alloy metals? - to improve the qualities of metal to suit particular jobs. Alloying improves strength, durability and many other material properties. For example, copper and tin are metals that are easily bent and scratched. When mixed together they produce Bronze which is strong, rigid and doesn't scratch.

Ferrous metals:

Non-Ferrous metals:

Name Composition Properties Uses

Cast Iron Iron + 3.5% Carbon Smooth, soft core, strong when compressed, cant be bent or forged.

Vices, lathe beds, garden bench ends and car brake drums.

Mild Steel Iron + 0.15 - 0.35% Carbon Ductile, malleable, tough, high tensile strength, corrodes easily. Easily welded.

Car bodies, machine bodies, nuts and bolts, screws, nails and girders.

High Carbon Steel (tool steel).

Iron + 0.8 - 1.5% Carbon Very hard, rather brittle, difficult to cut, poor resistance to corrosion.

Tool blades e.g. Saws, chisels, screwdrivers, centre punches and so on.

High Speed Steel

Iron + Tungsten, chromium vanadium.

Very hard, heat resistant, re-mains hard when red.

Drills, lathe cutting tools, millingcutters, power hacksaw bladesand so on.

Stainless steel

Alloy = Iron + chromium, nickel, magnesium.

Tough, hard, corrosion resistant, wears well, difficult to cut, bend and file.

Cutlery, sinks, teapots, kitchen ware, saucepans and so on.

Name Composition Properties Uses

Aluminium Pure Metal Strong, light, malleable, ductile, difficult to weld, non-toxic, resists corrosion, conducts electricity and heat well and polishes well.

Kitchen foil, drinks cans and saucepans.

Duralumin Alloy = Aluminium + Manganese, magnesium.

Stronger than pure aluminium and nearly as strong as mild steel but only one third the weight.

Greenhouses, window frames and aircraft bodies.

Copper Pure Metal Tough, ductile, malleable, conducts heat and electricity well, corrosion resistant, solder and polishes well.

Electrical wire, central heating pipes, circuit boards, saucepan bases.

Metal is available in the forms shown here:

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Metal (Continued)Name Composition Properties Uses

Brass Alloy = Copper + Zinc Quite hard, rigid, solders easily, good conductor of heat and electricity and polishes well.

Water taps, lamps, boat fittings, ornaments and door handles.

Bronze Alloy = Copper + Tin Tough, Strong, good corrosion resistance.

Coins, wheel bearings, statues and boat fittings such as propellers.

Tin Pure Metal Weak, soft, malleable, ductile,excellent corrosion resistanceand low melting point.

Solder (with lead), coating over mild steel and tin cans.

Lead Pure Metal Soft, malleable, very heavy, corrosion resistant, low melting point, casts well and conducts electricity well.

Roof covering, Solder (with tin) and car battery plates.

Zinc Pure Metal Poor strength/weight ratio, weak, ductile and malleable, low melting point and casts well.

Coating over mild steel (galvanising), die castings used in cars and roofing panels.

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Metalwork ToolsMarking out ToolsScriber

For marking outdimensions etc. on metal.

Centre punchFor accurately punching holes before drilling.

Odd-leg callipers

For marking straight lines parallel to the edge of a piece of metal.

Spring dividers

For marking circles on a piece of metal.

Measuring Tools

Outside and inside callipers

Outside:For measuring outside widths and diameters on metal.

Inside:For measuring inside widths and diameters on metal

Can also be used with wood and plastic

Micrometre

For very accurate measurement of outside diameters on metal especially when using the metal lathe.

Can also be used with wood and plastic

Junior hacksaw

FilesThere are many different files that are used for filing metal to shape and filing rough edges smooth. Files also come in a range of sizes for different jobs.

Filing metal/plastic

Cross Filing: Files across the metal to cut away any excess materials and to get rid of bad marks.

Draw Filing: Filing back and forward along the edge of a piece of metal to smoothen in.

Round Triangular

Cutting and ShapingHacksaw

Used for cutting thick and large pieces of metal

Used for cutting small pieces of metal such as sheet metal and wire.

Power hacksaw

Band saw type machine used for heavy cutting of large pieces of metal such as round bar or square bar.

Flat

Half RoundSquare

Engineers square

For marking lines at right angles to an edge of a piece of metal.

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Joining MetalsRivet set and snap

This tool allows us to ensure that the metal being joined and the rivet are all held together firmly. A ball pein hammer is then used to flatten the rivet and secure it.

Mushroom Countersunk

Types of rivet

Snaphead Panhead

Pop rivetingPop rivet gun Used to secure a pop rivet.

Ball pein hammerUsed for general metalwork where a hammer is required.

1. Electrode Holder 2. Metal Filler 3. Ground Clamp

Safety: Ensure that you always wear a welding mask as your eyes can be damaged and ensure that you are working in an area away from others.

Nuts and bolts

Joined countersunkJoined snapheadThe Snap HollowThe set

hole

When Pop Riveting the rivet is placed in the holes of the metal being joined. The Rivet gun is then placed over the rivet and the handles squeezed together. As youapply more pressure the rivet expands in the hole until the pin eventually breaks away.

Bolt

Nut

A nut and bolt is a non permanent fixing and therefore is suitable for jobs where parts need to be free to come apart.

