ec-fao partnership programme (1998-2000) the non-wood forest

1

EUROPEAN COMMISSIONDIRECTORATE-GENERAL VIIIDEVELOPMENT

EC-FAO PARTNERSHIP PROGRAMME (1998-2000)Tropical forestry Budget line B7-6201/97-15/VIII/FOR

PROJECT GCP/INT/679/EC

THE NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS OF NIGERIA

GBADEBO J. OSEMEOBO (Ph.D)GLORIA UJOR (Ph.D)

Federal Department of Forestry,PMB 135, Abuja, Nigeria.

MAY, 1999

Data Collection and Analysis for Sustainable Forest Management in ACPCountries - Linking National and International Efforts

This report has been produced as an out put of the EC-FAO Partnership Programme (1998-2000) - Project GCP/INT/679/EC Data Collection and Analysis for Sustainable Forest

Management in ACP Countries - Linking National and International Efforts.The views expressedare those of the authors and should not be attributed to the EC or the FAO.

This paper has been minimally edited for clarity and style

2

SUMMARY

Introduction

Non-wood forest products (NWFP) form a significant natural resource component for the poor.They are a neglected little known common property sustaining the rural sector. NWFPs occur inall the ecological zones of the country and they are composed of biotic and abiotic resources ofwild species of plants and animals plus soil minerals. NWFPs occur in greater variety ofproducts than timber. Moreover, they have shorter frequency of harvest cycle, smaller yield perunit area in the forest and higher monetary value per unit weight.

NWFPs exhibit peculiar biological and ecological characteristics which make their conservationpractices difficult. NWFPs are not fully known and hence they are poorly documented. One plantspecies is used to meet various end uses in different locations and ecological zones.Nevertheless, NWFPs remain central to the sustenance of Nigerians in rural areas.

Major non-wood forest products

The major NWFP are classified into woody and non-woody products. There is no complete listof NWFP in Nigeria. However, this study has documented from literature, 42 species of fruittrees, 20 species of vegetable plants, 12 species of spices, 16 species of mushrooms, 14species of edible seed bearing plants, 3 species of oil trees and 6 species of alcoholic plants.These data exclude numerous biotic species of medicinal value, frogs, insects, snails, reptiles,mammals, birds, fish etc. NWFP is central in traditional culture and used as material for dyes,toxins, gum, wrapping leaves, mat weaving, chewsticks, household utensils, agricultural toolsand fuel-wood.

Consumption and trade of NWFP

The consumption pattern of NWFP is highly influenced by socio-cultural and economic factors invogue in the respective locations they are in use. The push factors for their utilization includetaboos, social acceptance, level of utilization, demand and tenure issues. The species are fullyrecognized at local level and are harnessed to meet household food security and as dependablesources of income.

Trade in NWFP is organised both at the local and urban levels. NWFPs respond to marketfailures because they are not reflected in GDP calculations. Prices of NWFP fluctuate but theyare higher during the off season than in the producing season. The middle men fix prices for thegoods and sustain the trade both in rural and urban areas.

Data Collection

Data collection on NWFP is constrained by many factors. These include information loss, poorstorage facilities, inadequate inventory, high rate of poaching, low level forest management andmode of resource harvesting. Despite these set-backs, improvement in data collection can be

3

attained through intensive research, involvement of local communities in the conservation ofNWFP and partnership in the development of forest resources.

Conclusion

NWFP are a dependable source of income and food supply in the rural areas. However NWFPis a diminishing resource because the land base is under pressure of depletion from agricultureand public infrastructures. The management of NWFP is difficult because there is no completelist due to poor research, poaching, poor harvesting methods and little management attention tonon-timber products.

Nevertheless, the application of intensive research and smallholder farmer involvement in in situconservation will improve the situation. Data collection mechanisms can be put in place througha nation wide ethnobiological survey, adequate staff training and improved funding of forestryprogrammes.

4

1 Introduction

1.1 Definition

Non-wood forest products (NWFP) are defined as forest materials derived from soil mineral,water, fauna and flora resources other than round wood (sawn wood). The NWFP are classifiedinto non-wood and non-timber products. The non-wood products are derived from wild animals,herbs, leaves, latex, gum, resins, ropes, fruits, seeds, fungi, fodder, forage, gravel, clay,limestone and natural salt. The woody but non-timber products include poles, fuel-wood,charcoal, rattan canes, sponge, chewsticks, bamboo’s and others.

1.2 Occurrence and distribution

The NWFP occur naturally in all the ecological zones in the country; through the mangroveforest and coastal vegetation, fresh water swamp forest, lowland rainforest, moutane areas tothe savannah ecozones (derived savannah, guinea savannah, Sudan savannah and sahelsavannah). The numbers, types, population and diversity of species which occur in theecological zones vary in accordance to inherent genetic characteristics, land use practices,edaphic conditions and environmental influences

The availability of NWFP in any ecozone is a function of the richness of the vegetation in termsof the structure of species occurring in it and the use of biotic species by the rural population.However, the ecological zones in the country have been subjected into various changes due tohuman interference with the natural environment particularly land extensive agriculturalproduction. For example, the land devoted to food crops alone rose from about 7.6million ha in1970 to 35.5 million ha in 1995 (Agboola, 1987; FORMECU, 1985). The second main cause ofvegetation changes is the high dependence on the natural vegetation for food, medicine,shelter, income generation and other socio-cultural activities.

The biotic resources on which NWFP are derived exhibit some bio-ecological characteristics,which make data collection and their conservation difficult. The species occur in narrowecological ranges and respond to irregular flowering and fruiting in the same and differentlocations. NWFPs are not fully known and poorly documented. However, NWFPs remain centralto the socio-economic and cultural wellbeing of rural communities in Nigeria.

1.3 Conservation and management of NWFP

The sustainable conservation and management of NWFPs have been difficult to streamline inNigerian forestry for various reasons. These include:

(i) over 90% of the NWFP respond to market failures. Consequently, they are not taken intoaccount in GDP calculations. Thus the value of the forests in economic terms is onlyabout 1.3% of the GDP calculations. By implication therefore only about 10% of thebudgetary allocation to the agricultural sector is made available to forestry development.

(ii) Because of the poor knowledge of species in terms of utilization, biology and ecologytheir management becomes difficult to coordinate and harmonize at regional andnational levels. Therefore, except for few materials, most NWFPs cannot be captured atthe national level.

5

(iii) Most of the NWFP are derived from species which occur from the wild. The species areconserved under in situ conservation programmes within the contest of commonproperty resource utilization. According to Osemeobo (1991), common propertyresources are influenced by: (a) tenure systems in vogue in various communities, (b)taboos that determine their utilization, harvest, social acceptance and their various enduses and (c) traditional and cultural user rights.

1.4 The economics of NWFP

The response of agricultural policies to economic reforms and trade policies towards marketoriented regimes have increased pressure on the utilization of the Nigerian NWFP (World bank,1996). For example while other sub-sectors within agriculture are gaining more lands fromnatural forests, NWFPs are loosing the land base and their recognition. Most of the NWFP aretreated as intangibles with free access and little restriction.

The worth of NWFP in Nigeria is difficult to estimate as the prices placed on them are oftenlocalised and vary from one area to another. Moreover, the value placed on NWFPs is oftenlower than the cost of replacement (Osemeobo, 1992a) hence the value of NWFP are at bestsocial costs. Because the markets have failed to reflect the full value of NWFP due to under-pricing, market prices do not reflect their full marginal opportunity cost to society(Salau,1991).By implication because most NWFP are treated as free goods, they are overused,degraded and hence they respond to market failures.

1.5 Ecozones

The ecological and climatic characteristics are presented in Table 1.The occurrence of NWFPvary within and among the various ecozones based on their richness and intensity of utilizationby government and rural communities.

1.6 Terms of reference

The terms of reference for this study were to:(i) collect the available current data on Non-wood Forest Products (NWFP) in Nigeria and

report on its present status;(ii) compile especially the available in-country information on the most important NWFP like

bushmeat (including insects) medicinal plants (especially chewsticks), forest foods e.g.Gnetum africana and Irvingia geboneneis, gum arabic and shea butter;

(iii) analyse the past, present and possible future trends of these NWFP for localconsumption, trade and exports;

(iii) analyse constraints and necessary steps of improvement related to statistical datacollection on NWFP.

1.7 Objectives of the study

Based on the terms of reference, the following objectives emerged for the study. These were to:

(a) define NWFPs and give an overview of the occurrence, distribution, management andeconomics of NWFP;

6

(b) document the major NWFP occurring in the country;(c) analyse the trends in the consumption and trade in NWFP; and(d) identify and analyse the constraints and improvement in statistical data collection for NWFP

in the country.

1.8 Methodology

Data were collected through secondary and primary sources. Secondary data were obtainedfrom published materials from textbooks, journals, commissioned technical papers and others.

Primary data were collected to fill the gaps in the secondary data. A structured questionnairewas combined with discussions with NWFP collectors, sellers and users of NWFP from selectedhouseholds in the various ecozones.

Collected data were subjected to rigorous statistical analyses to establish sound basis for theinferences made. Both descriptive and analytical statistics were employed in the report.

Table 1: Climatic data of major ecozones

Major ecozones Annualrainfall (mm)

Rainydays per

year

Minimumtemp.

Maximumtemp.

Meanannualtemp.

Altitude (m)

Fresh waterswamps andcoastal vegetation

3,000 - 4,400 290 21oC 32oC 25oC 0 - 15

Lowland Rainforest 2,000 - 3,000 250 20oC 36oC 25oC 15 - 150Derived Savannah 1,500 - 2,000 220 15oC 36oC 25oC 150- 600Jos Plateau(Montane)

1,300 - 1,500 185 13oC 31oC 22oC 1,200

Mambilla Plateau(Montane)

1,500 - 1,800 200 10oC 30oC 20oC 1,500 - 1,850

Sudan Savannah 800 - 1,000 90 14oC 38oC 27oC 300- 700Southern GuineaSavannah

900 - 1,200 200 18oC 36oC 27oC 150- 200

Northern GuineaSavannah

1,000 - 1,300 180 14oC 35oC 25oC 600-700

Sahel Savannah 200 - 400 80 13oC 40oC 27oC 300- 700Source: NAERLS 1992

7

Figure 1: Classification of forest products

NATURAL FORESTECOSYSTEMS

Tangible Forest Products(e.g. Plants, animals an

soil minerals)

Intangible forest products(e.g. Shade, soil protection

and forest influences)

Non-Timber ForestProducts

Woody Products

Non-wood Products

Floral Products Faunal Products Chewsticks, fuelwoodcharcoal, agricultural tools,ceremonies and festivals

Medicine, foodsfodder,

gum dyes, toxins etc.

