east new york, the border condition

E as t n e w yo r kthe border condition

AUthors

Pieter Bertheloot

Dorien Pelst

Maximiliaan Royakkers

Pieter Vandenhoudt

Camiel Van Noten

Promotors

Tom Thys

Ward Verbakel

© Copyright by K.U.Leuven

Without written permission of the promoters and the authors it is forbidden to reproduce or adapt in any form or by any means any part of this publication. Requests for obtaining the right to reproduce or utilize parts of this publication should be addressed to K.U.Leuven, Faculty of Engineering – Kasteelpark Arenberg 1, B-3001 Heverlee (België). Telefoon +32-16-32 13 50 & Fax. +32-16-32 19 88.

A written permission of the promotor is also required to use the methods, products, schematics and programs described in this work for industrial or commercial use, and for submitting this publication in scientific contests.

All images in this booklet are, unless credits are given, made or drawn by the authors (Studio Brooklyn).

E as t n e w yo r kthe border condition

East New York

SOCIAL ENCLAVES PLANNING THE CITY LIVING MODELS CITY ECOLOGY

12 CASE STUDIES

BROOKLYN 101

SITE ANALYSIS

SITE ANALYSIS

SITE ANALYSIS

CASE STUDIES

COLLECTIVE CULTURE

13 EXPERIMENTS

EXPERIMENTS

Red Hook

Crown Heights

Red HookCrown Heights

East New York

Five Chapters on a City Life presents the studio results of the KU Leuven Master of Architecture graduation thesis studio on Brooklyn, NYC, an investigation carried out during the academic year 2011-2012 by thirteen graduation students. It is the first of three studio books. Five Chapters on a City Life explores the whole of Brooklyn and ends with our urban experiments. The second studio book, the Site Analysis, is limited to a single neighborhood and is carried out by three to five students. The third book is the collection of twelve Case Studies dealing with various subjects. Throughout the collective research, personal design proposals have arisen and led to the student’s individual graduation design thesis.

We would like to thank all the people that helped us understand what East New York’s condition is and what we can contribute to these issues. Without the continuous guidance of our promotors Tom Thys en Ward Verbakel this would never have been possible. We would like to express our sincere gratitude to Columbia University for taking us on the field trip that we enjoyed together and all the people from East New York Farms that we were able to meet and discuss with. For their time and information we would like to thank Justin Moore from the New York City Planning, for his contribution on zoning and regulations, Richard Plunz from Columbia University, for giving a lecture in our Leuven-based studio and listening to our proposals and all of East New York’s residents that gave us more insight into the neighborhood than any

book could ever do.

Four Movements Defining East New York’s Tissue

Morphological Growth p. 27

Social Cloud p. 35

ICorridor p. 45

Bay System p. 55

ENY

10 |

East New York is a diverse but economically disadvantaged region in the eastern part of Brooklyn in New York City; a piece of New York, far beyond the tourist maps. East New York is a neighborhood with high crime rates, vacant buildings, deteriorated lots and lack of fresh food supply. Once an enclave for working class Italian, Jewish, and other European immigrants, East New York is now a predominately Black and Latino area affected by high unemployment. Its inhabitants are mostly working-class migrants, many of whom live below the poverty threshold.East New York is situated between the hills of Highland Park and the waters of Jamaica Bay, with which it has a conflicted relationship. Once a resourceful and recreational bay, it has been incessantly polluted and cut off from the surrounding communities throughout history. In the seventies it became part of the Gateway National Recreation Area, preserving its ecology and cultural values.Nowadays, accessibility is a major issue, but projects that reclaim the valuable area are significant but still scarce. Most importantly are the recent redevelopments of the former landfills of East New York into large urban parks and the different small scale marsh restorations across the bay.East New York’s built environment is characterized by a great diversity, both in morphology as in typology. Ranging from large public housing project to single family dwellings, the existing morphology can be traced back in its historic development, that is in sheer relationship with its infrastructure and thus with Manhattan.In five different design projects throughout East New York, we try to negotiate the difficult site by exploiting its opportunities and overcoming its setbacks.

