earth science. sol es 1 density relationship between mass and volume d = m/v density is always...
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Earth Science
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SOL ES 1
Density Relationship between mass and volume D = m/v Density is always given as g/ml or g/cm3
Mass can be determined by using a scale or triple beam balance
Volume is determined by using a graduated cylinder
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Temperature decreases with depth Salinity increases with depthDensity increases with depth
Pressure also increases with depth
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Atmosphere Temperature and Pressure
EXOSPHERE ABOVE 600 KM
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The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere and is where all weather occurs
The stratosphere is the second layer of the atmosphere. This layer contains the ozone which is responsible for blocking some forms of UV radiation from reaching the earth.
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Topographic Maps
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Topographic Maps
Measure changes in elevation A profile is a side view of an elevation When contour lines are close together, the area is steep. Contour lines always point upstream (opposite of flow) Depressions or holes are identified by lines within a circle Valleys will have contour lines very spread apart
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7.5 Quadrant (Minute) Topographic map
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Latitude Longitude N and S of Equator E and W of the Prime Meridian
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SOL ES 2
Scientific Method Scientists use observations of phenomena
to make predictions of future events and explain what has happened in the past
Hypothesis Tentative explanation Only hypotheses that are testable are valid
Theories offer explanations for observed patterns in nature
Laws describe patterns and relationships in nature and are based on data that has been observed
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Observations are made using the senses
Inferences are not based on observations. They are conclusions made on data that is known to be true
Variables Independent
Variable changed in an experiment Should only be one
Dependent Variable measured in an experiment
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Scientific Laws and Theories Plate tectonics
Convergent, divergent, transform Superposition
Youngest on top, oldest on bottom Uniformitarianism
Processes today are same as in the past Original horizontality
All rock layers are originally laid down horizontally
Cross cutting An intrusion or fault is younger than the
rock it cuts through
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Continental drift Matching fossils, rock types, mountain
ranges, and changes in climate Seafloor spreading
Divergent boundary on ocean floor was the mechanism for movement of continents
Big bang theory Formation of the universe
Solar nebula theory Formation of the solar system Sun formed first Solid inner planets – able to withstand heat,
more dense material, settle out first Gaseous outer planets – moved to distant
parts of the solar system due to solar wind Formation of the moon – Impact Theory
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SOL ES 3 Earth
Third planet from the sun Solid inner planet Consists of layers
Crust – lithosphere (oceanic and continental crust)
Mantle – asthenosphere (upper) and mesosphere (lower)
Outer core and inner core One satellite – the moon Water occurs in three forms due to position in
solar system Solid, liquid, and gas
Only planet to support life as we know it due to oxygen in the atmosphere and liquid water
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Earth along with the other planets revolves around the sun in paths called ellipses
The earth’s axis is tilted. This tilt is responsible for the amount of solar energy reaching the earth’s surface and the seasons
The rotation of the earth on it’s axis causes days and nights
The tilt of earth’s axis is responsible for duration of days and nights
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The moon revolves around the earth causing moon phases and eclipses
The tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun There are 2 types of tides: spring and
neap
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New andFull moons
1st and 3rd Quarter moons
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Parts of an eclipse Umbra
Dark part of the moons shadow
Total Solar eclipse Penumbra
Light part of the moons shadow
Partial solar eclipse
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Full moon phase
New moon phase
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Sun The sun is a MAIN
SEQUENCE STAR! Consists mostly
of hydrogen Energy is
produced by nuclear fusion of hydrogen to helium
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The Planets Inner
terrestrial Smaller Solid Higher densities Thinner atmospheres
Mercury – none Venus – thick, CO2
Earth – nitrogen, oxygen, argon
Mars – Thin, CO2
Faster orbital periods Slower periods of
rotation Few natural satellites
