egyptian architecture - internet archive

EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE

Inv. :

SIGB bib!.

SIGB ex .

SU ppn : od ~19 9''1..39 / SU epn :

• Cote :

1157041662

_.lllllllJ~_UllllJLUlll llUI

BRITISH SCHOOL OF ARCHAEOLOGY IN EGYPT

EGYPTIAN· ARCHITECTURE

BY

FLINDERS PETRIE, Kr. D.C.L., LL.D._, LITT.D., D,LIT,, D.sc., F.R.s., F.B.A,

EMERITUS PROFESSOR OF EGYPTOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF LONDON

LONDON BRITISH SCHOOL OF ARCHAEOLOGY IN EGYPT

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, GOWER ST. W.C.r AND

BERNARD QUARITCH LTD. II GRAFTON ST. NEW BOND ST. W.r

1938

l '

CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTER IV

I. Scope of architecture . I

TRANSPORT

CHAPTER I P.AGR

28. The country 33

BRICKWORK 29. Shipping 33 30. Hauling 34

2. Materials 3 3 1. Causeways 35

3· Brickmaking 4 32. Handling 37

4. Brick sizes 5 33. Raising 38 5. M ortar 6 34. Cradles 40 6. Plastering 6 35. Earth banks. 40 7. Bonding . 7 36. Earth filling. 41 8. Batter of faces . 8 37. Erection of monoliths . 42 9. Wood in brickwork 9

10. Foundations 9 1 1. Earth movements. 9 CHAPTER V 12. Pan-bed building. 10 13. Sag and straight walls II STONE CONSTRUCTION

14. Size of walls . 12 38. Foundations 46 15. Decorative brickwork 13 39. Wall building 47 16. Arch bricks. 13 40. Wall dressing 49

4z. Roofing 51 CHAPTER II 42. Irregularities 51

REED, PALM, AND WOOD

Primitive stages CHAPTER VI

17. 14-18. Palm rib 15 FORMS OF SUPPORT 19. Papyrus 16 20. Rushwork 17 43. Torus. 53 21. Wood. 17 44. Pillar . 53 22. Wooden housing . 18 45. Polygonal column 55 23. Panelling 20 46. Tent pole 56

47. Palm . 57

Made and Printed in Great Britain by

CHAPTER III 48. Rush bundle 58 49. Papyrus 58

STONEWORK 50. Papyrus, open head 59 .51. Papyrus, unopened head 60

24. Materials 22 52. Papyrus, degraded 61 25. Quarrying 26 53. Blue lotus 62 26. Marking out work 28 54. White lotus . 62 27. Tools. 29 55. Hat-hor 62

Hazell, Watson & Viney, Ltd., London and Aylesbury v

TI CONTENTS

CHAPTER VII CHAPTER X STRENGTH OF MATERIAL

PAG&

56. Proportionate strength 64 57. Absolute strength 65 58. Causes of failure • 66

CHAPTER VIII ROOFING

59. Slabs on walls 68 60. Architraves • • 68 6i. Overlapping roofs 70 62. Arch of brick 71

CHAPTER IX DOORS AND WINDOWS

63. Doorways . 64. Proportions . 65. Windows

74 75 76

PLANS

66. Peasant houses · 67. Mansions, villas 68. Palace 69. Town house 70. Temples, chambered 7 I. Processional temples 72. Shrine temples 73. Royal tomb temples,

Kha fr a 74. Temple of Menkaura 75. Temples of vth dynasty 76. Tomb structures .

Index

PAGE

78 So 84 85 86

PLATE 87 I. 87 II.

III. 88 IV. 88 v. 89 VI. 89

VII. 93 VIII.

IX. x.

XI. XII.

XIII. XIV. xv.

XVI. XVII.

XVIII. XIX. xx.

XXI. XXII.

XXIII. XXIV. xxv.

XXVI. XXVII.

XXVIII. XXIX. xxx.

XXXI. :xxxn.

XXXIII. XXXIV.

LIST OF PLATES ;