Medicine, foodfestivals

Ceremonies food etc.

8

2. Major non-wood forest products in Nigeria

2.1 Classification of NWFP

There is no complete list of NWFP in Nigeria because most biotic species from which forestproducts are derived are not well documented. Moreover the diversity of biotic resources andtheir utilization among different ethnic groups made the assignment of plants to different locialong NWFP continuum in considerable disarray.

The classification of NWFP remain somewhat problematic because some plants fit in more thanone category such as food, medicine, forage, alcohol, industrial and edible oil, spices and matweaving (Elaeis guineensis, Afromomum melagueta and Xylopia aethiopica).In the savannah ecozones of Nigeria, Etkin and Ross (1994) documented about 119 plants asfoods out of the 374 medicinal plants they identified. Yet in a different study, Okafor et al (1994)identified 8 NWFP from the mangrove swamp, 19 traded products from the moist forest, 17 fromthe southern guinea savannah 12 in the Sudan savannah and 56 for the whole country.

The NWFP is classified into two broad groups: non-wood and non-timber products. The non-wood products are derived from faunal and floral sources but sub-divided into different usergroups such as foods, medicine, toxins, dyes etc. The non-timber products are derived fromshrubs and trees. According to Okafor et al (1994), the NWFP constitute materials notexclusively from the forests but including materials from natural ecosystems

Based on the current in-country literature review, the major biotic species from which forestfoods are derived are composed of higher plants and wild animals (Adjanohoum et al,1991;Okafor et al, 1994;and Osemeobo, 1998). These are:

• 42 Species of fruit trees and shrubs;• species of vegetable plants;• species of spices;• species of mushrooms;• species of seed bearing plants;• 3 Species of oil producing plants ;• 6 Species of drink producing plants.

The faunal species utilized for food are worms, frogs, insects ,snails, reptiles, mammals ,birdsand fish. Okafor (1979) gave an account of 150 edible indigenous plant species of NWFP in therain forest and 51 species of food and fodder trees and shrubs in the savannah (Okafor, 1980).

The non-timber products are also sub-divided into utilization groups such as household utensils,domestic-industrial energy, agricultural tools, traditional culture and medicinal uses. Davis andRichards (1991) reported that 69 species of plants from four distant ecozones: the mangroveswamp, the moist rainforest, the guinea savannah and Sudan savannah were utilised forvarious uses such as household energy, food, medicine, construction, arts and crafts andtraditional culture.

There is a great deal of geographical disparity in the availability of NWFP within the ecozones.Unfortunately, virtually all the ecozones are experiencing a great deal of pressure from large

9

scale agricultural projects to which government gives special encouragement and intensivelogging practices.

Forestry in Nigeria is a state subject and it plays the role of resource generating organ. Sincethe states enunciate their management policies, the control of NWFP across state boundaries ispoorly coordinated. However, the poor economic climate in the country since the 1980sgenerated pressure on the utilization and exploitation of NWFP. Thus the decline of NWFP is nolonger conjectural but depressingly real in most parts of the country. The classification of NWFPis given in Figure 1.

2.2 Major non-wood forest products of Nigeria

2.2.1 Forest foods derived from floral products

The forest foods which are either eaten raw or processed form the major intake of proteins,vitamins, minerals fats and carbohydrates among the majority of rural communities in thecountry (Okafor et al, 1994). The forest foods are in the form of vegetables, fruits, nuts, tubers,seeds, oils, mushrooms, spices and drinks (alcoholic and non-alcoholic). The forest foodproducing species have varied phonological characteristics, however, the production of fruitsare seasonal in most species. Some plants, like Elaeis guineensis, fruit throughout the year butwith seasonal peak of fruiting occurring between March and May. While some plants are in off-season others are in on season thereby giving security to the rural communities that depend onthem for sustenance.

Table 2 presents the major forest foods in Nigeria. Vegetables are derived from trees, shrubs,herbs and others. Among the various communities, most of the species are cultivated ingardens and farms for ease of access, control and management. Mushrooms are mainlyseasonal and harvested from the wild. Mushrooms are both used for food and traditionalmedicine (Lentinus tuber-regium-for the treatment of dysentery Adjanohoun et al 1991).

Table 2: NWFPs - forest foods in Nigeria (floral resources)

Present statusType ofproducts

Scientific names Habitat UtilizationSocial Ecological

1 Afromomu daniellii Forest Food R A2 Afromomu Sceptrum " " R A3 Amblygonocarpus

andongensis " " R A

4 Ananas comosus " " L A5 Angyloalyx oligopyllus " " L A6 Annona muricata " " L M7 Annona reticulata " " L M8 Annona senegalensis " " R M9 Annona Sequamosa " " L M

Foods -fruits

10 Antrocaryon klaineanum " " L M

10

11 Antrocaryon Micarster " " L M12 Balanites aegypitiaca Savannah Food R S13 Blighia Sapida Forest " R S14 Borassus aethiopum Savannah " N S15 Buryrospermum parkii " " R S16 Canarium Schweinfurthoii Forest Food L S17 Carpolobia lutea Savannah " L S18 Chrysophyllum albidum Forest Food R S19 Cola Lepidota " " L S20 Cola Mollenii " " L S21 Cola Pachycarpa " " L S22 Dacryodes edulis " " R S23 Dennettia tripetala " " L S24 Desplatsia dewevrei " " L S25 Dialium guineense " " L S26 Icacinta trihantha Forest Food L S27 Landophia duleis " " L S28 Mamea africana " " L S29 Megaphrynium

MacrostachyumForest Sweetner R A

30 Myrianthus arboreus " Food R A31 Napoleonaea vogellii " " R A32 Phonix rectinata " " R A33 Pseudospondias monocarpa " " R A34 Selerocarya birrea " " R A35 Spondias Mobin " " R A36 Strophanthus hispidum " " R A37 Tamarindus indica Savannah Food R M38 Thaumatococcus danielli Forest " R M39 Treculia africana N S40 Vitellaria paradoxa Savannah " N A41 Vitex doniana " " N M42 Zinziphus selerocaryabirrea Forest " L M 1 Albizia zygia Forest Soup R S 2 Bombax Costatum “ R M 3 Cochorus Olitorus “ R M 4 Cucumis melo “ N S

Vegetables

5 Ceiba pentandra “ R M

11

6 Gongronema latifolium “ R S 7 Ficus species savannah " R M 8 Gnetum africana forest " N S 9 Gnetum bucholziaum " " N S

10Heinsta crinata " food R M

11Kigelia africana " " L M

12Lasianthera africana " " R M

13Moringa oleifera " " R M

14 Ocimum gratissimu Forest soup L M15 Pterocarpus aerenasious " " L M16 Pterocarpus soyauxii " soup L M17 Adansonia digitata " soup N M18 Vernonia amygdalins savannah soup R M19 Vitex doniana " " R M

Vegetables

20 Thonningia sanguinea forest " R M 1 Afromomum melegueta " food/

medicineN E

2 Afrostyrax lepidophyllus " " R M3 Capsicum chinensi " " R M4 Gongronema latifolium " " R M5 Luffa cylindrica " " L S6 Monodora brevipes forest " R M7 Monodora myristica Forest " R M8 Ocimum gratissimum forest " R M9 Piper guineense " " N E10 Tetrapluera tetraptera " " N S11 Xylopia aethiopica Forest " N E

Spices

12 Zingiber officinale forest " N S1 Agaricus campestis Forest Food R M2 Alueria aurantia " " R M3 Cookenia sulsipes " " R M4 Coprinus micaceus " " R M5 Chlorophyllum molybditis Forest Food R S6 Marasmius arborescens " " R M

Ediblemushrooms

7 Mycena prolifera " " L M

12

8 Phlebopus silvaticus " " L M9 Pholiota dura " " R M10 Lentitus tuberregium " " L M11 Pleuronis squanosalus " ' L A12 Polyporus determoporus Forest Food L A13 Pleurotus tuberosus " " L A14 Ramaria Moelleriana " Food/

MedicineL M

15 Termitomyces globulus " " L M16 Termitomyces Mammiformis " Food L A17 Termitomyces microcarpus " " L A18 Volvariella escalanta " " L A1 Afzelia africana Savannah Soup N M2 Afzelia bipindesis Forest " R M3 Brachyztegia eurycoma " " R M4 Cola acuminata " Ceremonies

& food N S

5 Garcinia Kola " " N S6 Irvingia gabonensis " soup N E7 Irvingia grondifolia " " N M8 Mucuna sloanei " " R A9 Parkia bicolor Savannah " R M10 Parkia biglobosa Forest " N M11 Pentadethra macroplyll Forest soup R A12 Plukenetia conophorum " Food R A13 Poga oleosa Forest/

Savannahsnacks R A

Seeds

14 Ricinodendon africanum Forest soup R A1 Baillonella toxisperma Forest Food L M2 Elaeis guineensis " " N M

Oil

3 Ricinus Communis " " L M1 Elaeis guineensis Forest/

SavannahRelaxation/ceremonies

N M

2 Raphia Hookeri " " N M3 Dialium guineense " " N M4 Hibiscus sabdaniffa " " R A

Alcoholicdrinks

5 Tamarindus indica " " R M6 Treculis africana " " N M

13

notes on present status of species:

(i) Social Status: N = Nation wide, R = Regional, L = Localized,(ii) Ecological Status: A = Abundant, M = Moderate, S = Scarce, E = Endangered Source - Various

Most trees and shrubs from which forest food are derived are harvested by women and childrenboth from the wild and on farms (Parkia biglobosa, Chrysophyllum albidum). In palms (Elaeisguineensis and Raphia hookeri), the harvesting for wine and the fruits for oil are carried out bymen who are professionals and harvested to generate income.

The harvesting of wine from the oil palm apply three methods viz.: felling of the tree, extractionof wine from apical leaves and extraction from flower base. On the other hand, species likeXylopia aethiopical and Piper guineense are usually harvested through pruning or pollarding oftree crowns. Some fruits are collected only when they fall on the forest floor as in Treculiaafricana, Irvingia grandifolia and Chrystophyllum albidum.