Outer Jovian Larger Gas giants possibly
with solid cores Lower densities Thicker atmospheres
Hydrogen, helium, methane, ammonia
Slower orbital periods Faster periods of
rotation Many natural
satellites
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Mercury Smallest planet Fastest orbital velocity No CONSISTENT atmosphere (TENUOUS) Greatest temperature RANGE No moons
Venus Earth’s twin or sister planet Hottest temperatures due to thick
atmosphere of CO2 which causes run away greenhouse effect
Evidence of volcanism and tectonic activity Opposite rotation (retrograde – very slow) No moons
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Mars The red planet due to iron oxide which causes
rust Evidence that there was once liquid water at
the surface. The only water found now is either below the surface or in polar ice caps
Very thin atmosphere of CO2 causing it to be very cold
Hurricane force winds and extensive dust storms
Many volcanoes including olympus mons which is the largest volcano in the solar system
Half the size of earth 2 moons
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Jupiter Largest planet Contains the red spot which is believed to
be a giant hurricane Banded appearance is due to layering of
the atmosphere from convection and high rotational speed
Fastest rotation of all planets Greatest number of moons (63) One of the moons, Io, is volcanically active
caused by gravitational pull of Jupiter and moons
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Saturn System of rings made up of ice and rock Least dense planet (will float on water) Second greatest number of moons Titan, the largest moon, is believed to be
the only body other than earth to have liquid at the surface and nitrogen in the atmosphere
62 moons
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Uranus Axis of rotation lies parallel to its orbit
causing it to appear like it is on it’s side 27 moons
Neptune One of the windiest places in the solar
system Has the great dark spot which is believed to
be a giant storm 13 moons The moon triton is the coldest body in the
solar system
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Pluto Called a dwarf planet because it only
meets 2 of the 3 criteria of planets orbits the sun – yes Mass for gravity to produce round shape –
yes Gravity to clear neighborhood – no
Very elliptical orbit Largest moon is Charon Part of the Kuiper belt
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Asteroids Large objects found in asteroid belt which is
between Mars and Jupiter Believed to be fragments of preexisting
planets or large bodies that never became planets
Comets Rocky and metallic core called the coma held
together by ice, ammonia, methane, CO2 and CO
Orbit the sun in very long ellipses The tail always points away from the sun due
to solar winds Produced in Oort clouds and Kuiper belt
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• All revolve in
a plane
•Revolve around
sun
•Revolve in the same direction
Terrestrial Planets Jovian Planets
The Planets
Close to sun Far from sun
Closely spaced orbits Widely space orbits
Slow rotation Faster rotation
Small radii Large radii
Small masses Large masses
Mostly rock Mostly gaseous
High density Low density
Few moons Many moons
Thinner atmospheres Thicker atmospheres H,He, Methane
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The solar system
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Meteoroids Remains of a comet believed to form
when the earth passes through the tail of a comet
Meteoroids are small solid particles in space
Meteor are meteoroids that burn up in our atmosphere
Meteorites are solid particles that come in contact with earth
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The moon Craters of the moon were caused by
meteoroid impact No erosion due to no winds or rains Dark regions are called maria which is
composed of basaltic lava Light colored regions are called highlands Covered with regolith which is composed of
rock fragments. Similar to the surface of earth The moon formed when an Mars-sized object
struck the earth. The ejected debris entered an orbit around earth and combined. This is called the impact theory.
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SOL ES 4 All rocks are composed of minerals Minerals
Naturally occurring Inorganic Solid Definite chemical composition and
structure The major elements in earth’s crust are
oxygen, silicon, aluminum, and iron These elements are rarely found in the
native state because they undergo oxidation very easily
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Most Abundant Elements in Earth’s Crust
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The most abundant group of minerals on earth are the silicates Most common silicates are quartz (used to
make glass) and feldspar (decomposes to clay)
The carbonates (CO3) Most common carbonates are limestone
(calcite) and dolomite (cement and building materials)
Easily weathered chemically The oxide group is composed minerals
that contain oxygen and a metal Hematite and magnetite (iron ores)
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The silicon-oxygen tetrahedron is the basic structure for all silicate minerals. The silicates are the most common minerals on earth’s surface.