FIGS. PAGB

Brick making 2,3 3 Building tools, foundation • 1-16 7 Wall foot, spacing, building 6-12 7 Pan-bed building 13-33 IO Wavy and pan-bed building l l-17 II Palm-stick and reed building 18-26 15 Wooden building and copies 27-31 17 Panel building, stone cutting 32-52 20 Quarries . 34-42 26 Stone dressing and lifting • 53-62 31 Stone building . 63--72 41 Stone erection and columns 65--76 42 Fluted columns, iiird dyn .. 77--78 56 Fluted, palm, and papyrus columns 75-83 57 Tent-pole and papyrus columns . 79-97 56 Papyrus and bundle columns 84,86 58 Papyrus columns 88-<)2 57 Lotus and Hat-hor columns 93-<)8 59 Hat-hor columns 99-100 62 Drawn capitals, lampstands 101-106 63 Architraves and roofs 107-III 68 Arch roofs and windows n4-122 72 Arch roofs II2-I20 72 Peasant houses . 123-127 78 Plans of houses . 128-133 80 Palace, house section . 134, 135 84 Temple plans 136-139 86 Shrine temples . 140-143 87 Khafra temple plan 144 88 Menkaura temple plan 145 88 Sahura temple plan 146 89 Nefer-ar-ka-ra temple plan 147 89 Ne-user-ra temple, Sety I . 148- 149 89 Tomb monuments 150-155 90

vii

PL.

II. I. I.

II. II.

III.

" " ii. v.

III. IV. v.

IV. v. v.

VI.

" " " " " " "

VII.

" " " "

vd'r. IV. IX.

" "

" " IX.

LIST OF FIGURES

FIG.

1. Brick mould • • 2. Moulding bricks, modern 3. Moulding bricks. 4. Mortar rake, bronze 5. Wooden floats, plastering

~ 6. Rain drip footing, Kahun J. 7. ,, ,, ,, Memphis ·\ 8. Bonding of brick.

9. Open spacing of brick . 10. Sighting line for slope . 1 1. Wavy wall plan

l 12. Pan-bed building 13. ,, ,, ,, Dimeh 14. Stepped edge of wall 15. Stone bed for pan 16. Alternate sections of wall I 7. Reed fence 18. Early reed hut 19. Palm-stick hut 20. Palm-stick fence, modern 21. Palm-stick shrine 22. " ,, ,, 23. Torus at roof level 24. Papyrus cabins . . 25. Papyrus building method 26. Papyrus as khaker • 27. Boards of house wall 28. Joining boards by ties 28A. Form of recessed door 29. Recessed side of tomb • 30. Mode of brickwork • 3 1. Coffin with barred bays 32. House form of sarcophagus 33. Grained wood 34· Quarries, Qau 35. " " . 36. Cutting out big block, Qurneh 37. Cutting out pillar upright 38. Lower chamber of Khufu 39. Maul of quartzose 40. Pick of limestone 41. Stone faced by maul

ix

.

DYNo

Xll

xviii Greek?

Xll

xii X!X

Xll

Xll

iv xii

xxx Roman

Scorpion king iii

i

iv v

xix v

IV i

ii IV iv

lV iv xii

x

PAGE

4 4 4 6 7 7 7 7 7

8, 29 IO IO 10

10

II I2

I4 IS IS IS IS 15 I6 16 I6 17 18 I9 I9 19 I9 I9 20 21

26 26 26 26 29 30 30 30

x PL.

IX. VIII.

" " " " " " " " " " x. ,, " " " " " ,, "

xi. XII.

" XL

XII.

" " XL

XII.

xiv. XII.

XIII.

xv. "

xiv. XVL xv.

XVI. XIV.

XVII. xv.

XVII.

LIST OF FIGURES PIG.

42. Stone faced by pick 43 . Copper adze 43A. ,, ,, Sa-neit 44· ,, ,, Sneferu 4S· " " 46. " " 4 7. Bronze adze • . 48. Large adze, boat work . 49. Small adze, joinery • so. Reary roughing chisel . . SI. Chisel, " Chief Miner AMB " s2. Narrow chisel S3 · Bar ml)llet . . S4· Cylindric mallet . SS· Mason's mallet s6. Hafted mallet S7· Boss to lift stone, Khufu sS. Boss cut away, Khufu . S9· Model crowbars . ' . 60. Fulcrum block, Meydum 6 r. Raising sfone by tilt . 62. ,, ,, by cradle 63. Earth bank for raising . 64. Surplus stone on face . 6s. Monolith on high bank 66. Cross-section of bank . 67. Long section . . . 68. Hollow pylon, filling removed 69. Blocks turning comer . . 70. Offset rods for trimming stone 7r. Torus roll, bound . 72. Oblong pillar at junction 73. Abacus on pillar . . 74. Flutings by relief ridges 7S· Convex fluting . 76. Concave fluting . 77. Convex fluting • 78. Concave fluting 79. Tent-pole hieroglyph 80. Tent-pole . column Sr. Tent-pole, degraded 82. Palm capital . . 83. Palm capital developed 84. Bundle column, zed sign Ss. Colouring of zed sign .