Processing of forest foods apply various methods peculiar to specific species. These arethrough:

• extraction of seeds from fruits and nuts – Irvingia grandifolia, Elaeis guineensis and Parkiabiglobosa;

• pounding of nuts to release oil after boiling – Elaeis guineensis;• cracking of nuts to release seeds – Elaeis guineesis;• Boiling of seeds to ease the extraction of cotyledon- Treculia africana;• Sun drying of leaves for storage- Adansonia digitata.

Okafor et al (1994) described the traditional methods of processing forest foods. Men, womenand children are engaged in the processing of food. When the tasks are too tedious, the mentake over the processing as in the processing of gin and oil from oil palm (Elaeis guineensis).

Two factors respectively affect the ecological and the biological status of species producingNWFP; these are unplanned land use practices and poor harvesting methods. Unplanned landuse practices have led to (i) destruction of food bearing plants in land clearance for agriculturalproduction and infastructural development, (ii) loss of habitats and treatment of fruit bearingplants as weeds in cultivated areas.

Poor harvesting of plants experienced in pollarding and pruning lead to; (i) reduction in fruitingpatterns and in quantity of fruits, (ii) reduction of surface area of crowns and hence inphotosynthesis thereby causing die-back in plants, and (iii) death of some plants harvested inthe dry season due to water stress and bush burning (Osemeobo, 1988).

2.2.2 Forest foods derived from fauna resources

Virtually all fauna species, except those forbidden by taboos, folklores and found not suitable forconsumption, are used for food (Osemeobo, 1994). The use of fauna resources for food variesamong the various communities in accordance with the species occurring in their environment.The faunal products are in form of worms, insects, frogs, reptiles, molluscs, fish, mammals,birds and others. The list of fauna products used for food by various communities is presentedin Table 3.

14

Table 3: NWFPs - Forest foods in Nigeria (faunal resources)

Present statusTypes of productswildlife

Scientific names Habitat UtilizationSocial Ecological

1 Anaphe infracta Forest Food R E 2 Anaphae venata " " R E

(i) Worms forfood

3 Anaphae molenyi " " R E 1 Archachatina marginata Forest Food N S2 Achatina achatina " " N S3 Helix Pomatia " " R S

(ii) Landsnails for food

4 Limicolaria aurora " " R S1 Atherurus africana Forest Food R S2 Thryanomys swinderianus Savannah " N S3 Cricetomy gamianus " " N M4 Xerus erythropus " " R M5 Protexerus stangeri Savannah

/Forest " N M

6 python sebae " " L E7 Tragelapus spekei " " N M8 Ceropithecus sclater " " N M9 Mumida meleagris " " N M

(iii) Food(Bushmeat)

10 Guttena edourdi " " N M

Notes on Species StatusR = Regional, E = Endangered, N = National, S = Scarce, L = Localized, M = MediumSource: various.

Wild animals used for food (bushmeat) are found in all the ecozones. Most of the animals areherbivores and are hunted more for food in the rainforest areas where livestock is beyond thereach of rural communities. In the forest ecosystems, the main wild animals hunted for food arerodents, birds, snails, frogs and reptiles. Men carry out hunting of wildlife while the collection ofsnails, worms and insects is the activity carried out by women.

Individuals in the households carry out hunting. Commercial hunters carry out group hunting.These groups migrate from one area to another. Reports have it that migrant hunters use dartguns, bows and arrows and modern weapons. Those who hunt for the household, use daneguns and traps. Commercial hunting has posed serious problems for wildlife management in thecountry (Osemeobo, 1990).

Either the hunters or the traders process bushmeat. This involves first the removal of externalorgans like fur, feathers, scales, and nails. Second, the internal organs are removed and third

15

the carcass is smoked for the market. Smoked wildlife is preferred to unsmoked wildlife becauseit is believed to be tastier and can be better preserved Okafor et al (1994).

Hunting is a rural occupation within the common property regimes. Most of the ancient huntinggrounds have been constituted into forest and game reserves thereby creating conflict in ruralland use, such as poaching and agricultural production. In the rainforest areas, the disturbanceof the vegetation for logging and farming increases the amount the food which supports therodents thereby encouraging population growth to levels that upset the intensive hunting forfood (Osemeobo, 1991).

Reports from the mangrove and fresh water swamp ecosystem indicate that caterpillars of abeetle are a delicacy and much hunted. The caterpillars thrive on dead trunks of Raphia and OilPalms (both NTFP, of the flora category) and are harvested from them.

Other faunal resources of this ecological zone include, various kinds of fish and amphibians. Atypical fish which lives in the muddy environment of the mangrove ecosystem is the mudskipper.Many species of fin fish are used as food and fertilizer. Various shapes of molluscs, for examplethe locally called periwinkles are also cherished as food in addition to oysters, shrimps andcrabs. The bees in this ecosystem help to produce honey and wax. Some birds are hunted forfood, feathers and recreation. Reptiles are hunted for their skins, food and recreation.

In the rain forest zone, mature grasshoppers and crickets are delicacies especially for childrenafter roasting, as well as adult flying termites. Generally in this zone, a variety of mammalsprevail as well as snails. Religious cultural beliefs forbid certain communities from eating somespecies which are cherished by others. Some such animals that are sectionally eaten in theforest zone include snails, monkeys, pythons and tortoises. Rodents, antelopes, duikers andmonitor lizards appear to be universally eaten.

Medicinal Products

Over 90% of Nigerians in rural areas and about 40% in the urban areas depend partly or whollyon traditional medicine. In the use of NWFP, traditional medicine and traditional religion areinseparable as both rely on soil minerals, flora and fauna resources (Osemeobo, 1993).

Flora Products of Medicinal Value

Virtually all native species of plants are used for the treatment of one aliment or another. Theseinvolve traditional medical use for despoil, preventive, curative and magical purposes. For thetraditional religion NWFP is used for divination, masquerades, shrine worship and musicalinstruments. Table 4 gives the major species used for both orthodox and traditional medicine.All plant forms and parts are used for traditional medicine. These include leaves, flowers, fruits,seeds, nuts, and tubers, roots, seedlings, latex and forest litter.

Table 4: NWFP used for modern and traditional medicine

S/no Name Habitat Utilisation Processing Present status1. Vitellaria Savannah - Ointment extract - extraction of - depleting due to

16

S/no Name Habitat Utilisation Processing Present statusParadotum from seed/fruits

used in carryingsurface wounds

ointment from seed deforestation- Ointment is marketcommodity

2. Vernoniaamydelia

ForestSavannah

-The liquid fromleaves is a healthdrink foralleviatinghypertension

- removal of sand anddust from leaves- washing andsqueezing of theleaves in bowlcontaining little water- serving of the waterto obtain a filtrate,which is the healthdrink

- It exists commonly inhome gardens of ruraland urban areas.- In compound farms- market commodity(both fresh and washedleaves).

3. Garcinia Kola Forest Branch sticks alsoused as chewsticks to clear themouthSeed eatenordinarily to curecough nagal- congestion- hepatitis- to alleviatehypertension- to improvemouth odour andcleanse themouth as well

- Depulping of fruit toextract seeds- removal of seedouter coat to chewthe cotyledons

- found mostly in ruralareas near- homesteads andcompound farms- breeding improvement- trials minimal- seeds are marketcommodity

4. Tetrapeuratetraptera

ForestderivedSavannah

Fruit pulp used forcooking for anearly deliveredwoman forstomachcleansing.

- cutting of the fruitpod in bits beforeimmersing in cookingsoup

- depleting due todeforestation- breeding trials are- not signified in urbanareas.

5. Tetrapheuratetrayptera

Forest Spicing fruitchewed toimprove mouthodour

- See mainly in theirnatural stands.- domestication hasproved difficult toachieve beyond theseedling stage.

6. Prosopisafricana

Savannah - bark used totreat fever

- debarking usinghatchets

- depleting due todeforestation

7. KhayanSenegalensis

Savannah bark used to treatfever

bark boiled fordrinking

depleting due to lack ofregeneration

8. AzadiralthaIndica

Savannah Filtrate fromleaves cooked inwater solution isdrunk for malariafever.

- leaves are pluckedfrom the tree- They are immersedin pots containingwater and boiled forfew hours

- Exotic species-Exists in the Savannahzone where it serves for. windbreaks. soil protection. shelterbelts- commonly observed in

17

S/no Name Habitat Utilisation Processing Present statusrural and urbansettings.

9. a. Xylopiasppb.Harunganamadagascanesin

Forest - fruit part addedto soups which isdrunk to curefever.- Fruit ground andused to caneopen wounds

- Sometimes crushedbefore adding tosoups or main meals- Drying beforegrinding

- depleting due todeforestation- sighted mostly in ruralareas

10. Monodoramynsitica

Forest - Fruit part isadded to mainmeals to be eatenwith a view tocuring+ stomach pain+ pile+ childbirthrigours

- fruit can be roastedbefore use- shelling can bedone to remove theback of the seed

- depleting due todeforestation- sighted mostly in ruralareas

11. Pycnanthusangotensin

- moist forest - mouth wash roast to remove bark depleting due todeforestation

12. Enanthischlorantha

- moist forest - care for yellowfever

roast seed depleting

13. Alstoniaboonei

moist forest - used againstmalaria fever

roast seed depleting

14. Kigeliaafricana

- Forest bark used intreating septicwounds

- Peel of bark andgrinding

depleted considerablyin natural forests

15. Newbouldialaevis

Forest Septic wounds peel bark and grind depleting due todeforestation

16. Cassythafiliformis

- GuineaSavannah

- thread-likeparasite trainingplat issued fortreatment ofdiarrhoea in cattle

squeezed for thecattle to eat

depleting due todeforestation

17. Acaciasenegal

- SudanSavannah

- gum aradoicused fortreatment ofdiarrhoea

- bores are made onthe stem of the plantto extract excidate(gum)

depleting due to- desertified conditionsin the zone- poor tapping practicesof the gum