INTRODUCTION

| 11

12 |

GATEWAY

| 13

MINDMAP This mental map represents the neighborhood of East New York after just a few weeks of research. By drawing this by heart, an inevitable abstraction occurs, creating a summarization that shows only the main elements in the fabric.

14 |

fieldforestwetlandfarmmain road

New Lotts

| 15Historical Analysis

THE VILLAGE OF NEW LOTTS East New York was settled by the Dutch in 1690 as a crossroad town in the ‘Jamaica Pass’, a lower passage through the chain of hills. It was built on old Lenape Indian trails that followed the topography. The area was called the ‘New Lotts of Flatbush’ and consisted of ten farms owned by different families. An interconnected farming network developed along the increasing number of roads that connected the farms to Downtown Brooklyn and Manhattan. This successful farming history was due to its location near Jamaica Bay. The marshlands with lots of creeks were primarily used as grazing lands for the animals and the bay itself was a very fertile landscape with plenty of fish and oysters. Soon, people saw the potential of a fishing industry and a law against illegal fishing was instituted.

16 |

grid

railroad

forestwetlandfarmmain road

New Lotts

Avenue

Railroad to Rockaway

LIRR

Manha

ttan B

each

Railway


THE BIRTH OF EAST NEW YORK The 19th century was a period of immense population growth due to European immigrations and overall population growth. This is when Colonel John R. Pitkin envisioned an urbanized future for New Lotts as a manufacturing and commercial center, competing with Manhattan. He named the area East New York. In 1836, the Long Island Railroad was constructed, connecting Long Island to Brooklyn. In the following years East New York’s grid was plotted between LIRR and New Lots Avenue. The bay shores were sparsely populated by small fishing colonies, until in the 1860s more railroads were constructed. The railroad over Jamaica Bay to Rockaway, resulted in a blooming fishing industry of fast-growing oysters. Another railroad created a junction in East New York, later known as Broadway Junction. Since the 1840s Jamaica Bay is receiving waste from Manhattan and Downtown Brooklyn out of concern for the public health. Waste was transported outside the city to fertilizer plants that processed organic waste and dead animals, affecting the ecosystems of the bay as a major side effect.

18 |

trolley line subway elevated railroad

gridrailroad

farmmain road

grid vision


INDUSTRIAL HARBOR Between 1880 and 1922, the transportation network was extended by five electrified subway and trolley lines. New tenements were built for the growing and stable middle class community in East New York. It was in this moment that diverse visions were formed for the bay. In the beginning of the 20th century, New York became one of the world’s major international ports. Opening of the Panama Canal and larger ships, asked for an expansion of the existing port. Jamaica Bay seemed the perfect location, but numerous dredging and filling practices were needed for the shallow bay to become a major harbor. This vision was never executed as well as other competitive visions, for example a great waterpark and recreational area or NYC’s new refuse dumping site. These visions have led to hardening of the estuaries and filling of the wetlands by property developers to provide more building space, which has had a great impact on the biodiversity of the wetlands.

20 |

trolley line

subway elevated railroad

gridrailroad

wetlandfarmmain road

Belt Parkway landfill

water treatment plantCSO


BELT PARKWAY Numerous building, commercial and industrial activities led to poor water quality in the Bay since the 1920s. The impact of the 40 sewage outfalls, the growing population and narrowing of the in- and outlet for fresh water of the bay was very harmful for the biodiversity on the wetlands. Even shellfish harvesting had to be banned, although Jamaica Bay produced between 1/3 and 1/4 of the shellfish marketing for whole NYC. This is when Robert Moses proposed a new concept in the 1930s, the parkways. The Belt Parkway was especially designed to protect Jamaica Bay against the impact of urbanization and commercial activities, because people could not get passed this highway. Robert Moses said that if people wanted to visit the wetlands, they could go to the wildlife refuge at Broad Channel next to the Cross Bay Boulevard. The Belt Parkway also served as a park for the latest form of mobility, the car. In the 1940s, water pollution control plants were built around the bay to treat the water before dumping it in the bay.