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Some of the most important metallic minerals are produced by igneous processes (cooling of magma)
Most of the nonmetallic minerals form through metamorphic processes (heat and pressure)
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Major rock forming minerals Quartz (silicate) Feldspar (silicate) Calcite (carbonate) Mica (silicate)
Physical properties of minerals Hardness Color Luster Streak Cleavage and fracture
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Special features of Minerals Magnetism – magnetite Specific gravity – ratio of the density of
mineral to the density of water - galena is very dense (Pb ore)
Fluorescence – glowing under a blacklight (fluorite and calcite)
Radioactivity – minerals that contain uranium
Double refraction – bending of light (calcite) Acid reaction – calcite and limestone Malleability – able to be hammered into
objects (gold, copper, and silver)
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Major Rock Forming Minerals
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The concentration of many ore minerals is small in the earth’s crust
Ore minerals Pyrite (fools gold) (iron) Magnetite and hematite (iron) Galena (lead) Graphite (carbon) Sulfur Calcopyrite (copper) Sphalerite (zinc)
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Mineral uses Apatite – phosphorus fertilizers Calcite – cement and building stone Kaolinite – ceramics and bricks Corundum, diamond, garnet –
gemstones, valued because they are rare, beautiful or brilliant, and extremely hard
Fluorite – steel Graphite – pencil lead Gypsum – plaster and wallboard
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Halite – table salt Muscovite – electronics insulator Quartz – glass Sulfur – chemicals Sylvite – potassium fertilizers Talc – powder used in paint and
cosmetics
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SOL ES 5
Rocks are identified based on mineral content and texture
The rock cycle is the process that shows how one type of rock can be changed into another type
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Igneous Rock Form by cooling (crystallization) of
magma (melted, molten material) Extrusive
Small crystals because they cool quickly at the surface
Fine grained or glassy texture Rhyolite, andesite, basalt, obsidian,
pumice Intrusive
Large crystals because they cool slowly beneath the surface
Coarse grained Granite, diorite, gabbro
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Igneous rock can also be classified by composition Granitic – light in color (granite, rhyolite,
obsidian, and pumice) Andesitic – mixture of light and dark color
(diorite and andesite) Basaltic – dark in color (gabbro and
basalt)
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Sedimentary rock Formed by compaction and cementation
of weathered material The following terms are always
associated with sedimentary rock: Weathered Eroded Compacted Cemented Lithification Deposited
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Clastic Sediments from preexisting rock Breccia, sandstone, shale, conglomerate Larger grains and coarser texture
Chemical Evaporation or precipitation Rock salt and limestone
Organic Made from biological processes Some forms of limestone and coal
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There are certain features that are only associated with sedimentary rock Strata – rock layers Fossils Ripple marks from water Mud cracks from drying
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Metamorphic Rock From by heat and pressure that occurs
below the earth’s surface Foliated (layers) and nonfoliated (no
layers) The heat is the most important agent and
is most responsible for change Contact metamorphism: contact with
magma causes elevated heat Regional metamorphism: plate tectonics
causes increased heat and pressure
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Foliated (parent rock in parentheses) Slate (shale) Schist (slate) Gneiss (granite)
Nonfoliated Marble (limestone) Quartzite (sandstone) Anthracite (hardest form of coal)
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Physiographic Provinces of Virginia
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Coastal Plain Youngest Deposition of weathering and erosion of
the appalachian mountains Sedimentary rock -- FOSSILS
Piedmont Rolling hills and deeply weathered
bedrock Metamorphic rock from N. America /
Africa collision Igneous rocks are the remains of ancient
volcanoes Rift zones from pulling apart of Pangaea
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Blue Ridge Igneous and metamorphic rock Oldest rock in the state Highest area in state Formed during collision between Africa and
N. America Valley and Ridge
Folded and faulted sedimentary rock -FOSSILS
Formed by collision between Africa and N. America
Karst topography of carbonates (limestone)
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Appalachian Plateau Ancient flat sedimentary rock - FOSSILS Coal, natural gas, and petroleum Formation of fossil fuels originally
occurred in swamp areas that were uplifted during the collision between Africa and N. America
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SOL ES 6 Formation of Fossil Fuels (hydrocarbons)
Coal Heat and pressure transforming plants Stages of coal formation
Peat Lignite (sedimentary) Bituminous (sedimentary) Anthracite (metamorphic)