18. Nshillealatifolia

Forest - used for malariatreatment

moderate

19. Alstoniaboonei

forest - used for malariatreatment

depleting

20. Cassia alata forest - used for treatingskin disorders- ring worm

abundant

21. Lonchrocapinscyanescens

forest - used for treatingskin disorders

depleting

18

S/no Name Habitat Utilisation Processing Present status22. Irvingia

gabonensisForest- Derivedand- Guineasavannah

Bitter fruit pulpused as wormexpellant

abundant

23. Elaeisguineensis

- Forest- Savannah

- Oil from Kernelis administered ascure for variousinternal disorders- palm oil isapplied on boilsand externalwounds

moderate

23. Massulariaacuminanta

- Mangrove- Moist prat

- chewing sticks - cutting of breaklesand shaping intosticks of favourablesize for chewing

moderate

24. Garaningmanni

Moist forestFreshwaterswamp

" " moderate

25. Acacia nilotica depleting26. Tamasindus moderate27. Badanites

acgyptiaisSudanSavannah


28. Anogeissuslaocarpus

" depleting

29. Mitragynathermis

" depleting

30 Acacia seyal " depleting31. Guiera

senegalensis " depleting

32. Momordicachlorantia

" depleting

33. Scherocaryabirrea

" depleting

34. AzadirachtaIndica

ForestSavannah

- Produces toxius(Pesticides)

- extraction from thefruit

exotic species ford bothin rural and urbansettings

35. Macarnga Sp Forest Zone Medicinal36. Trenia

guineensin " "

Sources: Obot (1996): various

Within the same plants the use of parts vary in the treatment of aliment. This may be due tomystical beliefs but it is known that differences exist in the drug or nutrient contents of plantsaccording to the species, types, age of plant the part of plant utilised, the time of the day andseason of the plant (Osemeobo, 1992a). In a recent study in south-west Nigeria, a-ten hectare

19

community herbal centre was found to contain (Osemeobo, 1998): (i) 85species of medicinalplants in 39 families, (ii) 16 key stone species on which the traditional health care of the Otun–Ekiti health care delivery was based and (iii) 80% of medicinal plants were herbs while 12%were shrubs and 8% were trees.

An earlier study carried out by a group of experts in western Nigeria in 1990 identified297 medicinal species in 85 families and 85% of the plants were herbs (Adjanohoun et al,1991).The plants were used to treat diseases of the human systems, infectious parasitic childhood andmiscellaneous diseases including medico-magical uses.

The harvesting practices of medicinal plants vary within and among species. Data from variouscommunities gave the harvesting practices for medicinal plants as follows:

• leaves – apical, young, mature and dried,• flowers – immature, matured and dried,• fruits /seeds – immature, matured, and dried,• stems – apical, young, matured, bark and latex,• seedlings – leaves and whole plant utilization,• roots – lateral, tap roots, ulbs and tubers.

The oil extraction got from Vitellaria paradoxum is used as ointment for both systemic andsurface wound cure. The leaves of Vernonia amygdalina when washed and squeezed, bringsout a vital liquid taken for alleviating hypertension. The seeds of Garcinia kola are chewedthroughout the whole country as a cure to cough and nasal congestion. They are also used toalleviate hypertension. The species of Garcinia in addition yield cherished chewing sticks whichhelp to improve mouth odour. Massularia accuminata is popular for its chewing sticks whichserves both as tooth brush and tooth paste, as well as for treating mouth odours. Azadirachtaindica, even though it is considered an exotic species in the country, is found commonly in ruraland urban areas, and provides medicines and chemicals. The leaves after processing are usedas a cure for malaria. The plants found in the various vegetation zones of Nigeria used formedicinal and cultural purposes are outlined in Figure 1. Description of ecological location,utilization, processing and present status are given in the table as well.

The plants used for modern medicine are presented in Table 4. According to Sofowora (1993)the active plant parts for modern medicine include seeds, rhizome, leaves, fruits, roots, stems,resins and the whole plants.

Most of the plants used in traditional medicine are fully established in modern medicine. TheNational Institute of Pharmaceutical Research and Development Abuja has worked on speciesknown in traditional medicine for curing terminal aliments, such as sikkle cell anemia. A typicalplant used for traditional medicine nation-wide is presented in Table 5.

Table 5: The utilization of the oil palm (elaeis guineensis) products for traditional medicine

Parts used Used in traditional medicine Uses in traditional culture/religionApical Leaves * Cure of dysentery

* Magical purposes for good luckand to overcome difficulties

* Worship of Ogun the iron of god* Design of Masquerade (Igoh inEdo/Ondostates)* To ward-off evil spirits.

20

Late(Wine) * Used in concoctions to treatconvulsion in children.

* Liberation in Cultural festivals andceremonies.* Worship of Ogun the iron god

Palm Kernel Oil * Treatment of rheumatism.* used to prepare concoctions tocure metal patients.* Treatment of poison

* Design of masquerades

Palm Oil * Cure of body rashes* Treatment of Poisons fromconcoctions* Treatment of mental problems

* Worship of Ogun the iron god* To appease the gods

Palm Kernel shellsand Underdevelopedinflorescence

* Soap made from them is used tocure skin disease.

* To make fire for ritual

Source Osemeobo 1999 ( in press)

Four major types of plant processing exist in traditional medical preparation. These are: (i)blending, squeezing, and grinding of fresh plants. (ii) indoor and outdoor drying of plants. (iii)boiling of plants to extract the drugs. (iv) powdering of plants so as to add the materials into foodas in the treatment of epilepsy with the leaves of Uraria picta and Alternanthera repens.

The status of medicinal plants in natural environments vary from one ecozone to another. Thespecies of medicinal plants which occur in the savannah areas are often destroyed by annualbush fires intensive grazing by livestock. Because a high proportion of herbs and seedlings aresubjected to whole plant utilization, the medicinal plants are abused and misused; some aretreated as weeds in farms and destroyed in large scale agricultural productions and loggingoperations.

Fauna Resources of Medicinal Value

A lot of faunal resources not accepted for food and those not socially accepted because oftaboos are used for traditional medicine. Moreover, the animals hunted for food and also usedfor traditional medicine are presented in Table 6, while Table 7 gives a typical wild animal usedfor food and traditional medicine.

Table 7: Faunal resources used for food and medicine

S/no Name Habitat Utilisation Processing Present status1. Termites All vegetation - eaten ordinarily-

eater with mainmeals

- dewingedmechanically- fried in drypots

- destruction oftermite pronds foraustricth or farminghas reduced theavailability of thismeat product.

2. Antelope - Forest- Savannah

- eaten ordinarily- eaten with mainmeals

- roastingcooking- frying

- population grosslyreduced partly due toharsh economicconditions.

21

- deforestation3. Rodents - Forest

- Savannah- eaten ordinarily- eaten with mainmeals

- roastingcooking- frying

depleted due tohunting

4. grasshoppers - Forest Zone- Savannah Zone

- eaten ordinarily - roasting - occurrence reduced

7. Periwinkles Freshwater swaningmangrove

- eaten with mainmeals

- shelling- cooking

- Oil spillage pollutionof the water bodies inthe coastal areas hasadversely affect theavailability of theseproducts.

8. Crustaleaus - mangrove- Fresh water

- eaten ordinarily- eaten in mainmeals

- cooking- extraction

depleting due tohabitat destruction

9. Molluscs &fishes

mangroveFresh water swamp

- eaten ordinarily- eaten in mainmeals

- extraction fromshell and- cooking

depleting due to oilpollution in the habitat

10. Pungoline mangrove eaten as bushmeat

- de-skinning- cooking- roasting


11. Gazellarufirom

Sudan Savannah Bushmeat Cooking Depleting

12. CephlophusSpp (duiker)Veranusnifofica(monitorlizard)Phacochoerusaethiopicus(warthog)Xerus spp(grandsquirrel)pelecanusonocro

Sudan Savannahand GuineaSavannah

food roastingcooking

Birds, include:Peleconusonocrotalus (pelican)Numida meleagris(guinea fowl) choriotiskori (bustard)Francholinus sppfishes like T.lepiatilapia Protoptemusannectens (Tungfish)melapterurus sp (catfish) insects likegrasshopper.

13. Monkeys Forest eaten as meatordinarily and inmeals

- roastingcooking- spraying


14. Tortoise Forest/Savannah Medicine roasting cooking

depleting

15. Pakara Guinea Savannah food roasting depleting16. Oysters

(dams)Mangrove forest food roasting

cookingShellfish in valveswith fix firmly on rootsof mangrove bees.

17. Crabs Forest food roasting depleting18. Mudskipper Mangrove food roasting

cookingFishes living inmuddy waters

22

19. Ediblecaterpillar ofBeetle

Mangrove larvae eatenbefore it changesto adult

roasting Becoming scarce dueto destruction ofraphia vegetation

20. snakes fresh water swampforest

eaten as meat roasting cooking

depleting

21. ArchachatinaForest species

Swamp food/medicine cooking depleting

Table 7: The utilization of the African giant land snail (Archachatina marginata) for traditionalmedicine

Parts of thebody used

Uses in traditional medicine Uses in traditionalculture/region

Fluid * Cure of headache* Prepared in concoction for curing newbabies’ sickness

* Cure of malaria* Used for blood clotting during circumcisionand to stop bleeding in a cut or wound.

* Treatment of dysentery* Suppression of high blood pressure.* To cure eye problems* Cure of small -pox

* Sacrific to idols ofiron(ogun) idols of oracle(ifa) and thunder (sango)* Sacrifice during New yam

festival

Shell * Treatment of dysentery* Treatment of stomach-ache* Anti-rheumatic* Storage of magical charms and against bodypains

* Used for festival (ovosunin Ondo State).

Meat * Used to prepare talisman for protection* Treatment of infertility in woman* Cure of convulsion in new babies* Treatment of bone fracture.* Cure of anaemic patient

* To ward off evil spirits.* To appease the gods.

Sources: Agbelusi and Ejidike (1990), Osemeobo (1992a).

The utilization of faunal products is clearly based on small part utilization-skins, claws, feathers,bones, faeces, scales, fur and others. Despite this however, some animals are specificallyhunted for traditional medicine, particularly for protective, curative and magical powers.

Fodder

Fodder and forage are used to support livestock –cattle, sheep, goats, donkey and camel – inthe dry season. In the savannah zones, most trees and shrubs shed their leaves, the annualgrasses die-off and the perennial grasses dry up and the vegetation is burnt thereby leaving the

23

animals with little or nothing to eat. However, the plant parts such as new flush of leaves,flowers and fruits often produced in the dry season are rich in proteins, vitamins and minerals(NAERLS, 1992).

