Ecology II

RNDr. Sylva Rödlová, Ph.DD1, 2014

Atmosphere structure

• Troposphere – almost all atmospheric phenomenons (clouds, rain, lightning, smog,..) – it reflects part of sunlight back to Earth

• Stratosphere – in upper part is ozone layer

• Mezosphere • Termosphere • Exosphere

• Elements in Atmosphere:• 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, 1%

others

Atmosphere – harmful substances, pollution

Pollution:

1. Greenhouse gases

2. Substances harmfull to ozone layer (chlorofluorocarbon, …)

3. Other harmfull substances- SO2, NO, NO2, ammonia, volatile organic compounds (VOC), …difuse solid substances – dust particles - PM10 (particulated matter, < 10 m), heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), .. …

4. Tropospheric ozone and other oxidants

Exhalation – pollutants in air (journalistic term) Emission – discharge of pollutants from a source (in time unit) Immission – air polluting substances in atmosphere (concentration)

Air pollution• While ambient air quality in Europe improved in several respects

during the last decades of the 20th century, current levels of air pollution do affect public health. They can cause respiratory diseases and reduce life expectancy.

Three major air pollutnats with health effects:• Particulate Matter (PM10, PM5,….)• Ozone • Nitrogen Dioxide

• Black triangle – Czech, German, Poland (formerly) – S and N oxides in air created acids and causedacidification (dead forests – Krušné hory,lakes - Šumava) – acids of S and N

http://www.photoextract.com/cs/foto/58427.html

Atmosphere - pollution

anthropogenic sources of pollutants:

- Thermic power plants (burning fosils marerials)

- Transportation (motor vehicals)

- Industrial production

- Agriculture practices (forest burning, cattle breeding, rice cultivation,…)

- Local furnaces – waste burning

Natural sources of pollutants:

- Dust particles (land without or with very scarse vegetation )

- Forest fires

- Vulcanism

Mount St. Helens

Sand storm in Texas, 1935

Ozone• Ozone is a form of oxygen having the molecular form of

O3. It is a bluish, unstable gas with a pungent odour, found in two parts of the atmosphere: the stratosphere and the troposphere

• The ozone layer (Strathosperical ozone): The stratosphere contains a layer in which the concentration of ozone is greatest, the so called ozone layer. The layer extends from about 12 to 40 km. Unit of measurement - Dobson unit.

• It shields the Earth from ultraviolet radiation's harmful health effects on humans and the environment. This layer is being depleted by human emissions of chlorine- and bromine-containing compounds.

• tropospheric ozone: At ground level (in the troposphere), ozone is considered an air pollutant that can seriously affect the human respiratory system. It is a chemical oxidant and a major component of photochemical smog.

Average UV radiation /year in CR, 1964 – 2008

http://zpravy.idnes.cz/rekordni-mnozstvi-uv-zareni-v-cesku-d7n-/domaci.aspx?c=A120809_125915_domaci_hv

Ozone in high atmospheric layers, Northern hemisphere, 30.3.2011, Envisat satellite

http://technet.idnes.cz/satelit-zmeril-rekordni-ubytek-ozonu-nad-arktidou-fw8-/veda.aspx?c=A110405_113547_veda_nyv

Ozone layer

Ozone – measurements, health risks Stratosférický ozón

- 90% of ozone is between 15 an 40 km above the Earth, where th UV-B radiatiton is absorbed (2 – 8 ppm – parts per milion)

Strathospheric ozone - O3 is measured in Dobson units

(DU) 100 DU = sloupec čistého ozónu o výšce 1 mm (celk. asi 3,5mm)

- Ozone decrease in stratosphere by 1 % = increase of UV B radiation

- DNA demage, skin and eyes cancer, decrease of immunity at people and other organisms

Troposheric ozone - „ozone hole“ = depletion of ozone layer, substances with Br and Cl – decompozition of ozone (CFC – chloro-fluoro carbons)

- 10 % of ozone in 1,5 m layer above ground, strong oxidizing agent, its concentration increases (thanks to NOx from automobile transportation

- Health risks – respiratory difficulty, mucous membrane and eyes illneses, …

Endogenous ozone – in endothermic white blood cells

Ozone dissociation

chloro - and fluoro- derivatives of hydrocarbons („freons“) :