Petroleum and Natural Gas Formed from remains of organisms that were
buried in ancient seas Pressure from surrounding rock layers
squeezes the oil and gas out of sedimentary rock
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CAP ROCK
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Nonrenewable Resources of Virginia Coal is Virginia’s most important natural
resource Crushed stone and gravel – road construction Limestone – concrete Kyanite – ceramics, electronics, and insulation Vermiculite – insulation, packing materials, and
potting soil Quartz – glass and electronics Zircon – ceramics Rutile – source of titanium Ilmenite – source of titanium SILICA - ELECTRONICS
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Renewable resources of Virginia Soil Forests FRESH Water
These resources have a great deal of potential in Virginia due to the large amounts that are found in the state
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The production and use of nonrenewable resources in Virginia has increased over the last 150 years
When extracting resources from earth the benefits and costs must be weighed
Renewable resources can be replaced and nonrenewable resources cannot be replaced
Fossil fuels are nonrenewable and may cause pollution but they are cheap and easy to use
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Energy Resources on EarthEnergy Source Advantages Disadvantages
Oil Efficient; can be converted into different types of fuel
Causes air pollution; risk of spills while drilling/transporting; nonrenewable
Natural gas Available in US; clean Difficult to store and transport; mostly nonrenewable
Coal Abundant in US; inexpensive
Causes air pollution and acid rain; mining practices harmful to miners’ health
Nuclear Highly efficient; does not cause air pollution; inexpensive
Thermal pollution; radioactive waste; nuclear accidents
Hydroelectric No air pollution; inexpensive; renewable
Not available in all areas; effects local ecology
Wind No pollution; clean; inexpensive; renewable
Winds not always constant; not practical for large-scale
Solar No pollution; clean; renewable
Expensive to convert into usable form
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Layers of the Earth Solid inner core composed of iron and
nickel. Remains solid due to pressure from surrounding layers
Liquid outer core composed of iron. Causes the earth’s magnetosphere
The mantle is composed of a plastic like material that is solid but able to flow
The crust is rocky and brittle
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It was determined that the outer core is liquid because S-waves could not penetrate the molten layer and P-waves were slowed.
It was determined that the inner core is solid because there is a sudden increase in P-wave activity. The inner core is the most dense layer of the earth
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The lithosphere Divided into plates Composed of the crust and upper mantle Two types of crust
Oceanic: more dense, relatively thin, and young
Continental: less dense, thick, and old
The asthenosphere The UPPER mantle The lithosphere rides on the asthenosphere
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Plate boundaries Earthquakes,
volcanoes, and mountain building are a result of motion along plate boundaries
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Plate boundaries and formations Continents : divergent boundaries that broke
apart Pangaea Mountain chains : continental – continental
convergent boundaries Island arcs : oceanic – oceanic convergent
boundaries Deep ocean trenches: oceanic – continental
convergent boundaries Earthquake zones: convergent and transform
boundaries Continental volcanoes: oceanic – continental
convergent boundaries Oceanic volcanoes: oceanic divergent boundaries
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Volcanism and geothermal activity Hawaii: oceanic hot spot volcanoes Yellowstone: continental hot spot
volcanoes Iceland: divergent boundary volcanoes
formed over the mid ocean ridge Mt. St. Helens: cascade mountain range,
oceanic-continental convergent boundary
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Catoctin greenstone: basaltic geothermal flows indicating that the area was once under water
Tambora (Indonesia): formed by a subduction zone between 2 oceanic crusts, largest volcanic eruption in history
Deccan Traps (India): largest volcanic provinces in the world, consists of layers of basalt
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Plate boundaries Japan and Aleutian Islands: oceanic – oceanic
convergent boundary (currently active) California: transform boundary (currently
active) New Madrid, MO: divergent boundary (very
active between 100 and 200 years ago) Appalachian System: convergent boundary
between Africa and N. America (very active billions of years ago)
Iceland: divergent (currently active) Tonga: convergent boundary between 2
oceanic plates (currently active)
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Evidence for Plate Tectonics The seafloor gets older as you move away
from the mid ocean ridge Magnetic reversal on the ocean floor. Both
sides are mirror images of each other Similar fossils and rock types and have been
found on separated continents At the mid ocean ridge magma moves up
through a divergent boundary. The new ocean crust formed pushes older crust away.