The list of fodder species is given in Table 8. Fodder is harvested in the natural environmentsthrough: (i) selective cutting of leafy parts, flowers and fruits of shrubs and trees. (ii)Pruning ofshrubs and trees which are suitable for livestock. (iii) Pollarding of tree crowns. However, theharvesting of fodder from the natural forests is through common property utilization. Theharvesting of some species such as Afzelia africana, Khaya senegalensis and Daniellia oliveriare often abused thereby causing reduction in the population of saplings and seedlings fornatural regeneration (Osemeobo,1996).

Table 8: Fodder species in Nigeria

Types Scientific names Habitat Processingmethod

Status

1 Acacia albida Savannah - M2 Acacia niotica " - M3 Acacia raddiana " drying M4 Acacia senegal " - M5 Acacia tortilis " drying M6 Adansonia digitata " - M7 Afzelia africana " - S8 Albizia Zysia Forest/Savannah - S9 Anogeissus leiocarpus Savannah drying S10 Anona Senegalensis " - S11 Balanites aegyptiaca " - S12 Borassus eathiopium " - S13 Ceiba pentandra Forest/Savannah drying S14 Danellia oliveri Savannah - M15 Detarium Microcarpum " drying M16 Diosyros Mespiliformis " " S17 Ficus capensis " " M18 Ficus polita Savannah " S20 Isoberlina doka " - S21 Khaya senegalensis " - M22 Nauclea latifolia Savannah - M23 Gardenia terifolia " drying S24 Newbouldia laevis " drying M25 Parkia biglobosa " - M26 Prosopis africana " - M

Trees/shrubs

27 Prosopis julifera " - M

24

28 Spondia mobin Forest - M29 Strychnos innocua Savannah - M30 Tamarindus indica " - M31 Vitex doniana " - M32 Uapaka togoensis " - M1 Vetivera nigritana " drying M2 Pennisetum purpureum " " M3 Endiochoa pyranidalis " " M4 Bracharia spp " " S5 Canchrus tremula " " S6 Eragiostis tremula " " S7 Pennisetum predicellatum " " S8 Diectomis fastigiata " " M9 Otenium elegans " " M10 Audropogon gayanus " " S11 Avistida congiflora " " S12 Hyparrhenia rufa " " M13 Imperata cylindrica " " S

Grasses

14 Sporobulus spp " " M

Notes on Species Status M = moderate, S = scarceSources: NAERLS 1992, Osemeobo 1996

Subsistence fodder production is being carried out in the savannah ecozones on farms andhomestead gardens. Most of the cultivated species are exotic and they are often used as livefences in homes and in gardens (NAERLS,1992).

Other non-wood products

Traditional culture

The traditional culture refers to community activities in the form of ceremonies and festivalswhich utilize NWFP. The common NWFP used to promote the traditional culture include:

• skins of antelopes, crocodiles, monitor lizard and photon for drums and other musicalinstruments;

• seeds of Cana indica, and Etanda gigas for musical purposes;• kola for sacrifice and prayers - Cola accuminata, C. nitida and Garcinia kola;• palm wine for traditional ceremonies, festivals and relaxation.

Natural Dyes - The common species from which dyes are derived from are presented in Table9. Dyes are used for clothes, body decorations and for masquerades. In some cultures, all

25

participants in cultural festivals must be decorated (Igho and Otu festivals in Otuo and IruokeEdo state). Also in some other cases, the clothes worn by priests are also decorated.

Both leaves and bark of plants are used to extract dyes. In some plants, fruits and seeds areused to extract dyes –Pterocapus osun and Harungana madacascariensis. The women whocultivate the plants producing dyes are now planting them in gardens and around homes toavoid their extinction.

Toxins - Toxins are popular with inland fishermen. They are used as fish poison among smallholders who catch for the family. Large scale deforestation practices is posing a serious threatto the in situ conservation of the plants in Table 9.

Gum/tanning - Gum production and tanning are derived from three main savannah speciesgiven in Table 9. However, in the rainforest areas, domestic gum is derived from Khayagrandifolia and is used for traditional medicine and other cultural uses.

Wrapping leaves - Wrapping leaves are used to preserve Cola nitida and C. accuminata. Othersare used to store food items and to sell food items like moi-moi, eko, meat, akara etc. The list ofwrapping leaves is in Table 9.

Mat Weaving - Table 10 presents major plant materials used for weaving for domestic andcommercial purposes. Mat weaving is a major rural industry in the savannah area where matscommonly used to demarcate homesteads for privacy among family units.

Table 9: Sources of various NWFP, Nigeria

Present statusTypes Scientific names Habitat Processingmethod Social Ecological

1 Mytragina ciliata. Forest Drying R M 2 Eremospath Wendlandiana " " R M 3 Isoberlina doka Savannah " R S 4 Imperata Cylindrica " " R M 5 Raphia regalis Forest " R S

Thatchedmaterials

6 Mytragina ledermannii " " R M 1 Megaphynium macrostachyum " R M 2 Thaumatococcus danielli Drying R S 3 Sarcophrynium brachystachys " " R M 4 Pandanus candelabrum " " R M

Mat weaving

5 Marantochloa euspidata " " R M 1 Acacia nilotica Savannah Grading N M 2 Acacia Senegal " " N M 3 Acacia seyal " " N M

Gum

4 Acacia tortilis " " N MAcacia nilotica " " N M

1 Megaphrynium mahostchyum Forest Grading N MThinningLeaves forfoodwrapping 2 Thaumatococius danieli Forest " N S

26

3 Sarcophrynium pionogonim " " N S 4 Mitragyna ciliata " " L S 5 Cola nitida " " L M 1 Pterocarpus Soyauxii " Leaves R M 2 Pterocarpus erinaceus " " R S 3 Baphia nitida " Bark R S 4 Rothmania whitfieldii " wood R S 5 Lawsonia inermis " leaves R S 6 Anonidium mannii " leaves L S 7 Bixa orellana " Root L S 8 Hurungana madacascariensis " leaves L S 9 Pterocarpus Osum " " L S 10 Cyanastrum cordifolium " " L S 11 Lonchocarpus cyanedeens " " L S

Natural Dyes

12 Rothmanis hispida Forest/Savannah

" L S

1 Adenia lobata Forest Fish poison L A 2 Entandrophragma angdense " " " A 3 Albizia ferruginea " " L A4 Cassia alata " " L A5 Enythrophdoem ivorensis

iwrensis " " L M

6 Omphalocapum elatum " " L M7 Olax gambecola " " L S8 Raurofia vomitoria " " L M

Toxins

9 Strychnos aculata " " L M

Notes on Species Status(a) social status R = Regional, L = Locatized, N = National, M = Medium(b) Ecological status S = Scarce, M = Medium, A = AbundantSources: Various

2.3 Non-timber products

The woody but non–timber products play a central part in the socio- cultural and economic life ofrural Nigerians. They are often used for household utensils, carvings agricultural tools,chewsticks and musical instruments. The main product is fuelwood.

Chewsticks

In terms of volume of wood content, chewsticks are the most expensive wood in Nigerianforests. The widely used plants for chewsticks are given in Table 10. These species areintensively harvested in the rainforests zones of Edo, Ondo, Oyo, Ekiti and Osun states. Thecommon species used as chewsticks and medicine include the roots of:

27

• Vernonia amygdalins, Securinega virosa - for gaining appetite;• Citropis articulata, Alafia barteri - for rheumatic pains;• Fagara tessmannii, Fagara macrophylla – for sickle cell anemia and malaria;• Xylopia aethiopica Aristolochia ringens - for stomach disorders.

These species improve the health of the teeth and prevent snake bites.

Household utensils

Household utensils include baskets, trays, mortar and pestles, stools etc. Major speciesproducing the items are in Table 10. Other household utensils are constructed from rattans –Ancistrophyllum, Eremospatha and Onchoealanus. Other NWFP used for carving andagricultural tools, music and arts are in Table10.

From NWFP, many objects used in rural households are derived. Depending on the scale ofproduction of these objects, they find their way into the rural economy starting with displays invillage markets. The objects range from carved woody parts of species from which the leaves,fruits, nuts, flowers, and bark are also useful to man. Some species are reported to yield asmany as ten objects per species.

Table 10: NWFP which yield household and market objects

S/no. Name Habitat Utilisation Processing Present status1. Bambussa

VilgainsMangroveforests

stem used in ruralconstruction of hutsand fences

cutting of stemand leavesremoval


2. Raphia SPPOrnathensisdecoration forties etc. broomsetc.

Fresh watermangrove

Parts of the plantused to make ropes- Thatch roofingmaterials for ruraldwellings- Mats- wrapping leaves- poles used forconstruction ofladders, musicalinstrumentsfastening hooks,fishing nets

Special skillsare used ingetting outropes, that isproduced fromthe leaves aswell as mats

Depleting due todeforestation

3. PanadanusCandelabrum

Mangrove - Mats are madefrom the leaves

- extraction andshaping of theleaves


4. Elaeisguineensin- fibre from fruitin- fuel for cookingand sponge- baskets andropes are madefrom the fronds

Forest- Savannah

Parts used asfollowing- Stem used asbuilding poles ofrural houses- midribs of leafletsused in makingrooms- The infruction is

- Stem hole iscut into shapes- knives areused in clearingthe midribs forbroompreparation.- The infructionis smoked into

- depleting due todeforestation- Exists in farms- Itsresearch instituteexists in the country

28

used in preparingnative potash- The potash and itsoil are used inmaking nature(black) soaps- oil from kernel isused as skin oil

ash- cooking of theash and the oilyields the soap

5. Rathus (cane)Fremospatha SpLaccospernasecundi

Mangrove - Mainly used forcane chair making

- scraping(beautifying) ofthe sticks


6. Marantaiesefamily

moist forest wood sponge - pounding tobreak up fibrebundles

scarce

7. Lufta cylindrica Forest Savannah - Fruit pod used assponge for bathingand washing

- Reword of theother skin- Extraction ofthe seeds

Not planted. Anannual plant butProduces lots ofseeds, prevalent

8. Mitragyina Spp moist forest - as wood sponge -leaves for wrapping

- depluckingfrom stems andbranches


9. Tectons grandus moist forest Leaves forwrapping

deplucking ofleaves

- exotic spp- sometimes occursin natural forests

10. Isoberlinia dolka GuineaSavannah

Thatch material forroofing of huts

deplucking ofleaves

habitat destruction

11. Sida Sp GuineaSavannah

- ropes gutematerial

- scarce

12. Fandherbisalbida

SudanSavannah

- wood creed incarrying- mortar- pestle

- Splitting of thestem andshaping usingspecialimplements

depleting due tohabitat loss

13. Rhizopora SppAvicennia african

Mangrove - Fuelwood- Seattold roles- nature salt- jise- mollusc(periwinkle andclam)- shrimps

- depleting due tohabitat destructionand oil pollution.

