EFFECTIVE WRITING

8

EDITING

Aim: to improve the appearance of the text produced

Why do we edit?

• The first version is never perfect. • The organization for whom we work (write) has

specific rules on the use of the language.• We need to check for data, facts, figures,

accuracy.• We may have various groups of readers.• When rereading it, we find long sentences, dull

paragraphs - we want to arise the interest of the reader not to bore him/her.

• We need a more concise document.

“editing” and “rewriting”

• rewriting - to work on more than half of the text

• editing - not changing the message or tone of the document at all

• Proof reading - the final step of editing, a meticulous and much time consuming operation that gives the author the last chance to spot mistakes

Means of helping people read and understand

• add footnotes (easily created in word processing, useful for detailed information, give the impression of a studious writer);

• use boxes (the reader can find there supporting information, the page becomes more interesting);

• use brackets (for brief explanations, acronyms definition); however, too many brackets make the text inaccessible;

• use many visuals (graphs, charts, figures, illustrations make the text inviting);

Means of helping people read and understand

• borrow interesting ideas from other documents.

• add a special section called “background” to help the readers catch up;

• supply a glossary, at the end of the document; it would be useful to put an asterisk (*)in the text along any word explained in the glossary;

Problematic usage situations

• passive voice (search for is, are, were, by, etc.); (in many instances they should be replaced with the active voice) ;

• future tense (search for will); replace with the present tense

• conditional tense (search for ould); replace with the present tense

• contractions (search for n't and 've); replace with full words

Problematic usage situations

• non-parallel construction (search for bulleted lists); ensure that the first word of each list item is of the same type (noun, verb)

• unclear antecedent (search for "This"); ensure that "This" is followed by a noun and not a verb

Problematic usage situations

• and/or; replace with ". . . or . . ., or both"

• forbidden words (search for "kill," "abort," and any other words that your company has deemed inappropriate or inexact, see the previous paragraphs on words)

• Search the document for broken links.

–Perform another spell-check.

Print the document and look for any obvious problems

• headers and footers (incorrect position of elements, incorrect text)

• headings (inconsistent capitalization, improper hierarchy)

• pagination (incorrect position of page number, chapters beginning on a left-hand page, Roman numerals where there should be Arabic numerals and vice versa)

Look for any obvious problems

• TOC (incorrect alignment, tab positions, and hierarchy)

• table format (improper page breaks, poor alignment)

STYLE GUIDES

TIPS:• make clean copies (on paper and disks) so

that you can return to the original; assemble all the components before starting; make a checklist or open your style guide; think about the reader; read the text; highlight everything jumping at you (sentences, confusion, errors; start improving per chapters (or per paragraphs if the text is shorter).

Checklist:

• Does the document answer the question?• To make a certain decision, go back to the

heading or title or brief of the text and make sure.

• Keep asking you whether the text is relevant.

• Does the document differentiate between fact and opinion?

• Is there enough or too much information?

Remember

• First keep the balance between the need for more information and the disadvantage of making the document longer.

• Provide: - arguments,- quotations,- examples, - definitions of terminology,- additional data.

Keep asking yourself:

• Does the reader know this?

• Can this information be found elsewhere?

• What will happen if I do not provide this piece of information?

Shorter documents

• Overlong documents may be boring especially for busy people.

• If you have to make a shorter document, look for:– repetition of facts or opinion, or data, or

visuals,– too long a digression,– too many digressions,– over-explanations.

Keep asking yourself:

• Does the reader know this?

• Can this information be found elsewhere?

• What will happen if I do not provide this piece of information?

Remember that you can use

– diagrams, photos, – lists of ideas or pints to make,– plans,– illustrations, – calculation, – information inserted in boxes,– quotations,– and other means to improve the

communication, such as on-screen editors.

Keep asking yourself:

• is the tone right?

• are fact true and supported?

• are sentences brief?

• is the language plain and clear?

Achieving flow

• Linguistic flow - each word falls in the most natural place in the sentence and sentences connect among one another and paragraphs links to the one before and after.

• Structural flow relates to content. In order to indicate structural flow, the writer can use:– the contents page (introduction, headings,

subheadings, section numbers, summary of the arguments, linking conclusions).

STRUCTURES FOR FLOW

• Linear• The present → the future→ the process• Usually the writer presents the current situation, the

changes envisaged and then the steps needed to make the changes (the process).

• Comparative• When comparing alternatives• A1 compared to A2• Developmental• Argument supported by points minimum 3/4 and a

conclusion• The argument is introduced and supported by a number

of points before reinforcing it in the conclusion.