When the oceanic crust comes in contact with continental crust, the oceanic crust is subducted
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Features associated with convergent boundaries Continental – continental: folded and
thrust fault mountains Continental – oceanic: trenches and
continental volcanoes, subduction zones Oceanic – oceanic: trenches and island
arcs, subduction zones
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Features associated with divergent boundaries Rift valleys Mid ocean ridges Seafloor spreading Fissure volcanoes
Features associated with transform boundaries Strike slip faults
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There is much more tectonic activity along the Pacific coast than there is along the Atlantic coast because the Pacific coast is closely associated with plate boundaries
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Earthquake activity Earthquake activity is associated with all
types of plate boundaries The major parts of an earthquake are
the focus and epicenter There are 3 types of earthquakes:
shallow focus (cause the most damage), intermediate focus, and deep focus
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In order to determine the epicenter of an earthquake you need information from 3 seismograph stations
The Richter scale measures the amount of energy released by an earthquake. Each number is 10 times greater.
The Mercalli scale measures the intensity or amount of damage created by an earthquake
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Volcanic Activity Most volcanic activity is associated with
subduction (cascades and andes), rifting (Fissure volcanoes), and seafloor spreading (mid-ocean ridges)
Hot spot volcanic activity (Hawaii and Yellowstone) are not associated with plate boundaries but are associated with a stationary magma source called a plume
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A fold is a permanent bend in rock where there is no break. A change in the shape of rock is called a deformation.Anticlines and Synclines are formed by compressionMonoclines are formed by tension/basement block faulting
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A fault is a break in rock where movement occurs
shearing
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Weathering Chemical
LIQUID Water OR HUMIDITY is the most important agent
One or more compounds are formed Quartz weathers very slowly Examples include hydrolysis and oxidation
Mechanical Rock is broken down into smaller pieces
without changing the mineral composition Examples include frost/ICE wedging,
exfoliation, and biological activity
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Erosion Weathered materials are moved by
wind, water, or ice The more energy, the farther/FASTER
the material will travel Deposition
Occurs when eroded materials settle out Heavier materials settle first
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The processes of weathering, erosion, and deposition form sedimentary rock
2 major depositional features are deltas and alluvial fans Deltas form where a river meets a larger
body of water and velocity decreases Alluvial fans form at the base of a
mountain where the velocity of water decreases
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SOL ES 8 Soil is formed by
weathered material and organic material (humus)
Organic
Topsoil
Subsoil/CLAY AND LEACHED MINERALS
Partially weathered material (regolith)
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Karst Topography Underlain by carbonate rocks including
limestone and dolomite Forms by chemical weathering when
limestone is dissolved by acidic groundwater (CaCO3)
The valley and ridge province has an abundance of karst topography
Features include sinkholes, caverns, stalactites (ceiling), and stalagmites (floor)
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Freshwater can be found in rivers, streams, lakes, aquifers, and groundwater
Earth’s freshwater supply is finite and can be polluted
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Hydrologic Cycle
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Porosity is the ability of a rock to hold water Permeability is the ability of a rock to transmit
water Water does not pass through impermeable
material Sandstone is permeable Permeable rock that is full of water is called an
aquifer. A rock can have a high porosity but a low
permeability if the pore space is too small or the pores are not connected
Rock that is permeable is well sorted (sediments are the same size)
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Watersheds of Virginia
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The Chesapeake Bay Largest estuary in the US An estuary is a body of water found where
rivers meet the sea The Chesapeake Bay is home to
thousands of birds, fish, and mammals The water of the bay is brackish which
means it has a higher level of salts and dissolved minerals
The Chesapeake Bay receives nutrients, sediment, and pollutants from land
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Excessive nutrients in the bay come from treatment plants, runoff, and air pollution
Excessive nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus increase the growth of dense algal blooms.
The algal blooms block sunlight that grasses need and consume the oxygen that organisms need
Sediment can also cloud up the water Contaminants alter the food chain
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The saltwater intrusions that occur in the aquifers located in eastern Virginia were caused by a meteor impact off the coast of Virginia.
The crater formed by the meteorite has caused large amounts of seawater to enter the aquifers.
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SOL ES 9
Fossils Only found in sedimentary rock (very RARELY in
metamorphic rock that is only slightly metamorphosed – fossils are distorted/stretched.)