14. Nypa fruiticons Mangrove forest used to produceMATS

-

15. Pahdannacandelabrum

Mangrove mats production -

16. PterocarpalsOsun

Forest Cosmetic powder Pounded intopowder andmixed with littlewater

Rarely seen. Treenot planted longrotation species

29

17. Erythroughleumsuaveoleums

Moist forestfresh waterswamp

- to carve objectslike- cooking ladle- mortar- pestle

- cutting of thewood- use of specialimplements incaving

- dwindling due tomachy hawest ofthe species to makemoney

18. Prosopisafricana

Savannah mortar restle carving abundance

19. Kayansenegalensis

GuineaSavannah

- for constructingbed, furniture

sawing anddrying

loss of habitat

20. Ceiba pentandra GuineaSavannah

Inner fruit stuff areaas mattress stuffing

drying of fruits loss of habitat

21. Adansoniadigitata

SudanSavannah

- Ropes areproduced

- lack of regeneration

22. PitiostigmaThonningi

Savannah Household furniture sawingcarving

over cutting of trees

23. Gtanda gigas forest - carry mortar- pestle- wooden dish- beds stand

carving depleting

24. Balanitesaegyptiaca

Savannah carrying pestle- Food mixer- wood bunt togenerate chariot

carving depleting

25. Anogeisusleiocarpus

Savannah - wood used toproduce poles

carving abundant

26. Crocatacrocuta(spottedhyaena)

Savannah - hides and skinsproduced

_ depleting

27. Red frontedgazella, quikerand monitorlizards

Savannah hides and skinsproduced

- depleting

28. Apis mellifera Savannah - Wax- honey

- abundant

29. Lonchocarpuscyamedeans

Forest Dye for clothes Pounded andsoaked in waterto extract dye

Perennial shrubsnot planted

30. Dialiumguineense

Forest mortar pestle carving depleting

The Raphia species obtained mainly from the mangrove/fresh water swamp forests can yieldropes, thatching materials (leaves and ropes), mats, wrapping leaves, poles used forconstruction, scaffolds, musical instruments, fastening hooks, fishing nets, cones used forholding house-blinds and ornaments for decoration and holding of ties, brooms etc.

Faidherbia albida wood from the sudan savannah vegetation are used to carve mortar andpestle. Sclerocarya birrea and Balanites aegyptiaca wood are used also for carving cookingutensils as well as bed stands and furniture. Dyes for clothes and cosmetic powders areobtained from Lonchocarpus cyanescens and Pterocarpus osun respectively.

30

Fuelwood

Virtually all species of shrubs and trees are used as fuelwood. Fuelwood is collected fromcultivated and uncultivated areas in all the ecozones. Fire-wood collection is an occupation ofmen, children and women. The main fuel-wood species of commercial significance are:Anogiessus leocarpus, Tamarindus indica, Parkia biglobosa, Diospyros mespiliforms, Prosopisafricana, Eutyrospermum paradoxum, Isoberlina doka, Piliostigma reticulata, Balanitesaehyptica, Combretum micranthum Moringa dolifera. Ceiba pentanda, Ficus sycomirus, Acaciaalbida, A. nilotica, Guiera albida, G. senegalensis, Pterocarpus erinaceous, Acacia senegalAfzelia africana etc.

2.4 Some important flora species of NWFP

Gnetum africana

This is a plant of the moist forests but occurs in the drier terrains of this forest zone. It's mainproduct is its leafy vegetables which is cherished for making various vegetable soups amongstthe people of South Eastern Nigeria. But it occurs in markets of the major vegetation zones ofthe country starting from Sapele in the mangrove forest to Maiduguri and Kano in the sudansavannah. The tariff reported on collection of G. africana in some states of Nigeria is aboutN4,000 per annum (FORMECU, 1994).

Irvingia gabonensis

Out of 171 indigenous woody plants of economic importance identified by Okafor (1980), withinthe forest zone of Nigeria, Irvingia gabonensis ranks amongst five principal fruit trees whichoccur in traditional farms as compared to natural forests. The people's urge to ensure the supplyof these cherished species is the main reason for the occurrence of the species in compoundfarms. I. gabonensis occurs in the forest zone as bush mango. This is because the fruits of onevariety are eaten in addition to the cotyledon being used as a soup condiment. In the guineasavannah zone the species is recognized mainly because of its cotyledons. Irvingia gabonensisI fruits and cotyledons are observed to occur in markets of different ecological zones in Nigeria.Notably, they have been observed to occur in locations like Sapele (Mangrove zone), Benin andEnugu (moist forest zone), Makurdi (guinea savannah) and Maiduguri and Kano (Sudansavannah zone). The 1994 tariff payable on collection of Irvingia fruits in Cross River and Benuestates are N3,000 per annum for the former and N25 per season for the latter, (FORMECU,1994).

Gum Arabic

Gum arabic is produced by four species of the Sudan savannah zone of northern Nigeria. Treespecies that produce gum arabic are notably Acacia senegal, Acacia seyal, Acacia raddianaand Acacia arabic. The species which are drought resistant produce different grades of gum(gum arabic). The gum is extracted during the dry season and is used for medicinemanufacture, for confectioneries and the textile industry.

31

The wood of the species is hard and is used for carrying agricultural implements used by thepeople of the zone. The leaves also serve as fodder. A recent report (FORMECU, 1997)indicated that a family can harvest about N80,000 (eighty thousand naira) worth of gum arabicper annum. This achievement depends on the number of individuals that work for the family.Gum arabic is marketed, not only locally but exported and there are some organizedcommercial enterprises that deal in it.

Shea Butter

Vitellaria paradoxa, the species that produce shea butter grow in the guinea and sudansavannah vegetation zones. The nuts from this species are processed by women usingtraditional methods into oil, fat and meal. The extracted oil is used domestically for consumption.The fat is used for medicinal purpose while the meal is used for feeding livestock. It is used inagroforestry systems by local farmers. The products are available for about 2 to 3 months of theyear.

Balanites aegyptiaca

This is a common species of the sudan savannah, often occurring in clusters. The wood issuitable for handcraft carvings for household use. The villagers use it to carve pestle, foodmixerand handles of hoes and axes. The wood is also good for charcoal production.

The fruits, the leaves and the seed or nut are useful products to the communities, beingconsumed by humans. The leaves also serve as fodder. Parts of the species are used fortraditional medicine by the people. Recognition of this species for these purposes is mainly inthe savannah zone. Revenue generated by communities in the sudan zone collecting the fruitsof this species is above N10,000 (ten thousand naira) per annum.

32

3 Analysis of consumption and trade of non-wood forest products

Consumption patterns of NWFP

The consumption patterns of NWFP in the country has been estimated to be between 10–30%for household materials. These exclude gum arabic, rattan canes, chewsticks and palmwinewhich are essentially produced for the market (Okafor, et al 1994). By implication therefore, thebulk of the NWFP are produced for the market either at local, regional or national levels. Theconsumption of NWFP is influenced by many socio-ecocultural factors. These include:

Taboos

Taboos classified wild biotic resources into two broad categories: holy and unholy(Osemeobo,1994).The so called holy species are used by man to meet his daily needs. Theutilization of NWFP at the local level is guided by myths and legends. Changes in religion fromtraditional to Christianity and Islam have changed the use pattern of NWFP(Osemeobo,1992d).Therefore the significance of taboos in NWFP utilization, though it is weak,it has been significant in reducing pressure in the overuse and abuse in NWFP at local level.

Social acceptance

Social acceptance of a resource determined the status of consumption at local, regional andnational levels. Over 60% of the total NWFP is consumed at the local level while about 20% isconsumed at the regional level and 18-20% is consumed at the national level. The socialacceptance of NWFP is also influenced by taboos, religious and cultural practices. The factorsaffect the non acceptance of the use of snails and monkeys for food in the savannah zones.Moreover the fruits of Irvingia gabonensis are not fully accepted in the savannah areas andAdansonia digitata is not also accepted in the rainforest areas.

Some NWFPs, such as chewsticks, palm oil, rattan canes Parkia biglobosa, the oil palm andrattan cane have attained national acceptance status. This is principally so because theresources do not have any socio- cultural factors limiting their use and the resources occur inmost of the ecozones in the country. In areas where the resources do not occur , foreign onesare in use. It means the ones available are inferior in quality to those imported from other areas(Osemeobo,1998).

Level of resource utilization

The diversity of resource utilization and the use importance of a resource to humanity are twofactors affecting their consumption. This is applicable to the consumption of the oil palm used toproduce wine, edible oil, industrial oil, mats, brooms, baskets, soap, fodder, traditional medicinethatched roof and others (Osemeobo, 1999).

Because Afromomum melagueta is used as a common denominator in traditional medicine, it isconsumed in all the ecozones. NWFP that are used in wrapping food , roofing houses, design ofmasquerades, rituals, etc., are of high demand in rural and urban areas. The volume ofresource exploitation and utilization over time highly affect the status of the resources in naturalecosystems.

33

Tenure issues

It has been said that NWFP outside government protected forests are managed under commonproperty regimes. The resources are managed under sets of regulations based on beliefs,traditional culture and ecological knowledge. Tenure issues which affect access to resources,mode of resource exploitation and utilization determine the level of resource utilization. NWFPare managed by the application of free access, open access, restricted access and closedseason user rights. These factors affect access to exploitation and control the abuse andmisuse of NWFP.

Level of demand

The demands for NWFP vary among the various end uses. The products produced specificallyfor the market such as gum arabic, rattan canes and soap generally attract high marketdemand. In this instance, the population of consumers influence the volume of resourceutilization.

Some NWFPs that are consumed on a daily basis like fuel-wood, palm oil, chewsticks,vegetables and wine have high consumption rates. The seasonally produced resources such asfruits, mushrooms, nuts and thatch material is less than those produced in all seasons of theyear.