Cl + O3 ……… ClO + O2 ozone dissociation most easy at

O + ClO ……… Cl + O2 low temperatures, therefore

O + O3 ……… 2 O2 dozone depletiotion above Poles

Ozone in medicine

Atopic dermatitis therapy, acne therapy, other dermal problems therapy

Ozonotherapy - dentistry

Water desinfection

Creating and disociating of ozone in a natural way

O2 …UV 180 – 240 nm… O + O photochemical reaction

O2 + O …. O3……….UV 200 – 300 nm ….. O2 + O

UV radiation - 5% sun radiation

Type wavelength

(nm) harmfulnessAbsorption

in atmosphere

UV - A 320 - 400 little – skin aging

little

UV - B 280 - 320 lethal A lot

UV - C 180 - 280 lethat A lot

CFCs = Chloro-fluoro-Carbons is ODS – ozone depleting substance

Antarctic and Arctic Ozone Holes

• Each year since the late 1970s, much of the stratospheric ozone above Antarctica has disappeared during September, creating what is popularly called the ozone hole.

• The hole is caused by chlorine and bromine pollution in the atmosphere. It normally peaks in mid-October and usually closes in November, when ozone-rich air from the north moves over Antarctica.

• In 1993, ozone dipped to 91 Dobson units (DU), the record low. In 1995, it was 98 DU.

• Increase in UV – B by 2 % = increase of cancer health risk by 3-6 %

Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer

Ozone

Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer

• The nations of the world have joined in the Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer to phase out the production of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons, the major sources of ozone-depleting halogen compounds in the stratosphere.

• When nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons (in particular, unsaturated hydrocarbons) coexist in the atmosphere, if they receive ultraviolet light via the irradiation of sunlight, photochemical reaction occurs.

• The photochemical reaction generates: oxidants including ozone (important indicator, secondary pollutant – no own source, precursors =VOC + UV), peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), nitrogen dioxide and peroxide; reduction materials such as formaldehyde and acrolein; in aerosol. In addition, when there is sulfur dioxide in the air, sulfuric acid mist is generated.

• Short-term exposure to ozone peaks can temporarily affect the lungs, the respiratory tract, and the eyes. It can also increase the susceptibility to inhaled allergens. Long-term exposure to relatively

low concentrations of ozone can reduce lung function• In EU 6 from 10 citizens living in cities • Lee (no wind) behind big cities and industrial zones• Mountain stations – sun radiation increases with altitude

Photochemical, oxidative, summer, dry smog

Los Angeles smog

Photochemical smog genensis

NO2 + uv --> NO + OO + O2 --> O3

London smog – winter smog• Smog = smoke and fog. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an area and is caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide (fosil fuels burning). Europe anthropogenic sources>natural sources of SO2. Globaly - converselyNow – mostly SPM (suspendedparticulate matter) - soot, CO, NO2, various organic compounds (benzo-a-pyren), heavy metals.90 % respirable Chemical composition variable

• The Great Smog, also referred to as the Big Smoke, befell London starting on 5.12.1952, and lasted until 9.12.1952. This catastrophe caused the death of 4 – 12 thousands. Deaths in most cases during the Great Smog were due to respiratory tract infections from hypoxia (low level of oxygenation of blood) due to mechanical obstruction of the air passages by pus arising from lung infections caused by the smog. The lung infections were mainly bronchopneumonia or acute purulent bronchitis.

SO2 emision in CR, 1990 - 2004

SO2 Emisions2010 limit (Götoborg protocol2010 limit (2001/81/EC Directive)

Thousands of tons

Highest 24 h concentration of small dust particles

concentration

Climate change

• It is very likely that, overall, human activities since 1750 have had a global warming effect on the Earth.

• The Earth’s climate is influenced by many factors, mainly by the amount of energy coming from the sun, but also by factors such as the amount of greenhouse gases and aerosols in the atmosphere, and the properties of the Earth’s surface, which determine how much of this solar energy is retained or reflected back to space.

Sahara – 8 000 years ago and now

Climate change

• Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) have significantly increased since the beginning of the industrial revolution. This is mainly due to human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels, land use change, and intensive agriculture.

Greenhouses in Alméria (Spain) – producing of tomatoes, cucumbers

Climate change – Greenhouse effect

The surface of the earth is heated by the sun. As it warms up, it reflects heat back into the atmosphere.

Water vapour, carbon-dioxide and methane form a natural blanket of air around the Earth. However, the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation has led to a massive increase in the amount of carbon-dioxide released into the atmosphere. We are also releasing larger quantities of other greenhouse gases, such as methane and nitrous oxide.

As a result of the greenhouse effect, the Earth is kept warm enough to make life possible. But some scientists say that increased emissions of greenhouse gases are disturbing the balance of this complex system, causing global warming. In the last 100 years, the average global temperature has increased by about 0.4 to 0.8° C.