Washer

WeldingSpot / resistance welding

Used for joining thin sheet metal. An electric current is passed through the copper rods and the metal being joined, which causes heat to build up and melt the metal together.

Soldering and brazingSoldering: Used for joining thin sheet metaland thin bar. A solder bolt is heated in the forge. Once hot enough it is used to melt a filler metal along the joint of the metal parts being

Solder Bolt

Brazing: Used for joining sheet metal and thin metal bar/rod. A gas air torch such as those seen at the forge, is used to melt the metal filler along the joint where the metal is being joined.

Gas air torch

Filler Metal

Arc weldingUsed for joining thick metals including bar form and round form. Basically a metal filler is pushed through the electrode holder using gas. As this is happening electricity is used to produce heat which melts the metal being joined. The metal filler then fills gap to create a solid weld.

12

3

Pin Breaks away

Start of rolled edge

Ball Pein Hammer

Rivet

35

Metal Preparation and FinishesMetal preparation

It is important that the surfaces are up by removing any grit, grease and tarnish. The most common way of doing this is by using emery cloth. The cloth can be wrapped around a file and then rubbed over the surface, up and down in one direction, to give a clean looking finish.

Stages for finishing metal

Clean and prepare removing oil or grease. Cross file to remove bad marks or rough cuts Draw File to smooth cross filing.Use Emery Cloth to further smoothen. Use Steel Wool to smoothen again. Apply a finish or polish using oil.

1.2.3.4.5.6.7.

Polishing

Further prepare the surface by using a finer grade of emery cloth to get a smooth matt finish. The other ways are to polish the metal using metal polish and a dry cloth or, using a buffing machine coated with abrasive wax.

Product Being Polished

PaintingThe surface should be thoroughly de-greased using white spirit. A base coat primer should then be applied to the met-al. Finally an enamel gloss should be used for the second coat.

The toughest paint finish for metal is ‘Hammerite’ which offers good protection against corrosion and rusting. This is the best finish for metal that will be used outdoors.

1.2.

3.

Plastic dip coatingA plastic coating is a tough and waterproof finish that comes in arrange of colours. The steps are as follows:

The metal is heated in an oven or blow torch (forge). Once hot enough it is dipped into a plastic fluidising tank filled with plastic powder for a few seconds.It is then taken out and left to cool. The plastic will now have stuck to metal leaving a plastic coating.

Fluidising: A process where cold air is blown through the powder causing it to bubble like boiling water. This makes it easier for the plastic to stick to the metal.

EnamellingEnamelling is powdered coloured glass, which is melted, flows over the metal surface and then bonds to it. It is normally used for jewellery or a decorative finish on copper.

AnodisingUsed on aluminium and is a method of producing a dense, clear oxide layer that resists corrosion. The layer can be dyed with coloured inks.

ElectroplatingThis uses a process called electrolysis to coat one metal with a thin layer of another metal. For example covering brass with chromium for bath taps.

LacqueringThis is similar to varnishing wood. A thin layer of cellulose gum is brushed on the cleaned surface, giving a clear protective coat.

Emery ClothMetal

Fluidised PowderProduct

Cloth Base

Blown air Inlet

36

Metal ProcessesSand casting is a cast part, which is produced by forming a mould out of a sand mixture and pouring a casting liquid (often molten metal) into the mould. The mould is then air-cooled until the metal solidifies, and the mould is removed. Sand Casting is basically done in these steps:

1. Place a pattern in sand to create a mould2. Incorporate a gating system3. Remove the pattern4. Fill the mould cavity with molten metal5. Allow the metal to cool6. Break away the sand mould and remove the casting.

Remove the Riser and Runner (waste material of the casting mould using a Hacksaw)

Casting

Runner

Why use Aluminium when casting?

There are two main reasons for this:1. Low melting point therefore it will melt quickly and easily.2. Provides a nice aesthetic finish.

Identifying features:

Poor surface texture or porous surface. Draft angles, fillets and rounded corners. Fettle marks due to the removal of the runner and riser.

Removing the waste material from the finished mould

Riser

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Die CastingWhere large numbers of identical components are required, sand casting is not appropriate because the mould has be broken up each time.

Die casting is a method using a permanent mould (called a die). The moulds are made of tough alloy steel and are split into two or more parts to allow the casting to be removed. The initial cost of producing the moulds is high however once man-ufactured the moulds can be kept and reused.

The holes to allow the molten metal into the die (the sprues) are normally too small for metal to fall through under gravity. A ram system is normally used to force the metal in under pres-sure, so the system is often known as Pressure Die Casting

This method is normally automated and can produce over 100 castings per hour.

Stage 1A measure of molten metal is poured into the charge chamber.

Stage 2An injection piston, or plunger, then forces the metal into a water-cooled die through a system of sprues and runners.

Stage 3The metal solidifies rapidly and the casting is removed, complete with its sprues and runners.

MaterialsCommon materials used in the die casting process include low temperature alloys, lead, zinc, aluminium and brass alloys.

IdentificationSeveral common features appear on all die cast items these include; section lines (where the two half of the mould separate), sprue marks (where the ejector pins are separated from the Casting) and runner and riser marks (where the molten metal is injected into the mould).

Piercing and BlankingPiercing and blanking are essentially the same process. This process involves stamping shapes out of sheet metal.

PiercingIn piercing a hole is stamped out of the metal.