Consumption of NWFP

Forest foods

Forest foods are defined as consumable materials from the wild. These include leaves, seeds,nuts, saps, roots, tubers, honey, bushmeat mushrooms, fruits and others. Some of the productsare eaten raw while others are processed in various forms through boiling, drying and othermethods. Poverty among rural communities has increased the volume of forest foodconsumption. The volume of forest food consumption varies between 50-65% of the total fooditems extracted from the forests. The balance of between 35-50% is produced for the market.

Medicinal plants

The consumption of medicinal plants as food items in the Savannah areas of Nigeria wasdocumented by Etkin and Ross (1994). The conclusions from the study were that: (a) almost allplants in the wild used as food also appear in the list of plants used for traditional medicine, (b)because plants play dual roles, they were abundant in the hitherto populated and heavilycultivated areas and (c)the conservation of the species was ensured by the two user groupsthrough cultivation.

In the south-west of Nigeria, Osemeobo (1998) found the consumption of NWFP varied in termsof volume of products. The percentages of volume of consumption varied from 22.4 inhousehold energy through 17.3 in cultural items, 16.4 in construction, 15.6 in food security, 12.3in farm utensils, 9.7 in small scale industries and 6.3 in traditional medicine.

34

Fodder

Fodder is consumed in the livestock industry. The fodder produced in the savannah areasaccount for about 10–15% of the total number of livestock food in the savannah areas in the dryseason. The drier parts of the country with less rainfall have the lowest biomass production. Yetthe savannah areas host over 90% of livestock of the total numbers of foraging animals in thecountry (Osemeobo, 1996).

Other NWFP

The consumption of a majority of NWFP is both by the market and the household. These NWFPare grouped into three including:

• Market consumption – chewsticks, gum arabic. Rattan canes, tanning.• Household and market consumption – fuelwood, dyes, wrapping leaves, thatched materials.• Household consumption – flavours, toxins, decorations (Rothmanis hispida), mat leaves etc.

3.3 Trade in NWFP

Trade in NWFP is organised at three levels. These are at village, urban (regional) and nationallevels (Osemeobo, 1993). At the village level, exploiters of NWFP sell them to kiosks and byhawking. On market days, urban buyers purchase the products wholesale for the urban areas.At the urban areas, retailers buy from the wholesalers and the products are distributed to nooksand corners of the urban environment. The products for export are marketed at the nationallevel. The products of national significance are gum arabic, skins of wild animals and spices.The issues arising from trade in NWFP are marketing, specialization in marketing of products,prices of items and income from NWFP.

At least two species are reputedly known to provide chewsticks with medicinal properties. Theseare Massularia acuminats and Garcinia spp. These chewsticks also serve as tooth brush andpaste. Reports from Ugarga, Cross River State of Nigeria (a major producer of chewsticks)indicated that the production of chewsticks start from extraction of billets of the tree species totransportation from deforests to the billet-cutting workshops. In the workshop, the billets are cutinto different sizes. Varying sizes of the billets attract varying prices. Generally the shorter thebillet the higher the cost. Slicing and smoothing the billets into chewsticks with additional dryingin the sun mark the end of the production (FORMECU, 1997).

Marketing of NWFP

Extraction of NWFP is a subject for rural communities whose livelihood patterns are dependenton forest products. The poor infrastructures in rural areas, such as roads, create difficulties intransportation thereby reducing prices paid for NWFP. Therefore the urban traders make moregains than the rural exploiters of NWFP.

The exploiters of NWFP hardly sell the products in urban areas because of many factorsincluding (i) lack of capital to buy and transport the products to urban areas. (ii) Extraction of theproducts in piecemeal hence the services of middlemen is required to buy the products in bulkto urban areas. (iii) Difficulties of establishing the business in urban areas where products

35

attract higher demands and market prices because funds are required to rent store, and employhelpers. (iv) Difficulties of meeting the demands of various forest products sellers associationsin urban areas. For example there are different associations for sellers of bushmeat, fuel-wood,medicinal products and palm wine.

Specialization in marketing

Gender specialization is pronounced in the marketing of NWFP. At all levels of marketing, men,women and children are either separately or collectively involved as followings:

• men – marketing of rattan canes, carvings, gum arabic, agricultural and household tools;• women – marketing of leaves, fruits, nuts, seeds, bulbs, dyes, medicinal materials;• men and women -- marketing of palmwine, charcoal, bushmeat;• children – marketing of chewsticks, mushrooms, vegetables.

In most cases, about 80% of the volume of available NWFP are marketed by women in bothurban and rural areas. The factors which determine the suitable marketers are volume of trade,labour intensive nature of trade, specialization in handling the products, social prestige, culturalfactors and capital requirements.

Prices of NWFP

The price of NWFPs are lower in local areas that are centres of collection than in urban areasbecause of added transportation costs, market fees and storage costs. The low prices of NWFPreflect the low capital inputs involved in the extraction, processing and storage of NWFP.Moreover, the low prices indicate that NWFP are central to the occupation of the people.

The prices of NWFP are not stable. The prices are lower in the seasons and high during the off-seasons. Over 25% of the total volume of perishables like fruits, bushmeat, nuts, seeds andvegetables are lost during marketing due to preservation and storage problems. In products thatare preserved for over 6 months, their prices are determined by the economics of supply anddemand. These include the seeds of Parkia biglobosa, Garcinia kola and Irvingia grandifolia.

Income from NWFP

Table 11 presents the estimates of annual costs of producing NWFP per household in ruralareas. The data shows that the average household extracts the products from the forests. It alsoshows that one household does not engage in all the various activities. Moreover, the data inTable 11 show that extraction of NWFP is a specialised occupation.

Table 12 presents the gross income derived from selected NWFP in four ecozones. From thedata, the highest income was derived from the sudan savannah followed by the southernsavannah and the moist forest. The data in Table 12 showed that income from gum arabic,periwinkle and rattan canes were the highest in the country.

Export of NWFP

36

Buying and selling of NWFP is central to the economic life of rural Nigerians. However, becauseof issues of seasonality and high variance of biological reproduction in the ecozones, pricesfluctuate enormously. In addition, export products often attract government intervention in fixingprices and hence income stabilization. The channelling of export products through the marketingparastaters lead to low farm-gate prices to the benefit of exporting agents.

Inadequate data on the volume of products extracted and the unstable prices of the productsmake aggregate analysis of financial benefits of products difficult. The prices of export productsare generally affected by the actions of the buyer rather than those of the producers. This isbecause the buyers fix the standards of products, dictate prices, determine volume of exportcommodities and locations of exporting the products.

Some of the export products which were of significance in the past are no longer acceptable inthe international market. For example Kapok (natural cotton from Bombax costatum) which wasthe second important export product to gum arabic in the decades of 1914 to 1919 is no longeran export commodity in the country.

Table 11. Nigeria: Financial estimates of annual costs of production of non-wood forest productsfor the market per household

Major NWFP Quantityextracted

Extractioncost per

annum =n=

Processingcost per

annum =n=

Marketed costper annum

=n=

Totalcost=n=

Fuelwood 985 m3 1 295 - 1 295 1 295Wildlife 5 620 kg 6 200 - 440 6 640Oil palm 432 litres 410 180 20 610Rattan 2 340 m3 200 6 552 - 65 720Chewstick 600billets 23 280 - 1 648 24 928Palmwine 4 113 kg - 2 057 - 2 057Irvingia gabonensis 52 kg 600 - - 600Parkia seeds 500 kg 1 250 250 - 1 500Mushroom 1 600 kg 2 000 - - 2 000Shea butter 42 kg 500 - - 500Fodder 450 kg 560 - - 560Gum arabic (Acaciasenegal)

28 kg 1 500 - 350 1 850

Vegetables (kuka) 75 kg 360 - - 360Source: Okafor et al., 1994.

37

Table 12. Nigeria: Estimate of average annual gross income from NWFPs by households in majorecozones

Eco-zone Major NWFPs Unit price (N)

Quantity Marketed(million)

Revenue(N million)

MangroveSwamp

FuelwoodWildlife (periwinkle)Native salt

6/m3

5/Kg 15/Kg

714.78 m3

8,872.00Kg 3.20 Kg

4,289 44,360

48 48,697

MoistForest

Palm OilRattan CanesChewsticksPalm wineIrvingia gabonensisWildlife (numbers)

11/litre 35/m3

56/billet 4/litre

230/kg 250/each

27.47 litre446.47 m3

57.24 billet1412.68 litre

2.86 kg 4.96 (number)

302 15,626 3,205 5,651

658 1,240

26,682

SouthernGuinea

FuelwoodParkia seedsMushroomsWildlife (numbers)Shea butter

20/m3 20/kg 10/kg

65/each 33/kg

32.42 m3 51.70 kg 7.60 kg

4.85 (number) 4.52 kg

648 1,030

76 315 149

2,222

SudanSavannah

FuelwoodVegetable (Kuka)Fodder (A.albida)Parkia SeedsGum arabic (A.Senegal)

80/m3 10/kg 2/kg

20/kg 1,622/kg

15.00 m3 53.57/kg 96.50 kg 38.86 kg 60.00 kg

1,200 538 193 777

97,320========

177,627=========

Source: Okafor et ab (1994)

4 Constraints in statistical data collection

Constraints

Since the reservation era in Nigeria, data collection for NWFP has been undesirablycompressed and less instructive. This has been because NWFP have been treated as minorforest products and they are not subjects of GDP calculations hence they were treated withlevity. Apart from wildlife management for which six National parks were established in 1991,theNWFP has not received adequate attention and consequently the resource has not generatedmuch statistical data.

38

The main constraints in statistical data collection are as follows:

1. Lack of enthnobiological survey on NWFP - The focus of national surveys in forestry (in1975 and 1995) on merchantable timber resources and changes in the natural vegetation.As of today, there are no adequate data on the forest resources in terms of types, habitats,uses and population of forest resources.

2. Inadequate research on NWFP - Research into the habitats availability and in situconservation of NWFP is not adequate. However, attempts have been focused on speciesof plants and wild animals including Parkia biglobosa, Irvingia gabonensis and Vitelariaparadoxica. Data cannot be effectively generated without research into the biology, ecologyand utilization of NWFP.

3. Level of forest management - The management of forests has been at a low ebb since thedecades of 1980s due to poor funding and overexploitation of the forests by governmentand rural communities. The scientific instruments used in the management of the forestshave broken down the work plans pre-logging assessments and protection patrols are nolonger in vogue. The management of forests is practically based on the rule of the thumb.Therefore no adequate records are kept on resource exploitation, yet management attentionis focused mainly on timber harvest.