About 70% of the sun's energy is radiated back into space. But some of the infrared radiation is trapped by greenhouse gases, which warm the atmosphere, and reflect heat back down to Earth.

Greenhouse gases

- water steam…………. 62 %

- CO2………… 22 % - breathing, organic substances degradation, volcanos , incineration

- Trophospherical ozone … .7 %

- N2O ……..……. 4% - fossil fuels and biomass burning, fertilizing

- Methane ……………… .. 2,5 % - swanp gas, volcanos, cattle breeding, gas and coal mining, dumping, rice cultivation

- Other gases…..……..2,5 %

Climate change – Greenhouse Gases Emissions

Expressed in giga tonnes of CO2

equivalent per year which includes different greenhouse gases scaled using global warming potentials.(Note: 1 Giga tonne = 1 000 000 000 tonnes)

http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/

ppm (parts per million) - amount of CO2 molecules per 1 million molecules of dry air.Year oscillation = different absorbtion of CO2 by plants on northern and southern hemisphere (more dryland on the north hemisphere). Summer = decreasing of CO2 on northern hemisphere.

Greenhouse gases - emision

: http://globalchange.gov/publications/.../us-impacts (U.S. Global Change Research Program)

Greenhouse gases - emision in CR

Energetics 68 %

Energetics – mobile sources – 13%

Industry – 9 %

Agriculture – 5 %

In % , 100 % = 1990

Energetics – stationary sourcesAgricultureMobile sourcesIndrustryWaste

Greenhouse gases emision - trend

Energetics – stationary sourcesEnergetics – fugutive sourcesAgricultureMobile sourcesIndrustryWaste

Greenhouse gases emisions trends in CR in 1990 – 2007 in %

Climate change

1. Temperature

2. Sea level

3. Snow cover

From 1850 to 2000

Greenhouse gases:

-Water steam – 62%

-CO2 – 22%

-Trophospherical ozone = 7%

-CO – 4%

- NH4 – 2,5%

- Others - 2,5 %

Climate change - problems• Sea level rising – people are loosing

their homes - migration• More rain in rain forrests and higher

latitudes – risk of floods• Less rain in middle latitudes and low

semideserts – lack of water

Malé, capital of Maledives

Climate change - problems• Continental and mountain

glaciers melting• Animals are loosing their

habitats – higher extinction and new habitats colonization

Glacier Rongbuk (near Everest in 1921 and 2008)

Climate change - problems• More diseases and deaths caused by extreme

hot, floods, droughts, fire....• Changes in insect habitats and thus occurence

of some diseases (malaria, tropical fevers,...)

Climate change – risk of conflicts

epicentreDecrease of crop due to climate change

Migration caused by climate change

Decrease of water resources due to climate changeIncrease of floods, storms, disasters

lk

http://www.natur.de/de/10/Die-fuenf-furchterregendsten-Karten,1,0,1104.htmlhttp://grist.org/news/the-16-scariest-maps-from-the-e-u-s-massive-new-climate-change-report/

SOIL

- - Surface of land = 170 mil km2 … 29 % of surface of Earth

- Yet natural nondisturbed ecosystems (also hard-accessible) … 58 mil km2

- Other uninhabited areas… 40 mil km2 (mountains, glaciers, tundra,….)

- Built-up surface …5 mil km2 (in CR loss every year - 100 km2 – by new built-up areas and forestation)

- Arable land – nowadays - 16 mil km2) …cca 10 % of dry land

- Meadows and Pastures… 30 mil km2

- Forests 30 mil km2

- Newly salinizated soil annually : 1,5 bil. ha of the best soils.

Soil-creating processes

Soil is creating by soil-creating processes (weathering of rocks, influence of organisms and physical and chemical factors).

Characteristic structure, that could be seen in digged soil pit = soil profile. Characteristic for every soil type (horizons, depth,..)

Man destroyed the same amout of soil in the history he works with nowadays. (decline of some civilization – in Mediterranean, middle East, middle America,…)

-Last century – loss of 10 mil km2 cultivated soil

- 1 cm of topsoil takes up to 200 years to form

Soil

• 1 Humus• 2 Arable soil• 3 Subsoil• 4 Fragments of

stale rock• 5 Bedrock

Soil – nonrenewable sourceThreats to Soil:-Erosion-Desertification-Pollution – salinization, chemical substances-Deforestation-Soil firming

Loss of soil in large surfaces is non-returnable (Syria)

Erosion loss of upper layer of soil caused by deforestation or bad agriculture habits (trees stabilize this layer) and rain or wind.