BlankingIn blanking a shape is stamped out of the metal and used.

To stamp into the sheet metal, a hardened steel die is used. IT is then forced through metal with high pressure.

Identification A sheared surface will show two distinct areas of defor-mation and fracture. This is visible as a rough edge that looks snapped orbroken and a slightly curved edge where pressure was applied. Where the correct set up is used this can be avoided.

Shearing and NotchingShearing and notching refers to cuts taken on sheet metal. These types of cut are normally done using a metal workers guil-lotine, as shown o the right.

ShearingThis refers to taking a straight cut across a sheet of metal. This is used to cut metal to size.

NotchingThis refers to cuts (notches) that are removed around the edge of sheet metal. The cuts taken can be a variety od shapes and sizes.

38

Metalwork Lathe

Chamfering

45°

tool feed

A chamfer is a slope on the edge of a piece of material. It is made by cutting at an angle on a job.

The tool post

The tool post can be arranged to hold just one tool, or up to four. By loosening the screw-lever, the tool post can be rotated to each tool in turn.

Centre Drill

This particular drill is used to drill a centre hole before you go ahead and drill the main hole. It is used with the Tailstock.

Knurling

This process is used to engrave a diamond shape pattern onto the metal. This pattern acts as a grip for handles and screws.

Parallel turning

tool feed

This means cutting parallel to a job. The process allows you to turn the metal to smaller diameter as you can see in the diagram above.

Facing off

tool feed

This means cutting across the end of a work piece. It is one of the first things normally done at the start of a new job. The process allows us to tidy up the face and ensure that it is flat.

Lathe tools

1. 3.

4.2.

1.Facing/Parallel Turning 2. Roughing.3. Parting-Off. 4. Screw cutting.

Indexing and locking lever

Set-screws clamp tools

tools

Finish

Work piece Drilled Centre

Centre Drill

Centre lathes are used for turning cylindrical forms of varying diameters from metal and plastic. Lathe work can be carried out manually or as a fully automated process using CNC lathes controlled by computers. The process can vary in cost due to labour and machine parts. If turning is carried out manually, it is only suited to low-volumeproduction, whereas if it is automated it can be used for much higher volumes. When turning, it is important that the speed of lathe is correct for the size and type of material being turned, as well as the process being undertaken. This ensures a good-quality finish and limits any potential risks.

LATHE PROCESSESYou will need to be able to describe all of the following lathe processes. This page gives you an overview and exam answers are given on the next page. Learn these and use them in the exam for lathe questions.

39

Metalwork Lathe – Process exam answers

40

Screw Threads

The circular split die is fitted into the Die Stock

ThreadingThreading describes the process of cutting the external (male) thread. A split die is held in a die stock.

Circular split die Die stock

Middle screw is used for spreading the circular split die to make it bigger.

The combined die and stock are then used to create a thread on a round piece of met-al clamped in an engineers vice. NOTE: It is important to ensure that thedie stock is kept level at all times to ensure a good thread

TappingUsing tapsTapping is used to describe cutting and internal (female) thread. A hole must be drilled to thetapping size for the thread. The work piece must be securely supported. When starting the cutting, the tap must be perpendicular in all planes to the work. Excessive force must not be used, as this will result in breaking the tap.Cutting fluid should be used to help lubricate the job. The threads must be cleared as often as is necessary to pre-vent the flutes from clogging. The cutting sequence involves turning clockwise half a turn and then anti clockwise aquarter turn to break the swarf.

Tap Wrench

Taper Tap

Two outside screws are used for tightening the circular split die for a smaller thread.

Engineers Vice

Threaded handle adjusts the jaw

Tap

8 - 10 threads

Taper Tap 1st Taper

Taper tap is used to start the thread in the tapping size hole.

3 - 4 threadsIntermediate/secondtap is used to deepenthreads started by

2nd Taper taper tap.

Intermediate Tap

Plug Tap

Plug tap is used to cut full threads to the bottom of blind holes and to thread right through thick material.

41

Hot Forming Metals - ForgingThe Forge Anvil

Extractor

Firebricks and Working area.

Torch

Hearth

Hardy Hole Punch Hole

Horn Cutting Face Face

BickTail

Throat

The Anvil is used for working metal.This involves flattening and bendingmetal.

Holding MetalWhen working with metal at the forge, tongs are used to hold it safely and securely.Open-Mouth Tongs

For gripping thick flat material.

Pick-up Tongs

For gripping awkward shapes including round bars.

Forging ProcessesAnnealingThis process causes the metal to become more malleable and soft making it easier to work. The metal is heated to a dull red colour using the forge and then left to cool naturally.

HardeningThis is the opposite of annealing. Again the metal is heated, this time however, it is heated to critical - just before melting point. Once ready, it is cooled very quickly in cold water. This processes of cooling the metal quickly causes it to become more hardened but brittle meaning it will shatter easily. The metal can then be softened by TEMPERING to reduce the metals brittleness making it more suitable for products such as tools.

TemperingThe hardened metal is cleaned firstly to make it bright in appearance. It is then heated gently until it starts to change colour. The colours it changes to are shown in order on the table below:

Looking at this table then, the paler the colour the harder and more brittle the metal is. The darker the metal the springier and tougher it is. This then determines what the hardened and tempered metal can be used for.