22 |

flight route

trolley line


gridrailroad




INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT In the 1940s, Jamaica Bay was envisioned to become a major air transport center, which it eventually did become with JFK airport at the bay. Different extensions into the bay were drawn, but never executed. The airport has a great impact on the bay, East New York and even the whole of New York City. It resulted in pollution of the bay by fuel, cleaning and de-icing products for the planes and noise nuisance for the people living around the bay. Also numerous immigrants enter East New York via JFK. The airport also works as an international food hub for the greater New York region.

24 |

trolley line


gridrailroad



public housing

Founta

in Av

Landfil

l

Penn

Landfil

l


GHETTO AND LANDFILL In the 1960s, the White Flight resulted in a radical racial shift in the population of East New York, from 85percent whites in 1960 to 80percent African Americans and Puerto Ricans by 1966. Unlike the nineteenth century immigrants, who arrived in a period of economic growth, the new migrants arrived in East New York at a time when the New York economy was deindustrializing. Arrival-city residents were excluded from the economic and political mainstream by racism. In a very short period, almost all the properties were owned by indifferent real estate brokers and speculators, who didn’t live in East New York. Their racist policies and unrestrained exploitation of African Americans and Puerto Ricans took away any possibility of social advancement of the East New York community and resulted in a quick deterioration of the neighborhood and residential instability. In this period the City of New York opened a few landfills around the bay to dump municipal refuse. Two of them are situated at the East New York waterfront, Fountain Avenue and Pennsylvania Avenue landfill. These landfills do not only block access to the bay, the smell, pollution and sight of them further lowered the property prices.

MOVEMENTS To handle the complex site and to investigate how it relates to the preconditions, we

identified four separate movements recognizable in East New York’s built fabric.

‘Growth’ discusses the morphological gradient that evolved throughout history, ‘Cloud’ handles the challenging

social condition, ‘Corridor’ the infrastructure in accordance with the large adjacent transit nodes and ‘System’

the conflicting relationship with Jamaica Bay.

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Jamaica Bay

Queens

MORPHOLOGICAL GROWTH This scheme represents the first of four phenomena which are cov-

ered in this book. Each phenomenon has a specific scale and direction. A morphological gradient runs through-

out East New York – starting with a widespread fabric consisting of 2- or 3-storey dwellings and ending in

large-scale structures, which are linked to the Belt Parkway. The following pages will cover this morphological

gradient in more detail.

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Queens

| 31Morphological Growth

32 |

mixed use

zone

homogeneous tissue

Atlant

ic Ave

.

Linden Blv

d.

Belt Parkway

large-scale structures

car-driven development


MORPHOLOGICAL GRADIENT The morphology of East New York can be abstracted by separating the area into four different zones defined by the large transit arteries.The built environment north of Atlantic Avenue is defined by its rich historic evolution, leading to a mixed use area where manufacturing was injected.South of the mixed use area, the tissue is characterized by homogeneous, small grain grid mainly consisting of detached or semi-detached housing.Linden Boulevard defines another fracture in this urban fabric. In the fifties a new scale was introduced, paving the way for two large industrial quadrants and large public housing projects. The most southern zone is heavily defined by car driven development after the creation of the Belt Parkway, expanding the grain even further and introducing superstructures such as the Gateway Mall and the Spring Creek Towers housing project.

34 |

Belt Parkway

Linden Blvd.

Atlantic Ave..

GATEWAY

GARAGE

1

23


12

3

SOCIAL CLOUD East New York is an economical disadvantaged neighborhood inhabited by predominantly working-class migrants, many of who live under the poverty threshold. Foreign borns identify this area as an arrival place in the city, making immigration and its related issues strongly present. The varying tissue of East New York dissolves these issues into a cloud of social disputes.