· 86. Papyrus-head capital

87. " " " 88. 89. 90. 91.

,, " " . Papyrus, clustered stems Papyrus, unopened head Papyrus, h.ead stylized .

DYN.

xix ? 0

iv vi

xii xvi ii

IV

xii xii lV

XII

Roman lV

iv xix

iv

xxx XIX

xx xx xx .

xix iv

xvi ii Ptol.

iv iii iii lU

iii IU

iii iv iv

xvi ii v

xxi iii iii iii

xvi ii xxv

xviii v

xviii

PAGE

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 37 37 38 38 39 40

41, 42 4i, 49 41, 42

41 41 49 49 so S3 S3 SS s6 s6 s6 s6 s6 s6 S7 S7 S7 S7 s8 s8 S9 S9 S9 60 60 61

PL.

xvn. XVIII.

':Xv. XVIII.

xv. XVIII.

XIX.

x'X. " " " "

xXI.

"

xxih. "

xXII.

XXIII.

" "

xXII.

:xXiv. " " "

xXV.

" " " "

XXVI.

XXVII.

" "

xxvin. " "

LIST OF FIGURES

PIG.

92. Papyrus, head degraded 93. Blue lotus, Memphis . 94. " " " . 9S· White lotus, lampstand 96. White lotus, Memphis . 97. White lotus, Bersheh . 98. Hat-hor head, Zeser . 99. Hat-hor head, Speos Artemidos

100. Hat-hor head, Dendereh 1or. Hat-hor head outlined. 102. Papyrus capital outlined 103. Lampstand capital . . 104. Model lampstand and flame , 10s. Rock capital 106. Crutch capital 107. Diagram of architraves. 108. Overlapping roof. 109. Overlapping arch 110. Cantilever roof 1 II. Butting ridge roof u2. Butting ridge and beam roofs 113. Voussoir arch u4. Brick arch tunnel I is. Wide arch roof u6. Thrusts of brick arches u7. Tunnels of brick. u8. Arch rings crossing I 19. Spring of brick arch 120. Catenary curve of arches 12 r. Grid of window . 122. Brick domes, Red Monastery 123. Tent house 124. Porch house 12s. Mulqaf house 126. Upper-storeyed house . 127. Window hoods 128. Workman's hut 129. Four-roomed house 130. Five-roomed house 13r. Seven-roomed house 132. Great mansion I 3 3 • Official's villa 134. Palace of Memphis 13s. Section of house. 136. Temple of Khufu 137. Pyramid temple, Sneferu 138. Temple, Hierakonpolis 139. Temple, Abydos. 140. Processional temple 141. " " 142. " "

DYN.

xix v v

XU vi?

XU iii

XVUI

Ptol. Ptol. ? Ptol. ?

iv XU VI

XU

iii XV!ll

IV

IV

XU Ill

VI

XII

XI

XIX

xix XIX

XIX

Roman x x x x x

XU XU XU

XU XU

XVIU

xxvi XVIU

iv lll

VI

XIX

XVlll

xvi ii XIX

Xl

PAGE

61 62 62 62 62 62 62 62 63 " 63 63 63 63 63 63 70 70 71 71 71 71 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 76 77 78 78 79 79 79 80 80 80 80 So 83 84 8s 86 86 86 86 87 87 87

XU LIST OF FIGURES PL. FIG.

XXVIII. 143· Shrine temple, Edfu . DYK. PAGE

Ptol. 87 XXIX. 144· Five-cell temple, Khafra iv 88 XXX. 145· Altered temple, Menkaura iv 88 XXXI. 146. F~ve-cell temple, Sahura . v 89 XXXII. 147· Five-cell temple, Nefer-ar-ka-ra v 89 XXXIII. 148. Five-cell temple, Ne-user-ra . v 89 " 149· Temple of Ramessu I . xix 89 XXXIV. 150. Private tomb and offerings 90 " l 5 I. Arched cover of tomb . 90 " · 152. Form of mastaba iv 90 " 153· House-form tomb 90 " 154· Nubian rock temple, b;ult co~ 90 " 155· Rock tomb, built -court • ix 90

/

BRITISH SCHOOL OF ARCHAEOLOGY IN EGYPT In-return for l guinea sent in aid of the School (to University College

G.ower St.), a copy of this book will be dispatched, post free, togethe; with a copy of THE MAKING OF EGYPT, large 8vo, 87 pls. This new vol~e tra~es for the fi~st tii;ne th~ origin of each of the incoming civilizattons durmg five prehistoric periods and thirty dynasties.