Remains, impressions, or evidence of previous life Fossil evidence shows that life has changed and
become more complex over time Examples of fossils include molds, casts, and
organism remains Index fossils are useful for correlation because
they are widespread and abundant but limited to one area of geologic time
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Relative Dating Provides a sequence but not actual dates Fossils, superposition, and crosscutting are
examples of relative dating techniques Absolute Dating
Provides a numerical age Radioactive dating (U-238 to Pb-206) and
Carbon dating are examples Uranium – rocks Carbon – organic (fossils)
Parent (radioactive) material and daughter (stable) material are compared
Absolute ages are given in half lives
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It is believed that the earth is about 4.6 billion years old.
Most of the fossils found in Virginia are located in the Coastal Plain, Valley & Ridge, and Appalachian Plateau.
Most of the fossils are marine which means that the state was once covered with seawater.
Fossils from the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic Eras are found in Virginia
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Divisions of Time Eons – Eras – Periods – Epochs – Years
Each era ended with a major event.
The end of each era is normally associated with a major extinction.
The extinction of the dinosaurs was caused by an asteroid impact with Earth.
The Appalachians formed during the Ordovician Period (Paleozoic)
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Remember that intrusions are always igneous (usually granite)
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SOL ES 10 The most
abundant elements in ocean water are hydrogen and oxygen
The most abundant salts in ocean water are sodium and chloride
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The gases nitrogen, oxygen, and CO2 are the most abundant dissolved gases in ocean water just like the atmosphere
Oxygen is used for respiration CO2 is one of the most important gases
that dissolves in the oceans Plants and algae use it to undergo
photosynthesis which produces oxygen It can become calcium carbonate which
some marine animals use to make shells
CO2 dissolves easier in ocean water than other gases
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Cold water dissolves more gases than warm water
Oceans with lower salinity hold more gases
Deep ocean water holds more gases As ocean depth increase
Density increases Salinity increases Pressure increases Temperature decreases
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Sea level falls when ice caps grow Sea level rises when ice caps melt Large current systems in the ocean
carry warm water toward the poles and cold water toward the equator.
Upwelling is a type of deep current that carries nutrient rich water from the deep ocean to the surface along coastlines. It replaces surface water that was blown from the coast.
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Ekman Transport
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El Nino Unusually warm ocean temperatures in the
Pacific ocean around the equator The temperature of the ocean water rises
because the trade winds slow and the thermocline drops
The consequences of El Nino are increased rainfall and changes to water temperature which affects the productivity of the oceans
Temperatures in winter are warmer in the northern US and cooler than normal in the southern US
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La Nina Unusually cold ocean temperatures in
the Pacific around the equator Winter temperatures are warmer in the
southern US and cooler in the northern US
La Nina can also increase hurricane activity
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Ocean currents Move clockwise in the northern hemisphere Move counterclockwise in the southern
hemispher The movement of currents is due largely to
the Coriolis effect and the global wind patterns
Currents from low latitude areas transfer heat from warmer to cooler areas
Currents from high latitude areas help moderate temperatures of adjacent land
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Waves and surface currents are generated by winds
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Affects of Climate Change on Oceans Warmer oceans will affect the organisms of
the oceans and decrease upwelling Melting sea ice affects the habitats of
organisms and decreases salinity Rising sea levels affect the habitats of
organisms and can affect the locations where millions of people live
Changes in current systems which will affect the climates of continents and the location of nutrients in the ocean
Ocean water can become more acidic due to burning of fossil fuels
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Storms such as hurricanes are more likely to form over warm water such as the water in the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic ocean between 5 and 20 degrees latitude.