4. High rate of poaching - A major set-back in data collection is high rate of poaching. Factorssuch as land tenure, inadequate benefit sharing from protected forests between land ownersand government and poverty among rural dwellers have led to high rate of poaching onforest resources. Poaching on resources does not favour data collection.

5. Mode of resource exploitation - Because NWFP are treated as common property they areexploited on a daily occurrence. Outside protected areas, NWFP are exploited free of costs.In these circumstances no records are kept on the resources.

6. Information loss - Apart from the natural causes of information loss like bush fire,deforestation conversion from one type of vegetation to another adversely affects datacollection of NWFPs. For instance, studies on a forest reserve in South West Nigeriarevealed that 85% of the farmers agreed that use of non-native trees for afforestation isaffecting the prevalence of some medicinal herbs, shrubs and lianias such as the localsponge plant (Momordica angustisepala). Faunal NWFP prevalence is also affected byplantation establishment especially the semi sedentary animals such as snails, tortoise andother slow reptiles whose locomotor rate are low and so easily captured in case of forestfires or forest degradation.

7. Inadequate marketing strategies - Marketing of NWFP usually follows an irregular flowpattern. The products are local resource which are sold or marketed almost as soon as theyare collected, or when they are transported to the local markets.

8. Poor storage facilities - Some factors have been adduced to 'quick' selling of thesecommodities. The major one is lack of storage facilities (proper and improper ones), lack ofexpertise to handle the goods by locals to avoid deterioration quickly, lack of awareness onthe potential or the need not to sell quickly these items, but to gradually sell in order tosatisfy the ever-hungry situation in the local habitats does not leave room for proper or

39

gradual trading of these commodities to ensure sustainability. This does not ensure a goodmarketing strategy.

9. Seasonal availability - Seasonal availability results in non-steady supply of the productsmainly, because processing and storage technologies especially for perishable products,are inadequate.

10. Government policies - Deficiencies in equipment and funding due to improper planning andcost of activities contribute to inefficient data collection on NWFP. Government policies onforestry usually centres on timber production. As a result, NWFPs contribution to theeconomy is overlooked. This led to poor or loose documentation of these products.

11. Poor legislation - An equivalent legislation given to timber should be extended to NWFP,since it can be argued that neither of these two is superior to the other in importance. Theyhave their various attributes but complement each other in the nation's economy.

12. Relationship between government and the people - Deficiencies in government support andconflicts between local people and forest managers for forest land and forest resourceexploitation contributes to destruction of NWFP. Some issues peculiar to the ecologicalzones which may affect data generation and collection include ecological and humanaspects. In the mangrove vegetation, the threat posed by the rapidly expanding colonies ofEichornia crassipes (water hyacinth) poses a problem to the conservation and utilization ofbiodiversity in the mangrove.

Destructive methods are used by the locals to harvest native salt from mangrove trees.Development and conservation programmes in NWFP in the forest zone are hampered byhigh rate of urbanization, extensive farming systems, high population growth, intensivelogging and use of destructive methods in exploitation of forest produce e.g. uprooting ofGnetum spp and intensive collection and cracking of fruits of Irvingia gabonensis. Theseactions do not permit natural regeneration. The sudan savannah experiences over grazingand over exploitation of firewood which lead consequently to the decline in the supply ofNWFP.

4.2 Steps for improvement of NWFP in Nigeria

Intensive research

Known or existing techniques for propagation should be explored and applied to theseindigenous species to test their propagative or development potentials. Knowledge of thephonological cycles of the species is inevitable to discuss fully their propagation. Improvedmethod of propagation will surely help in establishing these species in ex-situ stands. Later,techniques suitable to each should be adopted for further trials. Initial research work will be tostudy diversity and characterize plants and animals in different ecosystems. Research shouldinclude monitoring environmental degradation and its impact on the supply of NTFP and thecorresponding NTFP harvesting impacts on environmental degradation.

Research can also focus on diversity of utilization of these species. Some of these species arestill under-utilized due to non conversion or improved refining of the products. Research shouldalso look into improved harvesting methods where necessary for the NWFP.

40

Ecological knowledge

Involvement of the communities in all aspects of NWFP conservation. Indigenous knowledge offorest resources has been adduced to communities living in forest vicinities. This knowledge canbe fully tapped if the communities are encouraged to give off their best in forest management.Communities should also be encouraged to engage in ex-situ and in-situ conservation.

Partnership in Forestry Development

Partnership in development of forest resources should be encouraged by the government organresponsible for the natural resources sector.

Training

Training of manpower for data collection on NWFP is necessary. This will help to ensuresustainable availability of data on these products.

Farming systems involvement in NWFP conservation

Encouraging growth of the species in agroforestry plots where possible can help indomesticating the species. This should also involve the animal components. Trials should aim atestablishing stands (monoculture) or mixed forest of the species.

5. Conclusion

It was observed that NWFP are widely used but not fully recognized in the country. Most of theresources do not feature in forest management planning. Yet NWFP provide the main linkbetween the communities living near the forests and the urban areas. This is why in analyzingconstraints to data collection, it was mentioned that communities be involved in themanagement plans. In this way they provide an invaluable tool or asset for managers.Management systems which sustain and develop the value of forests for those living near themwill help to ensure an active local interest in the forest's long-term management.

Information on the status of the major NWFP were conveyed through explanation of the past,present and future trends of consumption, trade and recognition. Finally, the conclusion isreached that in order to promote the NWFP, a convincing case for in situ conservation of thenatural forests as an alternative to forest conversion must be made. In that case, awarenessshould be provided to the basic questions of what products are being used, the rate and mannerof their collection, sustainable consumption levels, who is using and collecting these products,for what purpose and at what economic cost must be fully known.

41

References

Adjanohoun, E et al (1991) Traditional Medicine and Pharmacopoeia : Contribution toEthnobotanical and Floristic Studies in Western Nigeria, 420 PP.

Agbelusi, E.A. and Ejidike, B. N.(1990) Utilization of the African giant land snail (Archachatinamarginata) in the humid area of Nigeria, 8pp

Agboola.S. A. (1979) Agricultural Atlas of Nigeria, Oxford University Press, Ibadan, 148 PP

Davies, A.G. and Richards S. P.(1991) Rainforest in Mende life. A Report to ESCOR, UK,Overseas Development Administration

FORMECU (1995) an assessment of land use and vegetation changes in Nigeria 1978 – 1995.Geomatis, Ontario, Canada.

FORMECU (1997) A Study on Non Timber Forest Products in Wada Taye Forest Reserve ofBorno State.

Etkin, and Ross, P..J. (1994) Pharmacological Implication of Wild Plants in Hausa Diet, TucsonUniversity of Arizona Press pp85-101

FOS (1997) Annual Abstract of Statistics Federal Office of Statistics (FOS) Abuja.477pp

NAERLS (1992) Trees and Shrubs species for fodder in Nigeria. Extension Bulletin 57(3):1-27

Obot, E. A. (1996) Ethnobotanic Survey of Okwangwo Division of Cross River National ParkWorkshop on the Rainforest of South Eastern Nigeria,16pp

Okafor, J.C. (1980) Trees for food and fodder in the savannah areas of Nigeria , TheInternational Tree Crops Journal 1: 131-141

Okafor, J.C. (1987) Development of forest tree crops for food supplies in Nigeria. Forest Ecol.Management 1:235-247

Okafor, J.C. (1989) Agroforestry aspects appendix 2 of Cross River National parks ObanDivision Godalming UK,90pp.

Okarfor, J,C. et al (1994) Non -Timber Forest Products, Nigeria. Tropical Forestry ActionProgramme FORMECU, Fed. Dep. of Forestry, Abuja, Nigeria.

Osemeobo, G. J. (1990) Poaching in wildlife conservation: The experience in Nigeria, TheNigerian Journal of Forestry 20 : 36-40

Osemeobo G.J. (1991) Effects of Common Property Resources Utilization on wildlifeconservation in Nigeria, Geojournal 23:241-148

Osemeobo, G.J. (1992a) Land use issues on wild plant conservation in Nigeria, Journal of Env.Mang. 36: 17-26

42

Osemeobo, G. J. (1992b) Effects of land use and Collection on the Decline of the African GiantSnails in Nigeria, Env. Con. 19: 153-159

Osemeobo, G. J. (1992c) Fuel-wood Exploitation from Natural Ecosystems in Nigeria: Socio-Economic and Ecological Implications, Journal of Rural Development 11:102-108

Osemeobo, G.J. (1992d) Religious Practices and Biotic Conservation in Nigeria: conflict orCompromise? Geojournal 27: 331-338

Osemeobo, G. J. (1993) The Hazards of Rural Poverty: Decline in Common PropertyResources in Nigerian Rainforest Ecosystems , Jour. of Env. Mang.38:201-212

Osemeobo, G. J. (1994) The Role of Folklore in Environmental Conservation Evidence fromEdo State ,Nigeria Int. Jour. of Sustain. Dev.and World Ecology 1:48-55

Osemeobo, G..J. ( 1996) Natural Resources Management and in situ Plant GeneticConservation in Nigerian Arid Zones International Plant Genetic Resources Institute Kenya,144pp

Osemeobo, G, J. (1998) Community Participation in Biodiversity Conservation : a case study ofCommunity Herbal Heritage Center Otun –Ekiti South - west Nigeria, FEPA, Abuja.

Osemeobo, G. J. (1999) An impact Assessment of cultural Practices on in situ Conservation ofOil – palms in Nigeria Nigeria Journal of Forestry : 28 ( in Press)

Salau, A.(1991) Ecology and Economics: Economic Strategies for Natural ResourcesConservation in Nigeria, 8pp

World Bank (1996) Nigeria Poverty in the Mist of Plenty : the Challenge of Growth withinclusion, World Bank Washington D C 129pp

Sofowora, A, (1993) Medical Plants and Traditional Medicine in Africa, Spectrum Books Ltd.,Ibadan.289pp

Ujor, G. C. (1997) The Role and Potentials of Non Timber Products in Nigeria. Workshop onParticipatory Forest Reserve Management Calabar , 18-19 Feb. 1997.

ec-fao partnership programme (1998-2000) the non-wood forest

Documents