SCOPE OF ARCHITECTURE

1. IN DEALING with ancient architecture, it should be looked on in the same spirit as that of the original builder, just as we should look on ancient literature with the eyes ()f the writer. To treat the labours of earlier times as if they belonged to yesterday is to miss the true meaning, and confound our judgment. The ancient builder planned something beautiful because it was natural to him, not because it was expected that he must dish up some stock subjects in an orthodox manner. He met his circumstances without any false shame in doing what seemed best, and the nearer he lived to the time of real growth and life, the more readily he gave effect to his true spirit. The great builders were artistic engineers ; as Vitruvius says, " Architecture consists of three branches; namely, building, dialling, and mechanics. Building is divided in two parts. The first regulates the general plan of the walls of a city and its public buildings ; the other relates to private buildings." Thus what we call civil and mechanical engineering, town-planning, monuments, and housing, are all parts of Architecture. Those who would look on Architecture as purely artistic, like painting, must remember the motto of the British Architects, where Usui Civium comes before Decori Urbium. The first duty is to fulfil the purpose of a building by attention. to its uses, its parts, its proportions, its lighting ; secondly, to adapt its outer appearance to its surroundings. These principles have guided all great

I

2 EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE

architecture, and it is only in the recent centuries of archaistic imitation that blind copying has ruled instead of natural growth. True Architecture is concerned with the materials available, their qualities and strength, the methods of building, the structural forms, their artistic application, and the whole as used to produce the utility which is sought for the purpose required. Each of these should be taken into account in looking at Architecture in Egypt.

The aspects which have c_laimed most attention hitherto have been summarized, but detailed attention is given to those matters which are less known, and especially the origins and earliest forms ; these have been least regarded in the few books dealing technically with the subject. As most readers will be familiar with some of the many fine picture-books of Egyptian monuments lately published, it was not needful to repeat the popular illustrations here but only to show details required to explain the subject. It is, in large part, derived from my own observations, with examples from my excavations and from those of the British School of Egyptian Archaeology.

CHAPTER I

BRICKWORK

2 • IN EGYPT, brickwork long preceded stone architecture, the forms of which grew from uses of mud bricks and reeds. The first matter to be understood therefore is the production and structural growth of brick building.

MATERIALS. The bricks were made of Nile mud, with varying proportions of sand or straw. They were sundried, and were very rarely fired until the Roman age. The fine black mud of the Nile is often micaceous, which adds to its tenacity. When dried, it is very hard and tough ; cutting through it is as laborious as working soft rock, and bricks may be rolled down a brick pyramid without losing their shape. The mud, if unmixed, contracts much on drying, losing about an eighth of its former size when damp, as may be seen in dried-up ponds. It is therefore needful to mix it with sand, using enough to form a continuous frame of sa~d all through the mass, so as to prevent contraction. Otherwise chopped straw is mixed in it, enabling the mud to shrink locally around the hollows, and so dry without contracting the dimensions. The surface of the bricks is also strengthened by rolling the clay in straw dust before moulding" thus forming a thatch to resist the rain. Heavy rain will wash out the mud, leaving a matting of straw on the face, which resists any further denudation. In parts of the country where there is not much cultivable land, and the desert is near by, the bricks were made partly, or wholly, of yellow marl and pebbles. The early dynastic bricks were made of black mud alone.

3

• I


3. MAKING. The bricks were, and are now, always moulded in a wooden frame with a hand_le at one comer (fig. 1 ). In the photograph of modem brickmaking(fig. 2), the man on the right kneads the mud with sand or straw, and brings it to the moulder looped in a circular palm-leaf mat ; two of these are on the brick heap behind him. The moulder dips his hand in the water jar which stands before him and hews off a lump of the mixture by driving his hand forward into it. He then rolls the lump in chopped straw, so as to coat it and prevent it sticking to the mould into which it is cast ; it is then flattened down and smoothed. The mould held by the left hand is next wriggled to compress the sides of the brick and loosen it, gently the mould is lifted off, and the brick left lying on the ground, with just the thickness of the mould between that and the previous brick. The ground is thus covered with rows of bricks left to dry. After about three days they can be turned over, in two days more they are set on end, and within a week they are loosely stacked together, as seen in the background of the view. If used for building as-soon as this, they are liable to crush by their own weight ; the brick graves at Abydos around the tomb of Qa, and the storeroom walls of Kho-sekhemui (ist and iind dyn.), had bulged out so much at the bottom as to cover many objects in the chamber, owing to the walls being built too hurriedly after the king's death.