Some types of soil are more endangered (loess).

Bad agriculture habits – slope fields, large fields withour ridges, some crops (corn, potatoes, sunflower, hop, grapes,…)

Loess erosion in slopes, China

Intensive agriculture in extreme slopes, Virunga,

Rwanda

75 bil. tons of soil annually

38 % Asia28 % Africa16 % N. America + Europe14 % S. America4 % Australia

Desertification

• Desertification is the persistent degradation of dryland ecosystems by variations in climate and human activities. Desertification is caused by a combination of social, political, economic, and natural factors which vary from region to region (deforestation, excessive pasture, unsuitable agriculture praxis,….)

• It threatens the livelihoods of some of the poorest and most vulnerable populations on the planet – 1/6 of world´s population! Desertification is largely caused by unsustainable use of scarce resources.

• Some 10 to 20% of drylands are already degraded, and ongoing desertification threatens the world’s poorest populations and the prospects of poverty reduction. Desertification is one of the greatest environmental challenges today and a major barrier to meeting basic human needs in drylandsGoats on argan oil tree in Maroko

Sahara – Lybia, wadi Matendush foto autoři

DesertificationProgressive enlarging of desert and lossiong of soil

Steps against desertification-Better water using-Afforestation = soil protection-Stone lines building-Barrier building (sand dunes stabilization)-Increasing the value of soil by nature fertilizer, composting (humus layer enlarging)- Soil property assessment

The same place in Burkina Faso in 1986 (in photo)

Present – day drylands and their cathegories

SalinizationDestruction of soil caused by salts (natural, artificial)Salts are brought to soil by water (evaporates, not enough to take the soils away)Usually irrigated or arid areasOverexploiting of water sourcesMakes cultivation impossibleSalinization: accumulation of soluble salts: NaCl, CaCl2, MgSO4, Ca(HCO3)2 in soil profile. Unsuitable irrigation and unsuitable (no) drainage system.

Biomes are climatically and geographically defined as similar climatic conditions on the Earth, such as communities of plants, animals , and soil organisms, and are often referred to as ecosystems. Some parts of the earth have more or less the same kind of abiotic and biotic factors spread over a large area, creating a typical ecosystem over that area. (ecosystem – coral reef, but also river)Major ecosystems are termed as biomes – in some english literature

Map of biomsMap of bioms

World´s forests , biomes

Biosphere - World´s forests

Carbon is removed from the atmosphere (photosynthesis) and absorbed in wood, leaves and soil (after decomposition) - world’s forest ecosystems are estimated to store more carbon than the entire atmosphere. Tropical rain forests - ½ of known animal species, 2/3 of all known plant species, 40% of predators, 80% of insect species on 6% of world´s surface

World´s forests :- provide raw materials- maintain biodiversity- protect soil and water resources- play a role in climate change mitigation- represent home for many nations- other functions, that we don´t know about (yet)

Deforestation- Forests cover a third of our planet's dry land. -Forests are heavily exploited (they are used more than they renew), but important efforts are being made to use and manage them more sustainably (somewhere, utilization for sustinability, international programmes). Reality – labeling, lobby…- but 60 000  km2 (an area roughly the size of Ireland) continue to be lost or modified by logging or other human interventions each year. Mainly tropical rain forrests are deforested.

Large scale soy-fields in the southern Amazon

Deforestation in Borneo

Main reasons for deforestation:- Cattle breeding- Wood (timber wood, wood as a fuel, wood as a raw material,

…)- Mining of mineral resources - Agriculture displacement (plantation cultivation – soya,

coffee, cocoa, bananas, pineapples,….) - Large area projects – new highways building, artificial lake

constructing (hydropower station),….

Tropical products: - Rubber, various vegetal oils, latex, foodstuff – bananas, rice, lemons,

nuts, chocolate, materials for medicinal drugs,…..

Deforestation

Oil palm plantation Cattle pasture, former rainforest, Amazon

Buldozers near forest, Gabon

Deforestation consequencesPrice and importance of tropical rain forests can´t be measured by elementary economic point of view (it is „store“ of various species, important in global and local climate maintanance, …..)Global warming-20% of man-made CO2 comes from forests burning Biodeiversity loss - Rain forest destroying = threat to 1 animal and 1 plant specie / dayEcological cycle changing - regulation of water cycle on local scale = climate condition changing – droughts, floods, erosion, degradation…..Decrease of natural nations living in forests - 140 mil. of people in direct threat (Amazonian natives, middle America natives, Pygmies of central Africa, Penaks in Borneo, Bataks in Philipines, others…), marginalization of human rights