The waters in these areas are at their warmest during the late summer and early fall which is peak time for hurricane season
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The tides are the rise and fall of water level due to the gravitational pull of the moon, and to a lesser degree, the sun
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Resources obtained from the ocean floor Oil and natural gas Gas hydrates Salts Sand and gravel Manganese nodules which contain small
amounts of other valuable minerals. The costs of extraction outweigh the benefits however
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The ocean is the largest reservoir of heat at the earth’s surface
The ocean drives much of the earth’s weather
The ocean causes climates near the ocean to be milder than the climate in the interior of continents
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Convection is the major mechanism of energy transfer in the oceans, atmosphere, and earth’s interior
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Features on the ocean floor associated with plate tectonics Mid ocean ridges trenches
Other features on the ocean floor Continental shelf, slope, and rise Abyssal plain seamounts
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-Plankton – drifters-Nekton - swimmers-Benthos – bottom dwellers-Photic zone – light zone, all plants-Aphotic zone – no sunlight-Intertidal zone – shallow area affected by tides-Neritic zone – covers the continental shelf, most productive-Oceanic zone – open ocean-Pelagic zone – open ocean of any depth-Benthic zone – sea bottom surface-Abyssal zone – deep ocean floor
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Particles in a wave move in a circular patternThe amount of movement decreases as you go deeper
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Swash and Backwash
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Depositional features of the coast Spit Tombolo Bars Barrier islands
Erosional features of the coast Cliffs Sea arches Sea stacks
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Human activities have important consequences for oceans Waste disposal Construction agriculture
These all affect water quality Pollution and overfishing can harm or
deplete valuable resources
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SOL ES 11
Earth’s atmosphere is the only atmosphere to contain oxygen (21%)
Earth has had 3 atmospheres: Helium and hydrogen CO2, CO, and water vapor (after the
moon formed) Nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), and trace
gases such as argon and CO2 (1%)
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The oxygen in our atmosphere was generated by photosynthesis.
The first organisms to undergo photosynthesis were cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)
These organisms consumed the CO2 and produced oxygen
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Factors that affect the composition of the atmosphere Increases in greenhouse gas emission,
especially CO2, by the burning of fossil fuels Increased greenhouse effect has caused the
warming of earth by trapping more infrared radiation
Chemicals (CFCs) have decreased the ozone composition which has increased the amount of UV radiation reaching the earth
Volcanic activity and meteorite impacts can eject large amounts of gas and dust into the atmosphere
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Water vapor and CO2 are gases in the atmosphere that are able to absorb and retain heat
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How plate tectonics affects climate change Changes in plate positions alter ocean
currents and therefore heat transport Alters atmospheric circulation If more glaciers form on land then the earth
has a higher albedo (reflects sunlight back) which causes cooler temperatures
Plate movement also generate more volcanic activity
Increased volcanic activity leads to more water vapor and CO2 released which leads to warmer temperatures
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In a positive feedback mechanism the impact of initial events are enhanced
Example Increased CO2 emissions Increased greenhouse effect Increased temperatures on earth Increased melting of polar ice caps Increased sea level
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SOL ES 12 Energy transfer between the earth’s
surface and atmosphere creates weather Weather and climate are different
Weather describes day to day changes in atmospheric conditions
Climate describes the typical weather patterns from data collected over many years 4 major factors that affect climate:
Latitude, altitude, bodies of water, and mountains
Major climate zones: Tropical, temperate, and polar
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Weather instruments Temperature – thermometer Barometer (aneroid or mercury) –
atmospheric pressure Psychrometer or hair hygrometer–
humidity (amount of water vapor in the atmosphere)
Anemometer – wind speed Wind vane – wind direction
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The amount of energy reaching any point on the earth’s surface is controlled by the angle of the sunlight which varies with seasons
The closer to 90° the sun’s rays strike the earth, the more energy
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Winds are created by uneven heating of the earth’s surface and are changed by the rotating of the earth
The deflection of winds to the right in the north and to the left in the south is called the Coriolis Effect
Convection in the atmosphere is the major cause of weather and winds
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Cloud formation Air temperature at or below the dew
point Air is saturated Condensation nuclei are needed Adiabatic cooling: as air expands it cools
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Fog Formation Forms by cooling when warm moist air
moves over a cool land surface and cools below its dew point
Forms by evaporation when cool air moves over warm water. Moisture evaporates from the water surface to produce saturation. Common over lakes and rivers.
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Precipitation Formation Occurs in cold clouds Supercooling: water in a liquid state that is
below O° C, will readily freeze if it touches a solid object
Ice crystals form as the condensation nuclei accumulate more water vapor
When the crystals become large enough they fall as precipitation
If the temperature is above 4°, they melt and form rain. Below this temperature they become snow
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Sea breezes occur during the day when the air over the land is warmer and rises. This air is replaced by air from over the sea
Land breezes occur at night when the air over the sea is warmer and rises. This air is replaced by air from land.