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Jamaica Bay

Queens

| 39Social Cloud

40 |

marks of immigration

community gardenMiitchell-Lama projectpublic housingprivate schoolpublic school

| 41

ISOTROPIC STRUCTURE When we zoom in on the defining elements for social tissue of the neighborhood we notice a very isotropic social structure. These elements work mostly on the scale of one building block, creating an image of a cloud of small scale community generators created by neighbhorhood initiatives. A system of community gardens is one of the main social impulses that provides fresh food, serves as a way of educating the young inhabitants of the neighborhood and also functions as a place of social gathering and cultural exchange. A large amount of immigrants lives in the neighborhood, leaving their cultural, economic and social traces in the built tissue and expressing the international character of the neighborhood. The defining large scale social structures in the built environment are schools and public housing towers. These are mirrors to two defining issues for East New York, poverty and a low educated public.

Social Cloud

42 |

ETHNICITY

black

hispanic

white

asian

foreign born

EDUCATION

no dimploma

college graduate

HOUSING

foreclosure rate per 1000 homes

cost burdened owner

cost burdened renter

homeownership rate

QUALITY OF LIFE

assaults per 1000 residents

median household income

unemployment rate

AGE

population under age 18

population over age 65

46.6%

28.5%

11.5%

3.6%

25.7%

57.4%

4.3%

-

-

-

21.4%

16.4

28.2K

13.5%

-

-

45.7%

39.1%

5.6%

3.9%

33.9%

47.7%

6.7%

17.8

-

-

23.4%

9.7

36.4K

5.2%

-

-

51.7%

39.2%

4.4%

3.2%

37.3%

43%

8%

49.7

47.1%

56.9%

23.1%

6.6

33.3K

14.2%

30.8%

8.9%

32.6%

19.6%

36.9%

9.5%

36.4%

31%

22%

18.6

36.6%

53.7%

30.6%

3.8

43.2K

9.9%

26.2%

10.6%

23.1%

27.6%

35.3%

11.9%

35.7%

28%

27%

17.3

36.3%

52.6%

34.6%

3.4

50.0K

10.21%

25.8%

10.9%

1990 2000 2010 20102010

EAST NEW YORK BROOKLYN NYC

no diploma

49.0%

37.7%

5.1%

3.5%

22.9%

77.1%

36.2%

8.0%

| 43Social Cloud

ETHNICITY

black

hispanic

white

asian

foreign born

EDUCATION

no dimploma

college graduate

HOUSING

foreclosure rate per 1000 homes

cost burdened owner

cost burdened renter

homeownership rate

QUALITY OF LIFE

assaults per 1000 residents

median household income

unemployment rate

AGE

population under age 18

population over age 65

46.6%

28.5%

11.5%

3.6%

25.7%

57.4%

4.3%

-

-

-

21.4%

16.4

28.2K

13.5%

-

-

45.7%

39.1%

5.6%

3.9%

33.9%

47.7%

6.7%

17.8

-

-

23.4%

9.7

36.4K

5.2%

-

-

51.7%

39.2%

4.4%

3.2%

37.3%

43%

8%

49.7

47.1%

56.9%

23.1%

6.6

33.3K

14.2%

30.8%

8.9%

32.6%

19.6%

36.9%

9.5%

36.4%

31%

22%

18.6

36.6%

53.7%

30.6%

3.8

43.2K

9.9%

26.2%

10.6%

23.1%

27.6%

35.3%

11.9%

35.7%

28%

27%

17.3

36.3%

52.6%

34.6%

3.4

50.0K

10.21%

25.8%

10.9%

1990 2000 2010 20102010

EAST NEW YORK BROOKLYN NYC

32.3%

9.6%

44 |

DominicanenHaitiRussia

Guyana

EcuadorChina, Honk Kong, TaiwanIndiaJamaica

Russia

India

ChinaHaiti Jamaica

EcuadorGuyanaDominican Republic

| 45

ARRIVAL CITY East New York is a social gateway into the city’s fabric. A poor working class neighborhood that is inhabited by a variety of different ethnic groups. It is an example neighborhood of a recent phenomenon in New York City’s immigrant community history. East New York is a polyethnic enclave, a territory that is not defined by one ethnic group like in it’s surrounding neighborhoods but rather a neighborhood where a diversity of foreign born populations is living together.