STRUCTURES FOR FLOW

• Thematic• The theme (a line) connects all the points,

smaller subjects can be included or dealt with • Questions and answers • When there is complex information to put across• Chronological• Where the subject is an event in the past or

present• of questions in the style guide whenever you

make a change.

STRUCTURES FOR FLOW

• Hierarchical• The structures above should be put in a certain

order, usually the most important or interesting appear first and the less important or interesting later. SURPRISING IDEAS should come EARLY.

• Structural changes made for the sake of flow can be made only if you have a clean copy to which you can return.

ACHIEVING LINGUISTIC FLOW

• TIPs: WORDS

• Start with the subject

• Follow the thought

• Use pronouns

• Read the text aloud to hear its flow

• Be clear

ACHIEVING LINGUISTIC FLOW

• TIPs FROM SENTENCE TO SENTENCE• Use pronouns to refer back –they, it, those• Use so, such• Repeat a word from the previous sentence• Show how you thought with phrases like:This explains why..In addition…Therefore…On the other hand…

ACHIEVING LINGUISTIC FLOW

• TIPs FROM PARAGRAPH TO PARAGRAPH the link can be made ahead to the following

paragraph or to the preceding paragraph

• Tips at the start of paragraphs• This…• Another example…• I will now deal with…• Create topic sentences implying questions who-

what-when-where-why-how and answer them

ACHIEVING LINGUISTIC FLOW

• Tips at the end of paragraphs

• USE a STRONGER PHRASE, or a TRANSITION

ACHIEVING LINGUISTIC FLOW

• Making the tone less formal:• use “you” and “your”,• use “I” and “we”, with respect to you and your

company,• mix “I” and “we” in business letters, but not in

reports,• avoid using “I” too much, avoid replacing “I” with

“myself”, (Please return to myself this document until..)

• use contractions only in internal memos• use everyday vocabulary

ACHIEVING LINGUISTIC FLOW

– cut out fashionable words (synergy, empowerment, all the management speak), they will come in and go out of the language, some do not understand them,

– use jargon appropriately for the right audience (when the reader finds incomprehensible jargon, feels excluded, may guess wrongly the meaning, wastes time to understand etc);

– avoid Latin if you are not a lawyer or doctor,

If you use Latin , write the Latin words in italics

• Ultra vires= beyond the powers

• Sine qua non = an indispensable condition

• Sine die = indefinitely• Sic = thus• Seriatim = one by one• Modus operandi = way of

doing this• Nem con = unanimous• Pro term = for now

• Ipso facto = thereby• Locus standi = instead of• In camera = in private• In absentia = in the

absence of• Ex officio = by virtue of

office• De facto = in fact• Ad infinitum = indefinitely

Creating a formal tone

– Make slightly longer sentences, no more than 25-28 words to be more formal,

– Choose complex words cause= necessitate– Choose complex structures I understand = It

is my understanding that– Use full forms We cannot accept this delay– Number your points Firstly…, secondly…,

finally…

– Use repetition: we have… we have… we have also…, or even if… even if…

– Replace softening phrases by stronger words As you are aware + as you know, should= must

– Create distance between the writer and reader as you know = Readers become aware that

– Use: – I consider– I want– You must– With no delay– I insist– It is necessary to

ACCURACY

• I have not received the completed from witch I will sent you to review , contains 4 mistakes now, which, send, revue

The sequence of checking the accuracy

• 1 Spelling, grammar, punctuation• 2 Consistency in the use of capitals,

abbreviations etc.• 3 Words omitted• 4 Order of sections, page numbers• 5 Consistency between page numbers and

contents page• 6 Numbering of captions and figures• 7 Final check of names, dates

BREVITY

• keep the content brief , by deleting some information

• keep language brief, by making the point, presenting information which leads to the point and not by wandering with words

•

BREVITY

• Cut words that are not relevant

e. g. Although these may sound like very small amendments which only allow you to cut out an odd words here and there, even in one short sentence the changes can make your text considerably shorter.

BREVITY

• Replace two part words by one part words

I work as an engineer. I am an engineer.

• Replace phrases by one word on the subject

e.g. of = on, the process of management = management (often the reduction is 20-30%)

BREVITY

• Delete redundant repetitions ( combined together = combined)

• Use abbreviations or acronyms , after the first mentioning of the full word

• Use footnotes, appendices, end-notes, cross referencing

CLARITY

• use everyday words, to be better understood

• too many complex terms make the text difficult to digest

• be politically correct

• avoid –isms

• avoid sexism

• prefer verbs to nouns

Paper or computer screen?

• Use the write version of the spelling checker

• Add specialist words to your dictionary• Use find and replace function • Grammar checkers may help • Auto-correct helps to ensure consistency• Templates customize the documents • Tracking changes, Comment or annotate