An ancient scene of brickmaking, in the time of Tehutmes III (fig. 3) shows the long past of the present method. At the top, on the left, there is the tank, from which water is being drawn to mix the mud. Next is the man mixing it with a hoe. Another man is loading a porter with the mud in a pan. Two men are moulding bricks in moulds with a handle, laying them down side by side in close rows, exactly as is done now. When dry, they are carried off in slings from a shoulder-pole, a mode of conveyance which the Egyptian has now lost.

BRICKWORK 5

4. SIZES. The sizes o~ bricks var~ed much -in Egypt, the largest being fifteen times the ~eight of ~he smallest. From comparing those of ma~y different sites, we can trace a general increase from theist UJ? to the xvth dynasty ; then a fluctuation onward to the ~vith dynasty, follo~ed by a steady decrease till Arab times. In the followmg , list, the size in inches of the largest and smallest class of each period is named.

Dyn. Crude Brick Prehistoric, Nubt

i Royal Tombs i Abydos · ii Royal Tombs ii Abydos

iii ,, iv? Nubt v Abydos

vi ,, xi " xii ,,

xii Kahun xii Dahshur xii Hawara . xv Yehudiyeh . XV' ''

xviii Retabeh ,, Abydos

:: Nubt xix Ramesseum xxi Tanis .

,, El Heybeh. xxvi Memphis .

,, Defenneh . ,, Thebes . .

xxvi to Pt.ol. Naukratis Ptol. IX. Thebes lst cent. Dendereh Vth cent. Korn Fares

Burnt Brick xix Nebesheh . xix? Defenneh .

Rom. Dendereh . ,, Saqqareh . ,, Sidi Mislim

Arab, Fayum

Maximum 13·0 x 6-o x 3·2 9·9 x 4·9 x 3·0

14·2 x 7·0 x 4·5 10·5 x 4·9 x 2·9 12·7 x 6·o 13·0 x 6·3 20·6 x 10·3 x 6·7 12·5 x 6·2 15·7 x 7·7 x 5·7 12·2 x 6·1 x 3·4 14·3 x 7·7 x 4 ·3 Il'2 x 5·6 x 3·4 16-1 x 7·9 x 4·8 17·7 x 8·8 x 5·4 18·1 x 8·5 x 4·4 16-2 x 7·4 x 4·5 15·4 x 7·5 x 5·4 23·6 x 12·1 x 4·5 18·0 x 9·0 16·0 x · 8·o x 4·7 16·2 x 7·2 x 4·4 18·0 x 8·4 x 6-1

18·2 x 9·1 X 6-o 17·4 x 8·2 x 4·9

14·6 x 7·8 x 5·0 12·6 x 6·2 x 4·3 12'0 x 5·7 x 3·8 8·4 x 4·2 x 2·6

12·6 x 6·2 x 3·2 13'5' x 6·2 II'7 X 5·4 X 3·1 9·8 x 4·5 x 2·6 8·4 x 4·0 x 2·1 7·3 x 3·9 x 2·8

Minimum Il'O X 4'5 X 3'0 8·8 x 4'4 x 2·9 9·0 x 4·4 x 3·0

9·6 x 4·6 x 2·3 12·4 x 5·6 x 3·0

n ·5 x 4·3 u ·5 x 5·6 x 3·2 10·7 13·7 x 7·0 x 4·1

14·9 x 7·2 x 4·0

14·0 x 6·5 x 3·2

12·5 x 5·9 x 3·6 15·0 x 7·0 x 4·5 14·9 x 7·1 x 5·1 16·1 x 7·0 x 5·9 16·2 x 7·1 x 4·1 17·4 x 8·4 x 4·8 13·2 x 6·8 13·7 x 6-7 x 4·4 u ·8 x 5·7 x 4·0

It will be seen that all of these bricks are half as wide as the length, also the width may be greater than half the


length, in the proportion 3 : 2, or 4 : 3. This was by no m~ans the rule across the Pale.stine border, where square bricks are com~on. Sometimes an exceptional start has ?een made m Egypt, as 14·2 in the ist and 20·6 in the Ivt~ dynasty. Probably the royal brickyards made larger sizes for public buil?ings, as labour was freely used there to han~le heavy weights. The largest brick here, 23·6 X 12·1, is exceeded by a size at Gerar in Palestine 25·.o X 11·5 X 5·0, which would weigh over a hundred~ weight, and need two or three men to move it without breaking the edges.