Social Cloud

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Queens

Jamaica Bay

Queens

CORRIDOR East New York evolved into a transit-rich neighborhood, complying a strong relationship

with Downtown Brooklyn and Manhattan. Several transit corridors cut through East New York in east-west

direction, functioning as connective arteries with Brooklyn, Queens and Manhattan. These East New York

infrastructures vastly shape the neighborhood’s set-up and its perception.

| 49Corridor

50 |

subway main road ENY boundaries

JFK

A,C

L

3

J,Z

| 51

EAST WEST The infrastructure of Brooklyn is strongly determined by two distant poles: Manhattan and John F. Kennedy International Airport, which functions as one of the main gates of New York City for freight and people. Because of the proximity of East New York to JFK, the area’s infrastructure has a mainly connecting role, neglecting the tissue and functioning of East New York itself. The JFK Airtrain connects travelers with MTA New York City A and C subways and the Long Island Rail Road, all passing through East New York on their way to Brooklyn and Manhattan. By car, people can pass through the heart of Brooklyn taking Fulton Street and Atlantic Avenue or travel along the Belt Parkway following the Jamaica Bay shoreline.

Corridor

52 |

subway

highland park

elevated railroad

wetlands

LIRR

manufacturing

main roadshighways secondary roads

freight train use of subway

commercial mixed-use area

ENY boundaries

Atlantic

Avenue

ConduitBoulevard

Linden

Boulevard

Belt

Park

way

A,C trains

J,Z trains

3 train

L tr

ain

| 53

TRANSIT-RICH East New York is bounded to the west by the Broadway Junction transit hub and MTA elevated L-train and by Conduit Boulevard to the east. Because of the strong emphasis on the infrastructural east-west connections, much fewer movements are made in the north-south direction. This dichotomy has strong consequences on East New York’s fabric. In the north, Atlantic Avenue is running together with the Long Island Rail Road through a high variety mixed-use area, bounded by Fulton Street and the A,C and J,Z subways. This area contains several commercial uses together with residential, some manufacturing and public facilities [1].More commercial development is linked to secondary roads in the fabric between Fulton Street and Linden Boulevard, focusing on local residents and car passengers [2].East New York contains three industrial business zones connected by two main freight roads (Atlantic Avenue and Linden Boulevard) and by the New York Bay Ridge Branch freight train running on the west border of the neighborhood, together with the MTA L-train [3].

1 2 3

Corridor

54 |

wetlands Belt Parkway JFK road infrastructureresidential area ENY boundaries

Canars

ie

East N

ew York

Howard BeachJFK

Berg

en B

each

| 55

BELT PARKWAY The Belt Parkway is a highway necklace along Brooklyn’s shoreline proposed by Robert Moses in 1930’s to create modern highway access to all adjacent neighborhoods. The construction begun in 1934 and the complete loop was finished in 1960. The parkway was also implemented by Moses to preserve the rich ecology of the bay from further urban development, privatizing the view for the drivers. This car driven development has had a strong influence on the morphology of East New York as the south part of the neighborhood is based on individual transportation. Spring Creek Towers as a mainly residential, and the Gateway Mall as a purely commercial development, testify this.

Corridor

BAY SYSTEM Historically, East New York built up a strong relationship with Jamaica Bay. Over time, this

relationship turned out to be increasingly conflicted. The interaction between the hydrological systems and the

adjacent land was lost due to growing urbanization, leading to the environmental issues most cities are facing

today. This urbanization also led to unaccessible or privatized shores, lacking in potential uses for the public

and almost completely erasing the cultural identity of the bay.

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Queens

| 59Bay System

60 |

wetlandsalt marshesshrubswoodland

150 feet100 feet50 feet20 feet10 feet

| 61Bay System

GATEWAY In 1972 Jamaica Bay became part of the Gateway National Recreation Area, an initiative conducted by the US government with the aim of conserving the bay’s fragile ecosystem that was deteriorated since the industrial revolution. The bay’s ecological, but also cultural qualities were recognized and initiatives to restore the bay in its former glory are slowly being implemented. Being the only national park in the world accessible by subway, makes this area truly unique. The metropolitan condition however is in an environmental point of view challenging, since pollution still forms the biggest threat for the bay and its habitat.