BendingThis is done be heating the metal at the forge. Once hot enough the areas that are not going to be bent should be cooled in cold water. This will ensure that these areas don't become changed by the forging process. The part that is still hot should then be placed over the corner of the anvil and beaten with a ball-peen hammer to begin bending the metal. Finally hammer the sides true (flat).

Hammer Hammer sides true

Anvil

TwistingThe first part of this process is exactly the same as bending. Once cooled, one of the cool parts is then clamped in an engineers vice. A twisting wrench should then be placed on the other cool part. You should then start to turn the twisting wrench, causing the hot part of the metal to begin twisting to shape.

Twisting Wrench

ViceVice Turn Wrench

Drawing down to a pointOne end of a square piece of metal should be heated at the forge. Once ready the hot end should be place on the face of the anvil. A ball peen hammer should then be used to draw the square faces down towards a point as shown below. (See diagram on next page).

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Cold Forming MetalsBending sheet metalWhere a long bend is to be, bending bars are used to give a straight line. The bending with the metal inside should then be clamped in an engineers vice.Bend a small bit at a time all the wayalong the metal to ensure that it is not over-stretched. A scrap block ofwood can be used to make it easier to hit the metal and keep it straight.

Scrolling metal barScrolling metal bar causes the metal to take on a spiral shape. To do this a scrolling jig is used. This is a round plate with a serious of holes drilled in a spiral shape.Locating pins/round bars arethen placed into these holes to create a path for the met-al to be scrolled. The metal is bent tightly around these pins by hand to create a spiral shaped bar as shown.

Hot Forming Metals (Continued)

Hollowing sheet metalThis is a simple method of making shallow bowls from sheet steel/metal. The small end of aBossing Mallet is used tohammer the edges of themetal on a sand bag andworking back to the centre of the metal. This causes the metal to begin curving at the sides. This is doneuntil the metal takes the shape of a bowl.

Rawhide mallet

Used for forming or beating metals. The top of the mallet is made from tough leather which wont damage the metal in the way that aball-peen hammer would.

Bossing malletUsed for forming or beating metals. The top is usually made from a hardwood or stur-dy plastic.

Folding / bending barsUsed to secure long sheet metal when bending to support the entire length of the bend.

Cold bendingA jig is made to suit the angle and shape that we want the metal to take. The metal is then placed on the jig and bent by hand to suit the shape.

Short Taper Long Square Taperfor a round point hammers corners to an octagon.

Continue hammering corners to a round point.

Sandbag

Bossing mallet

Clamp in Vice

Scrap wood Soft faced hammer or mallet.

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Extrusion Metal and PlasticExtrusion is a process used in both metal and plastic. Extrusion works in similar way to Injection Moulding in plastics and Die Casting in metal. Unlike these two processes,extrusion doesn’t fill a mould to create a formed end product.

Instead the metal/plastic is extruded through a die which can be simply explained as a shaped hole in a piece of metal. This happens in a continuous motion and the outcome is a uniformlength of plastic/metal. Extrusion is used to products such as metal/plastic bars, pipes and plastic gutters.

An example of both metal and plastic extrusion is shown below.

Extrusion in metal Extrusion in plastic

1. A metal billet (a piece of metal that has beenheated to critical, the point just before the metalbecomes molten) is placed into the extrusionmachine.

2. A high pressure ram then forces the metal billetthrough the die to create the extrusion.

3. The end product is then cooled.

1. Molten plastic is fed through a hopper.

2. A screw then transfers the plastic and a ram forcesit through the die.

3. The end product is then cooled.

Identification•••••

Continuous cross sections Flow linesLong lengths Simple shapes Thermoplastics

Extruded products

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Materials - PlasticsThere are three main classes of plastic:

Thermoplastic - cab be re-shaped using heat. For example a piece of thermoplastic has been shaped when we re-heat it will return to its original shape. This is known as plastic memory.

Thermosetting - cannot be reshaped by heat and can withstand higher temperatures than thermoplastics.

All plastics are made from natural resources such as oil, gas, and plant extracts. They are man made and are said to be a syn-thetic material. Plastics are readily available and come in many different forms and colours.

Most property changes are made by adding additives to basic plastic to make them stronger, lighter and so on. The following are common additives:

Plasticisers - makes the plastic less brittle.Pigments - Colour the plasticFillers - powdered additives e.g. reduces electrical conductivity.Stabilisers - protect plastics from UV light that can make it become brittle.Flame retardants - makes the plastic less likely to catch fire.

Thermoplastics Thermosetting

Used in Schools: Used in schools:

Used in Industry:

Used in Industry:

Plastic Properties Uses

Acrylic Rigid, hard, can be clear, fluorescent, opaque, very durable outside and polishes to a high shine.

Illuminated signs, windows/ glass, baths.

Nylon Tough, self lubricating, resists wear, good chemical resistance

Gears, bearings, tights, clothing.

Polysty-rene

Lightweight, hard, rigid, can be clear, good water resistance.

CD cases,packaging,model kits.

PVC Rigid, quite hard, good chemical resistance, tough.

Plastic Properties Uses

PET Tough, clear and lightweight.

Bottles.

ABS Very tough, scratch resistant, good chem-ical resistance.

Casings for electronic products, kettles, vacuum cleaners.

Plastic Properties Uses

Polyester Resin

Hard, rigid, brittle, tough when mixed with glass or carbon fibre.