5. MORTAR. The binding material is identical with th.at of the bric~. The same mud and sand, often obtamed by breakmg up brickbats, is trampled into a thin paste (anciently mixed with a mortar rake, fig. 4), and th~n poured out along the wall, ready to receive the bricks. In modem times the art is to drive the brick with a swing, down and against the next brick, so as to push up ~he ~ortar to form the vertical joint, and press m. both dire~t1ons for contact with the building. More thm mortar Is then dashed into the joint on both sides, and smoothed off by hand. Thus bricks can be laid at over a thousand an hour, with one boy to hand them one to mud the joints, and two to pile as much mud on the' wall as can be persuaded to lie on it. The larger sizes of ancient bricks would need two hands to lay them, and must have been placed more deliberately.

Another method of laying, for foundations, and for great masses such as pyramids, was in loose sand. This had many advantages, as we shall notice farther on.

6. PLASTERING. A different quality of mortar was needed for the surface plastering. A wall of mud brick expose~ to ~ain will soak it in, for a foot or two from the top, with ·little harm. But if water runs down in a st~eam, however small~ it will rapidly cut through the bncks. The wall reqmres a firm face for its protection,

BRICKWORK 7

and such a face is an es?ential .Part of its strength. ~n unplastered brick wall will read1~y rock to ar:d fro, owmg to the softness of the crude brick ; . but with a coat of mud plaster on each face it becomes. a girder with ~wo faces and solid ties between. The facmg plaster reqmres to have as much sand in it as it will carry ; the grains" should be all in contact, and the mud only enough to fill the interstices and make a cup for each grain. Such a face will bear heavy rain and dry again in a hot sun without damage. Samples of the plaster are laid out to dry while mixing, so as to test whether they will crack and need more sand, or crumble and need more mud. Chopped straw is ~ften used, and se.rves like the straw in bricks before described : but there is no trace of the use of straw thatch, as the straw was always chopped upon the threshing floor. ·

The plastering was smoothed with a wooden float (fig. 5) cut out of one block, and the figure of the float became the hieroglyph of going around, and of completion as a plasterer goes round and finisnes a building.

The foot of a wall was protected from the drip of rain by a sloping line of headers to shoot the wet far out (Kahiin, pl. iii, fig. 6), and this construction of wall was copied in basalt by Ramessu II (fig. 7).

7. BONDING. The usual rule in laying bricks was alternate courses, headers and stretchers (now known as English bond). Alternate courses (fig. 8) were used from the 1st dynasty till Roman times. Exceptions are found, as in two courses of headers and two of stretchers (Retabeh), or three courses of stretchers and one of headers (Kahiin), or headers on edge between cours~s of stretchers (Semer-khet tomb), courses of headers tilted diagonally in order to make up an exact level, and c~m~ses of bricks laid askew in plan to give a form of bmdmg (Korn Ombo). Sometimes bricks were spaced apart (Kahiin), probably to leave ventilation (fig. 9). Courses

8 EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE of ·rushes were often laid, in great town walls of the Delta as at Buto and Sais. These helped to bind the wall and to dry the interior by conduction.

~traight faces are often running through a mass of brickwork (Dendereh, xxix, xxxi) without any purpose. They are pro?ably the limits of work of different gangs of men, much. hke dry stone walling found in the body of mastaba fillmg at Meydum! tomb 17. Solid mud filling was rarely used ; the only mstance on a large scale is the mastaba of Nefermaot at Meydum, but he was fond of experiments, as in his inlayed colours. Pise walls of rammed ~ud were little, if ever, used in Egypt, and only m the earliest stages of Gerar, and in the xixth dynasty at Bethpelet, Palestine. The space between houses was filled with a junction wall to prevent access. The Egyptian was very particular not to encroach on the wall of his neighbour, and' houses have separate walls touching one another. 8. BATTER OF FACES. The outer face of a brick wall had .usually a light batter, but the inJ!er face was always vertical ; even a fragment of a wall suffices to show the difference of its sides. The mastabas of brick and stone had more batt~r, ·rising usually at an angle of 4 on l , or 76°: The laymg ou! of a building with sloping sides, on an irregular foundat10n of varying level, appears a complex matter. The Egyptians at the end of the iiird dynasty had adopted a perfectly true and simple method for this construction. Outside of the farthest corners of the site for building they set up four vertical hollow-, corners of brick walling' like the corners of a tank to contain .the building (fig. 10). On these walls they drew a level lme for the final ground level, and other horizontal lines at each cubit downward. Then vertical lines were drawn at the distance apart of the intended length and width of the building on the final level. All of these lines were in red. From the intersection of the verticals