Although New York lost a lot of its former glory, the city is still blessed with this extensive ecosystem that is Jamaica Bay. More than twenty different wood- and wetlands are found that form the habitat to more than 330 different bird species. In the middle of the bay, at Broad Channel, the Wildlfe Refuge is located. This ecologically rich area is one of the most conserved of the bay and is the habitat for tons of different species. Thanks to its accessibility by the subway, it is also the most visited place in Jamaica Bay, predominantly by birdwatchers and other ecotourists.

62 |

0

18

36

54

72

90

108 126

144

162

180

residential commercial industrial transportation

water wetland salt marshes maritime dune

| 63Bay System

LANDUSE Jamaica Bay is surrounded by an immense diversity of communities. From the private house - private boat communities in Howard Beach to social housing projects such as Spring Creek Towers. The landuse is consequently also very diverse. By looking at the landuse sections we can point out one of the largest issues the bay is facing today. Although built with righteous intentions considering environmental conservation, the Belt Parkway often cuts off the bay from its surrounding communities. Also, a large part of the shore is completely privatized and therefore unaccessible for the public.

64 |

category 4 stormcategory 3 stormcategory 2 stormcategory 1 storm

| 65Bay System

FLOODING Despite its inherent ecological, cultural and recreational qualities, the water is more and more often viewed as a threat for the surrounding urban communities in the form of floods. New York is located, alike most of the metropoles, in a low-lying area. This location makes it particularly vulnerable for flooding, an issue increasingly actual due to rising currents. The map indicates the blank shoreline in case of storms, in categories from 1 to 4. Irene, when in New York, had a force of category 1, but her slow speed and size made her nevertheless threatening.

DESIGN ISSUES problem analysis and five individual design statements

1

2

3

4

5

68 |

MORPHOLOGY

INFRASTRUCTURE

ECOLOGY

TYPOLOGY

HISTORY

ECON./POL.

SOCIAL

urban farming

youth center

single parent typology

subway station

productive landscape

collective housing

micro-units

bike-route

stormwater detention

shared space

landfill redevelopment

fresh food market

water treatment

elementary school

refugee camp

disfunctional fabric

high vacancy rate

frictions in urban tissue

differences in grain size

car driven development

connection with queens

contamination

rising current

awareness waterfront

food desert/health

public housing associated with problems

disuse of suburban typologies

unadapted housing stock

lack of affordable housing

lack of ownership

racical discrimination

conflicting visions JB

urban sprawl

american dream

foreclosures

unemployment

travel time to work

market driven housing supply

displacement of poor

one parent family

low median household income

young population

high number of foreign born

consolidate social cohesion

strengthening independency

challenging inevitable capitalism

emphasizing waterscape

redefine urban tresholds

weaving urban fabrics

RESEARCH ISSUES INTERVENTIONS INDIVIDUAL THESESAIMS

BROOKLYN ELEVATED

ECOLOGICAL MACHINE

MACRO-LOTS

IMMIGRANT COMMUNE

YOUTH GARDENING

racial discrimination

| 69

MORPHOLOGY

INFRASTRUCTURE

ECOLOGY

TYPOLOGY

HISTORY

ECON./POL.

SOCIAL

urban farming

youth center

single parent typology

subway station

productive landscape

collective housing

micro-units

bike-route

stormwater detention

shared space

landfill redevelopment

fresh food market

water treatment

elementary school

refugee camp

disfunctional fabric

high vacancy rate

frictions in urban tissue

differences in grain size

car driven development

connection with queens

contamination

rising current

awareness waterfront

food desert/health

public housing associated with problems

disuse of suburban typologies

unadapted housing stock

lack of affordable housing

lack of ownership

racical discrimination

conflicting visions JB

urban sprawl

american dream

foreclosures

unemployment

travel time to work

market driven housing supply

displacement of poor

one parent family

low median household income

young population

high number of foreign born

consolidate social cohesion

strengthening independency

challenging inevitable capitalism

emphasizing waterscape

redefine urban tresholds

weaving urban fabrics

RESEARCH ISSUES INTERVENTIONS INDIVIDUAL THESESAIMS

BROOKLYN ELEVATED

ECOLOGICAL MACHINE

MACRO-LOTS

IMMIGRANT COMMUNE

YOUTH GARDENING

and high school

70 |

1

2

3

4

5

| 71

1 A School of Conscience and Redemption. Fountain Avenue landfill cultivates an ecological youth.

2 Hendrix Creek Park: An ecological machine for East New York

3 Commune. Translating East New York’s reality as an arrival-city into collective housing for immigrants. What is the reality of our city? What do we see? Why don’t we see it all? Can’t we take it all?