Boats, car bodies.

Epoxy/ Resin

Strong, good, chemical and heat resistant, sticks to other materials as well.

Adhesive glue, covering electronic components such as microchips

Plastic Properties Uses

Melamine Formaldehyde

Rigid, scratch resistant, water and stain resistant.

Tableware laminates, top coatings on products.

Urea Formaldehyde

Rigid, hard, strong, heat resistant, does not bend when heat-ed, goodelectrical insulator.

Electrical plugs, sockets, door knobs.

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Plastic ProcessesHot Forming Plastic Through ine Bending

Strip Heater

Moulding Plastic

Injection MouldingVacuum Forming

When bending plastic along a straight line a strip heater should be used. The plastic is placed over the top of heater bars and heated until soft. Once it is soft enough the plastic can be bent and sometimes a former or jig may be used to ensure a square bend.

Line where heater bars are located

Former or Jig

Injection moulding is one of the most used plastic processes in manufacture. It is used to make all sorts of products such as TV’s and plastic chairs. It pro-duces very intricate designs with a high quality finish. It is a costly process that is suited to mass produc-tion (high production volumes).

Stages

1.

2.

3.

4.

In injection moulding plastic granules are passed through the hopper.The combined screw and ram then pushes the plastic into the melting area to melt.The molten plastic is then injected through the sprue at high pressure into the split mould.The mould is opened and the plastic ejectedand left to cool.

It is also important to note that thermosetting plastics cannot be injection moulded because any plastic left in the machine would set hard permanently and block the nozzle.

IndetificationSprue marks, draw angles, mould split lines, ejection pin marks and injection pin marks.

1

2

3

4 5 1. Hopper6 2. Combined ram and

screw3.Melting area andMelted Plastic4. Sprue5.Split Mould withinjected plastic6. Finished Plastic

Most thermoplastics can be vacuum formed. This process is used to make trays such as dinner trays, chocolate packaging trays and so on. Plastics used include polythene, PVC, high density polystyrene, ABS and Acrylic.

1.

2.

3.

4.

Plastic is secured in the clamp and then heated until soft by the heaters.Once it is soft enough the excess air in the ma-chine is sucked out through the vacuum whichcauses the plastic to be sucked into the shape of the mould.The moulded plastic is then taken out and left to cool.Excess plastic is removed and the product trimmed to size.

IdentificationThin sheet plastic is normally used. Any patterns or textures are evident on the plastic. Venting holes caused by pips on the surface. Tapered edges are quite pronounced and there may be evidence on thin-ning on the side surface.

Clamp

Plastic Sheet

Mould

Heaters

Vacuum pump

Moulded Part

Finished Part

ThermoplasticHeater Bars

Strip heater

Open

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Joining plasticAs plastics can be moulded in one complete shape or product, they often do not need to be joined. However, where they do need to be joined, the following techniques can be used.

Gluing: Plastic can be glued together using Tensol plastic cement or epoxy resin. Both of these are very strong contact adhesives and fuse the plastic together. Epoxy resin can also be used to help join metal and plastic together, but wood is more difficult to join to plastic.Plastic rivets: provide a semi-permanent fixing that joins the plastic together. There are two main types of rivet. The ratchet rivet uses ‘male’ and ‘female’ parts that snap together when pushed through matching holes on two pieces of plastic. Snap/fastener rivets grip the plastic when pushed through a hole using specially designed teethlocated on the outside of the rivet that stop the plastic from separating.

Finishing plastics

Firstly it is important that the protective paper on the material is not peeled off as this will protect the material from scratches.

The edges of plastic should be finished by:

1. Firstly Cross File all edges.2. Then Draw File.3. After this the edges should smoothed using

Wet and Dry abrasive paper. Similar toGlass paper -(Wood) and Emery Cloth -(Metal).

4. Then smoothen using Steel Wool.5. Lastly a finishing polish such as metal polish

should be used to polish the edges.

Removing Scratches of the FacesThese can be removed by rubbing metal polish into

Rotational moulding

This plastic process is used to create hollow plastic items that are manufactured in one piece.

Stage aAt this stage powdered plastic (usually a form of thermoplastic) is poured into the mould. The mould is then sealed and the process of rotating it begins.

Stage bThis stage shows the plastic being heated as it is rotated around the mould in all directions. The heated plastic coats the inside wall of the mould.

Stage cThe completed plastic part and mould is now cooled before ejection from the mould.

Stage dThe moulded shape is ejected from the mould.

MaterialsThose most commonly used include plasticised polyvinyl chloride (PVC), the most versatile and easily moulded material. Polypropyl-ene and low-density polythene are also commonly used.

IdentificationRigid components may incorporate inserts for fixing. Flexible/ inflatable components may incorporate valves for inflation. Detailed components will have excellent surface detail. Effects such as wood grain, stone, and leather can be produced. Mouldings should be designed to avoid sharp concave sections and thin, weak areas.

UsesLarge tanks (10,000 litres) and a range of flexible mouldings have been produced using rotational moulding techniques. Other more common products include balls and hollow plastic toys.

Plastic Processes

PLASTIC WELDINGThere are various forms of plastic welding. The aim of welding is to fuse two pieces of plastic together by melting them along with a filler material that seals the gap.