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Mountain and Valley Breezes Valley breeze
During the day heating causes warm air to rise from the valley floor
Mountain breeze At night cooling causes cool air to move
down mountain slopes This cool air can come in contact with
warm rivers and streams in valleys forming fog
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The jet stream Very fast movement
of air in the upper atmosphere
Moves from west to east
Boundary between cold and warm air masses
Weather tends to follow the path of the jet stream
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High pressure systems Air descends and diverges anticyclone Associated with good weather Air moves clockwise
Low pressure systems Air converges ascends Cyclone (travel west to east, stormy weather) Rising air is associated with cloud formation
and rain Associated with poor weather Air moves counterclockwise
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Fronts Warm front
Light to moderate precipitation over a large area
Cold Front Stormy weather with cumulonimbus clouds Weather clears quickly after front passes
Stationary front Gentle to moderate precipitation
Occluded front Complex/Light precipitation
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Mid latitude cyclones, which affect the weather of the US, are formed by a stationary front that becomes an occluded front
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Air masses cP: cold continent origin mP: cold ocean origin cT: warm continent origin mT: warm ocean origin
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Air Mass Sources
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Isotherms connect points of equal temperature
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Isobars connect points of equal pressure
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Hurricanes Tropical cyclones Form within 20° of the equator Form over warm water such as the Gulf
of Mexico or the Atlantic near the equator Most form in late summer or early fall
when the water temperature is highest Fueled by energy given off when huge
quantities of water vapor condense The eye is the calm area in the center Measured by the Saffir Simpson scale
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Tornadoes Form in association with thunderstorms Vortex inside a cumulonimbus cloud April – June Form from mesocyclones which is a
vertical cylinder of rotating air Measured by the Fujita Scale
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Thunderstorms Associated with cumulonimbus clouds Warm moist air moves up into the cloud
causing the clouds to grow The large amount of water is too great
for the cloud to support so large amounts of rain falls
3 stages: cumulus, mature, dissipating
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SOL ES 13
The universe is very vast and is believed to be approximately 14 billion years old
The theory for the formation of the universe is the Big Bang Theory
According to this theory the universe began as a very large, hot, and dense mass that expanded and condensed into galaxies
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The solar nebula theory is the theory for the formation of our solar system
According to this theory The sun and planets formed from a rotating
disk of dust and gases The material contracted due to gravity
causing most of the material to accumulate near the center (the sun)
The remaining material in the flat rotating disk became the planets
The solid inner materials became the inner planets and the gases and ices became the outer planets
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Stars form by condensing and gravitational compression of interstellar gas and dust in a nebula
The fate of a star is determined by its mass
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Hertzsprung – Russell (H-R) Diagram
Hottest Coolest
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Galaxies are collections of billions of stars
There are 3 types of galaxies Spiral (Milky
Way) Elliptical Irregular
The Milky Way is actually a barred spiral
Our solar system is located in the Milky Way Galaxy
We are in the Milky Way so the shape appears different to us from Earth
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A light year is the distance light travels in one year. It is the most commonly used measurement of distance in astronomy
Parallax is the movement of a star or object in space compared to a background of stars. Stars that are closer appear to move more over
a set amount of time (6 months) and stars that are farther away appear to move less
Magnitude is a measure of brightness of stars Apparent: brightness from earth Absolute: how bright the star actually is
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Stars produce energy by the process of nuclear fusion of Hydrogen to Helium
In giant stars the fusion of heavier elements occurs forming all of the elements Giants – up to iron Supergiants – all elements
As a star reaches the giant stages the core condenses because hydrogen fusion ends but the outer layers expand
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Key Moments in Space Exploration 1957 – Sputnik is the first artificial satellite to
orbit the Earth (Russia) 1958 – First American satellite to orbit Earth 1961 – First human in space (Yuri Gagarin –
Soviet Union) 1962 – First American to orbit the Earth (John
Glenn) 1965 – first spacewalk 1968 – first manned moon orbital launch
(Apollo 8 – United States) 1969 – First human to walk on the moon
(Apollo 11 - Neil Armstrong – United States)