4 Down Under the Brooklyn Elevated: A Green Valley for Cycling the area of East Brooklyn

5 Macro-lots: an amalgamated housing strategy for an incremental change in East New York

72 |

HISTORICAL ANLYSISMap based on the New-York Bay, Harbor and environs by the U.S. Coast Survey Depot, published in 1845BACHE, A. D.; HASSLER, F. R., Map of New York Bay and Harbor, 1845, http://www.davidrumsey.com/luna/servlet/detail/ RUMSEY~8~1~33352~1170772:Map-of-New-York-Bay-and-Harbor-and-?sort=Date%2CPub_List_No%2CSeries_No&qvq=q:Brooklyn;sort:Da te%2CPub_List_No%2CSeries_No;lc:RUMSEY~8~1&mi=6&trs=122, last visited: 06/04/2012.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, At Broad Channel, fishing at your front door, s.d., from: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_xRTINsQpvno/TUIhfQyVHkI/AAAAAAAAAVw/cERi0eG3zHg/s1600/broad+chan2.jpg

ARMBRUSTER, Eugene, 100-acre farm in Midwout in 1678, s.d., from: HENDRICK, Daniel M., Images of America.- Jamaica Bay, Arcadia Publishing, Charleston (SC), 2006, pp. 12

BROOKLYN HISTORICAL SOCIETY, Early Brooklyn Farm, ca. 1880, from: http://brooklynhistory.org/blog/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/bhs_v1972.1.824.jpg

Map of New York, Brooklyn and viciny by G.W. & C.B. Colton & Co, published in 1885COLTON, G. W.; COLTON, C.B., New York City, Brooklyn and Vicinity, 1885, http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/map_image.pl?data=/home/www/ data/gmd/gmd380/g3804/g3804n/rr002680.jp2&x=2856&y=4192&res=4&width=356&height=524&lastres=4&jpegLevel=80, last visited: 06/04/2012.

KRAETZER, G., East New York, 1857, from: http://images.nypl.org/index.php?id=1659388&t=r

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, Fishing colony near a rail station, 1888, from: HENDRICK, Daniel M., Images of America.- Jamaica Bay, Arcadia Publishing, Charleston (SC), 2006, pp. 34

s.n., LIRR trestle, 1914 , from: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_xRTINsQpvno/TTSq5VPYmNI/AAAAAAAAATk/D83NtfWlTWA/s1600/jamaicabay+trestle+1914.jpg

Map based on the Williams Map of Brooklyn, by Williams map and guide & Co, published in 1922WILLIAMS, unknown, Map of Borough of Brooklyn, 1923, http://memory.loc.gov, last visited: 06/04/2012.

GEORGE W. WINANS COLLECTION, Giant steam shovel fills in Hook Creek, 1900, from: HENDRICK, Daniel M., Images of America.- Jamaica Bay, Arcadia Publishing, Charleston (SC), 2006, pp.112

ALLIANZ, A drain pipe empties into Jamaica Bay along the eastern shore of Brooklyn, s.d., from: http://assets.knowledge.allianz.com/img/oceans_impacts_seas_degradation_pollution_sewage_toxic_industry_q_16140.jpg

s.n., Traffic Jam on the Belt Parkway, 1964, from: http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3609/3305692169_da71f20fa5.jpg

NYC DEPARTMENT OF SANITATION, Artist’s rendering of an expansion of the Jamaica Water Pollution Control Plant, 1956, from: HENDRICK, Daniel M., Images of America.- Jamaica Bay, Arcadia Publishing, Charleston (SC), 2006, pp.116