Extrusion welding: is the preferred technique for joining material over 6 mm thick. Thin plastic rod is drawn into a miniature handheld plastic extruder, melted, and forced out of the extruder against the parts being joined, which aresoftened with a jet of hot air to allow bonding to take place.

Speed tip welding: A plastic welder, similar to a soldering iron, is fitted with a feed tube for plastic rod. The speed tip heats the rod at the same time as it presses the molten rod into position. A bead of softened plastic is laid into the area where the plastic is to be joined, and the melted rod fuses them together.

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Vices, Gluing and ClampingEngineers Vice WoodworkVice

Machine Vice Hand Vice

Sash Cramp/Clamp

Secured to a bench and used for holding metal when working it.

Secured to a bench and used for holding wood when working it.

Used for securing materials when drilling at the pillar drill.

Used for holding material such as sheet steel when drilling.

Used for clamping wood projects together.

G Cramp/Clamp

Used for clamping or securing materials to a bench when working them.

Glues

GLUE USE

PVA Non-toxic, white, water based glue for gluing the majority of wooden projects.

Epoxy Resin Toxic, two parts 1. Epoxy2. Resin. Both partsneeds to be mixed inequal quantities. Usedfor gluingmetals.

Plastic Cements i.e. Tensol No. 12

Toxic, Used for gluing plastics.

Dry Clamping

Basically the model is clamped together without glue which allows us check that all parts fit together and that the model is square before we apply any glue.Gluing Checks

- Squareness: Use a try square in each corner.A gap will show between the try-square andedge of the wood if the job is not square.

OR

Measure the two diagonals

If they are both the same then the job is square and if not, the job is not square.

- CuppingLook along the job at the same angle as the sash cramps. Ifthe job is cupped then the sides will bend up and look slightlyrounded.

To fix this - Loosen sash cramps slightly until the cupping is removed or minimized. Weights can also sat on top of the job to press the wood down flat.

Weights

WindingObserve the job at right angles to sash cramps. If the job has winding then it will look twisted.

To fix this - Loosen the sash cramps, hold down the ends of the glued job and re-tighten cramps.

Laminating Wooden BoardsWhen gluing wide boards or strips of wood it is important that the grain of the touching pieces of wood go in different directions to stop the finish job from warping when it dries.

Correct

Wrong

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Screws, Nails and FixingsDrivers

For screwing in slotted head screws.

Slotted Screwdriver Phillips ScrewdriverShank Handle

Tip Blade

For screwing in Phillips head screws.

CountersunkScrew

Countersunk in order to be hidden under the face of the wood

For pinning plywood and hardboard. Also used for strengthening joints.

Warrington Hammer

For hammering pins and small nails into wood

Screwing in a Screw

Countersink

Clearance Hole

PilotHole

Before screwing a screw into a piece of wood a number of holes need to be drilled first:

1.

2.

3.

Pilot Hole - This is drilled first to give the screw its location and also to stop the wood splitting as the screw goes in.Clearance Hole - Secondly, drill a clearance hole to allow the screw to fit the hole easily before beingscrewed in.Countersunk Hole - Allows a countersunk screw to screw down into the wood and leaves a flat finish on the surface.

Knock-Down Fittings and Flatpack furniture

Pozi Screwdriver

Very similar to a Philips screwdriver however this screws in pozi head screws.

Nail Punch

For hammering pins/nails underneath the face of the wood.

RoundheadScrew

Panel pins

General wood screw that unlike the countersunk screw shows above the face of the wood.

End Result

These fittings are perfect for the construction of flat-pack furniture. They are pre-made and designed to be easily fixed, simplifying furniture assembly. They are commonly used for joining manufactured boards. They can be bought in bulk, reducing the cost for the manufacturer while also making it easier to design the furniture, as they can be used in several different designs due to their adaptability. Flat-pack furniture further reduces the cost for the manufacturers, as they can:

• transport more of the item due to it being flat• reduce the cost of manufacture because they do not need to assemble it• improve sustainability due to reduced transport and manufacturing processes.

For the consumer, knock-down fittings mean they can easily assemble the productthemselves, giving them a sense of achievement. Flat-pack furniture also reducesthe end cost for the consumer due to the manufacturing cost reductions outlinedabove and the readiness of off-the-shelf furniture that can be fitted into your car fortransport home.

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DrillingPillar / Pedestal Drill

GuardHandle

Table

Base

Pillar/ Column

Jacobs chuck- Secures the drill bit

Jacobs chuck key- for tightening or loosening theJacobs chuck

Cordless drill Power drill

Changeable Drill Bit Speed Setting Switch

1.2.3.4. Forward Reverse Switch5. Handle6. Tells you the batteries power7. Battery8. Trigger Switch9. Chuck10. Cable

5

84

10

Advantages and Disadvantages:Cordless: Is easily portable however the battery will eventually run out and need re-charged.Power: Wont run out of power but has to be plugged in at all times to operate which means it is not easily portable.

Drill BitsFostner bit

Hand drill

Auger bit Twist drill Hole sawFlat bit

Bit brace (Hand Brace Drill)

Used for drilling large holes in wood. Good where a deep hole is required but is difficult to keep straight.

Used for drilling small holes in wood.Difficult to keep straight.

Turn handle to drillCrankshaft

Countersink bit

materials.

Round saw that is used for sawing holes in various materials.

Most common drill bit for drilling standard holes in all materials.