NEW YORK HERALD-TRIBUNE PHOTO MORGUE, Aerial view of New York International Airport, 1945, from: HENDRICK, Daniel M., Images of America.- Jamaica Bay, Arcadia Publishing, Charleston (SC), 2006, pp.92

QUEENS BOROUGH PUBLIC LIBRARY, Control Tower at New York International Airport, 1948, from: HENDRICK, Daniel M., Images of America.- Jamaica Bay, Arcadia Publishing, Charleston (SC), 2006, pp.94

PORT AUTHORITY OF NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY, Expansion of JFK, 1960s, from: HENDRICK, Daniel M., Images of America.- Jamaica Bay, Arcadia Publishing, Charleston (SC), 2006, pp.97

Map based on the 1962 zoning map, by NYC bureau of planning, published 1962

DON RIEPE AND AMERICAN LITTORAL SOCIETY, Fishkill at Broad Channel due to low levels of oxygen, 1998 , from: HENDRICK, Daniel M., Images of America.- Jamaica Bay, Arcadia Publishing, Charleston (SC), 2006, pp.121

DON RIEPE AND AMERICAN LITTORAL SOCIETY, Edgemere landfill, s.d., from: HENDRICK, Daniel M., Images of America.- Jamaica Bay, Arcadia Publishing, Charleston (SC), 2006, pp.120

DON RIEPE AND AMERICAN LITTORAL SOCIETY, Fountain Avenue Landfill, 1973, from: HENDRICK, Daniel M., Images of America.- Jamaica Bay, Arcadia Publishing, Charleston (SC), 2006, pp.119

DON RIEPE AND AMERICAN LITTORAL SOCIETY, Restoration of wetlands, s.d., from: HENDRICK, Daniel M., Images of America.- Jamaica Bay, Arcadia Publishing, Charleston (SC), 2006, pp.125

SHELLEY, Leander, Capping of the Pennsylvania Avenue landfill, 2003, from: HENDRICK, Daniel M., Images of America.- Jamaica Bay, Arcadia Publishing, Charleston (SC), 2006, pp.97

MORPHOLOGICAL GROWTHno references

References

| 73References

SOCIAL CLOUD

DEPARTMENT OF CITY PLANNING, Brooklyn Community District 5, 2012, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/html/neigh_info/bk05_info.shtml, last visited: 21/05/2012

DEPARTMENT OF CITY PLANNING, Demographic Profile, 2009, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/census/puma_demo_07to09_acs.pdf#bk5, last visited: 21/05/2012

DEPARTMENT OF CITY PLANNING, Social Profile, 2009, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/census/puma_socio_07to09_acs.pdf#bk5, last visited: 21/05/2012

DEPARTMENT OF CITY PLANNING, Economic Profile, 2009, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/census/puma_econ_07to09_acs.pdf#bk5, last visited: 21/05/2012

DEPARTMENT OF CITY PLANNING, Housing Characteristics, 2009, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/census/puma_housing_07to09_acs.

pdf#bk5, last visited: 21/05/2012

CORRIDOR

Land Use MapsNYC.GOV, city of neighborhoods Brooklyn cd5, from: http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/lucds/bk5profile.pdf#profile, last visited: 25/02/2012

EXAMINING METROCARD USAGE, from:http://graphicsweb.wsj.com/documents/MTAFARES1108/#v=showCommuters&s=SUTTER%2520AVE-VAN%2520SINDEREN%2520AVE, last visited: 04/12/2012

NYC.GOV, Sustainable Communities, East New York, from:http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/html/sustainable_communities/sustain_com2.shtml, last visited: 12/04/2012

JFK airtrain, from: http://www.panynj.gov/airports/jfk-airtrain.html, last visited: 14/04/2012

BAY SYSTEM

WIKIPEDIA, Gateway National Recreation Area, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gateway_National_Recreation_Area, last visited:12/04/12

NATIONAL PARK SERVICE, Vegetation Classification and Mapping at Gateway National Recreation Area, 2008, http://biology.usgs.gov/npsveg/

gate/gaterpt.pdf, last visited: 21/05/2012

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