For drilling flat Forbottomed holes. countersinking Rough drilling as holes in allthey tend to cause splinters in the wood.

Used for drilling large or flat bottomed holes.

Used in hand drills where a lot of effort is required to drill a hole. It makes drilling easier as the wider spirals remove more waste.

Phillips, Slotted and Pozi Bits (ForCordless/Power drill)

Safety when Drilling

•••••

Ensure that your material is properly secured before drilling. Ensure that the drill bit is properly secured in the chuck.Ensure that you are using the correct drill bit for the job. Ensure that all other workshop safety rules are being followed. Ensure that the Jacobs chuck key has not been left in theJacobs chuck before starting the drill (PILLAR DRILL).

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Power ToolsCircular Saw

Orbital sander

Used for sawing long straight cuts, especially useful for large manufactured boards.

The glass paper is moved in a circular motion to give a rubbing action. Useful on smaller areas.

The belt (with glass paper) revolves similar to the movement of treads on an army tank. This sands the wood and is useful on large areas.

Chuck where the cutting tool would be held.

Depth gauge

Sand paperSawdust bag

Power router

Blade and BladeGuard

Dust extraction

Sand paper

Belt sanderDust extraction

Belt sander (floored)

Belt Sander

Disc Sander

Used for sanding and shaping wood.

Good for cutting out grooves, slots and joints such as stopped housings. Comes with a number of different tools that can also be used to apply decorative finishes to the edges of wood.

Trigger switch

Bandsaw

Guard adjustment

GuardFence

Blade

High powered saw for cutting wood.

Table

Jigsaw

Blade

Power planerRevolving blades cut thicker shavings than a hand plane.

Revolving Blades underneath

Fence

Used for cutting curved cutsin thin boards. Can be set tocut at any angle up to 45°.

Trigger Switch

Angle grinder

Used for shaping and smoothing metal.

Lever

Chisel

Table

Clamp

Wheels for moving table left/right or front/back

Mortise machine

Used for machine cutting the mortise part of a mortise and Tenon joint. It cuts a square hole in the wood.

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CAD/CAM & ManufacturingCAM AND COMMERCIAL MANUFACTURECommercial manufacture refers to products being made in an industrial scale/setting using specialist processes from hand manufacture to industrial machinery such as injection moulding. Products in manufacture often fall into one of four categories:

1. One-off productionOnly one product is made at a time. Every product will be unique, andthe manufacturing process is often very labour-intensive, as it willrequire skilled workers making products by hand and user operatedmachinery. One-off productions may be commissioned for a ‘bespoke’one-off design. These products are often expensive.

2. Batch productionA small-medium quantity of identical products are made at one time. This process can be labour-intensive andwill still require skilled workers. However, jigs, templates and moulds are often used to make the processeasier and to ensure that all products are exactly the same. It is called batch production because batches ofthe product can be made as required, with machinery changed easily to suit the required production.

3. Mass productionAs its name suggests, this involves making large amounts of identical products. The processes used in thisproduction method are highly automated with few skilled workers. The only workers really required are thosewho oversee the automated production process to ensure everything is running smoothly.

4. Continuous-flow productionThis is similar to mass manufacture, but the number of products created is much larger. The key differencehere is that machines run ‘24/7’ (24 hours a day, 7 days a week) to maximise production and minimise costs.Often, no skilled workers are required. With both mass and continuous flow production, the price ofmachinery, tooling, moulds and maintenance is very expensive, meaning they are only viable for largeproduction runs.

COMPUTER-AIDED MANUFACTUREMass manufacture is run using automated production lines and CNC (computer numerical control) machines/robots. These automated production lines are also known as CAM (computer-aided manufacturing) systems. The advantages to the manufacturer of using CAM systems are that machines can:

• work ‘24/7’ non-stop without requiring breaks or becoming ill• limit mistakes through precise CNC manufacture (quality assurance)• eliminate human error, as machines don’t tire or become complacent• create extremely complex and precise products• reduce waste through precise production and efficient use of exact quantities of materials (cleanmanufacturing)• reduce production costs, as they require no heating, lighting or wages, and large volumes of the product canbe made continuously and quickly. CAM systems ultimately speed up production in comparison to using ahuman workforce.

However, they come with some disadvantages, as:• CAM machinery is extremely expensive to purchase• set-up (installation) and maintenance costs are also very expensive• malfunction can cause production to stop, costing companies time and money• a reduction in the human workforce leads to the loss of skilled workers.

This said, however, the high volume of products made means that the price per unit can be lowered when sold to the consumer. This is because large volumes of a product can be made on one production run with minimal mistakes. This means that companies can recover the costs of set-up and moulds/dies quickly when selling large quantities to the consumer at a low price while still retaining a profit.

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3D Printing And Laser Cutting3D printing is an additive process that creates a physical object from a digital design. There are different 3D printing technologies and materials you can print with, but all are based on the same principle: a digital model is turned into a solid 3D physical object by adding material layer by layer. 3D printers vary in quality but are capable of printing complex and high-quality designs quickly, mainly in plastic and some metals. As this technology continues to develop rapidly however, we now have 3D printers that can print food and cell tissues for organs (bio-printing).

Laser cutting is a technology that uses a laser to cut various materials such as wood, plastic and metal. Laser cutting works by directing the output of a high-power laser operated with computer numerical control (CNC), to cut out 2D profiles designed on CAD software from a range of materials. Laser cutting is highly accurate and leaves an excellent finish on the cut edge.

As with all CAM processes each of the above comes with advantages and disadvantages:

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The Impact Of Manufacturing On SocietyREDUCTION IN WORKFORCE AND THE LOSS OF A SKILLED WORKFORCEAs our demand for high-quality, low-cost products increases, designers and manufacturers have to think about how they can achieve this for us. One way is to use CAM systems, as mentioned previously. More and more, robots and automated production lines are becoming the preferred option for manufacturers, as these ultimately reduce manufacturing costs and speed up the production process. Humans are therefore being replaced by robots, leading to job losses, as a few people can operate an entire roboticproduction line without the need for specialist skills. This also reduces the need for skilled workers, as computer-control specialists are the only skilled workers required to help maintain the robotic machinery when necessary. Overall, this leads to insecure jobs, the loss of specialist and traditional manufacturing skills, high unemployment rates and the economic decline of industry in villages, towns and countries.

COST OF EQUIPMENTSetting up a CAM production line is not cheap, as was outlined in the previous chapter. Companies planning to switch to this form of industry must ensure they will gain economic return on their investment. Some workers may also need retraining, which costs money; or companies may have to employ specialist staff to maintain the robots. These workers will require higher salaries – and, even if this maintenance work is outsourced, companies will have to pay a high fee for this service. This can ultimately affect the cost of the end product, driving up prices. This may also be the reason for companies to seek cheaper manufacturing in other countries.

Globalisation and social/moral implications in global manufacturingThe rise in consumerism due to more affordable products, and an ever-increasing global population that demands more products, has created a worldwide market for designers and their products. This is good for designers and companies; however, there are problems that globalisation has created. Companies are forever looking at ways to reduce manufacturing costs to make more affordable products. As manufacturers look for cheaper ways to build products, they often outsource work to factories in other countries where production costs are lower. Although this is good for companies, it is not always good for the workers and our economy. Some countries have fewer restrictions on health and safety and workers’ rights. Workers in these countries are often subject to lower wages, higher pollution and longer working hours; and sometimes the quality of the end product can suffer, as sufficient regulations are not in place. This also creates a problem for home-based industry. For example, Britain has seen much of its manufacturing industry outsourced to companies in Asia. This has led to the economic decline of Britain’s industry and has caused widespread job losses as well as the loss of skilled workforces. There is a large moral issue here that companies must consider, as well as consumers, in ensuring that people the world over are treated fairly. Globalisation also creates environmental problems due to countries having differing standards for green/clean manufacturing, the disposal of waste, transporting products and recycling products.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND SUSTAINABILITYAs consumers, we are now more aware than ever of the need to slow down climate change and protect our environment. This has been a positive change in what we want from products, as we want not only products that are of good quality but also products that are more environmentally friendly. Designers, manufacturers and companies therefore have to think about how they can achieve this.

Transport:• Reducing the size of products and their packaging, or flat-packing products, means that more products can be transported, therebyreducing the number of journeys required.• Using recyclable/reusable packaging creates less waste.• Using energy-efficient vehicles willreduce harmful emissions.

Energy efficiency• Products may be made more energy efficient to consume less electricity or other fuel.• Products often come with an energy efficiency rating to make us aware of this.• Other ways of powering products, such as solar power, may be investigated.

Sustainable materials and manufacturing:• Using more sustainable or recyclable materials• Using recycled materials or components to build new products rather than raw materials.• Reducing the amount of components used in products.• Reducing emissions from manufacturing processes and factories.• Reducing toxic waste from the by-products of manufacturing processes.• Recycling waste, such as waste water, to be reused in production.• Using renewable energies, such as wind and solar energy, to power factories.• Better planning for manufacturing, so that exact numbers of products are made on time without any delays, waste or damage.• Ensuring the product can be easily dismantled at the end of its useful life for easierrecycling and reuse.

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SafetySafety in the school workshop is the responsibility of everyone who uses it. Accidents usually occur when people are fooling around or being careless.

For your own safety:• Ensure that you follow the workshop code of safety at all times.••

Only use machines and tools that you have been given permission to.Act responsibly and respect your own and others safety in the workshop.

When working in the workshop ensure:• That you are wearing an apron••••••

Long hair is tied back.Hanging jewellery is removed.Any loose clothing is securedShoe laces are tied up.You don't run in the workshop.Wear other safety clothing where appropriate e.g. goggles, face mask etc.

Safety Signs• Red signs (Prohibition Signs) display things that are not allowed e.g. No naked flames.

• Blue Signs (Mandatory Signs) display things that must be done e.g. wear goggles.

• Yellow Signs (Warning Signs) display warnings e.g. danger of electrocution.

• Green Signs (Safety Signs) display where first aid boxes/fire exits are etc.

• Fire Signs show where fire extinguishers/hoses etc. are locat- ed.

Safety Equipment (PPE - Personal Protection Equipment)

Goggles Face shield Safety Gloves

Welding Mask Apron

Standard eyeprotection foruse with mostmachines.

For use with machinery such as a grinder where there will be a lot of sparks.

Standard protection for hands when working with hot materials, sharp sheet metal and machinery.

For eye protection when welding.

Protection for body and clothes.

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