~- _ ... - ......

BRICKWORK 9 with the top ground level, slopes were dra~ on the walls downward, as traces of the walls at the intended angle, 76 °. Then the Mastaba was built with the sides sloping in the plane of the pairs of sloping lines, one at each end. It was only needful to place the eye ii; the line of slol?e up one wall and sight across to the opposite slope, to see if the ,. building were in the required plane.

9. Woon IN BRICKWORK. In the early brick building of mastabas and forts (Meydum no. 17, Rahotep; Semneh) branching trunks of trees of th~ s?nt (A~acia nilotfca) are found introduced, before the bmldmg, with the bricks laid around them, a survival apparently of building around trees. Straight beams were very rarely let into w~ll~, as foreign wood was too costly to be thus used ; but it is usual in Arab times as a bond or tie.

10. FOUNDATIONS. For brickwork there were but slight foundations, in ancient as in modem times ; one or two courses under the surface were quite sufficient. At Gerar, however, Shishak had sometimes as many as six courses. A uniform substratum was needful ; hence, if the rock were to be reached, a part of the walls migh~ have to be carried deeper. Mastaba l 7 at Mey du~ has its brick comers at 3, 4, 5, and 21 ft. deep respectively. Sometimes bricks were laid on sand, and with sand between them. Such layers of sand enabled the levelling to be adjusted, and allowed for shifting of the soil without cracking the walls. ·

11 .• ·EARTH MOVEMENTS. The changes in level and dimensions of the soil, due to the rise and fall of subsoil water by the inundation, are very noticeable at present. When dry old land, never irrigated in modem tii;nes, is soaked for cultivation, it rises as much as twenty mches. As Nile mud contracts about an eighth in drying, the rise implies that the soil was dry down to about 14 ft; Lar~e cracks open in dry fields, enough to entrap one s foo! m walking, and anything dropped is lost. Modem bmld-

10 EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE ings of brick and cement always crack at intervals, even if founded on the desert. As the range of temperature would make a difference of 1 in 5,000, this would cause a c~a:k of a quarter of an inch at every hundred feet, if on a ng1d base. The modem Egyptian uses salt material in his best bricks, so that they shall not become quite dry and hard ; thus they can yield to and fro with the strain of movements (Richmond, Journ. R. Inst. Brit. Archit. XVIII, 544).

The· ancients followed two methods to avoid distortion by the soil. One way was to bed on sand, which left walls free from shifting below it. The other way, for long enclosure walls, was to build them wavy or corrugated (pl. v! fig. 11). The_Iength of such walls exposed them especially to contort10ns of the soil ; the wavy plan allowed of rise and fall in different parts, without doing more than slightly increasing or diminishing the amount of wave in the upper part of the wall. This form also en~ured the greatest steadiness with a given amount of bncks. The wavy walls are always thinner than the straight walls of enclosures. 12. PAN-BED BUILDING. A special feature of the Egyptian brickwork is the sagging of the bed in a concave curve, so that all the courses follow as concentric coats (figs. 12, 13). This is associated naturally with the batter of the faces of the wall ; but the slope of the bed may be even more than that of the batter, so that the bricks have sometimes to be advanced outward as courses ascend

1 (fig. 14). This sag bed extends in both directions inward and along the walls ; in fact, the courses may be regarded as concentric coats of a pyramidal segment of a sphere, whose apex is, perhaps, a quarter of a mile high. The purpose of this concave bedding was to hold in the corner bricks at the ends. In Gerar, blocks of stone were sometimes put up the edges for the same purpose. The curvature was certainly not an accidental settlement, as the bed

BRICKWORK II · carefully prepared by building up the corners, and at is d . 1 'd . as a Philae a massive stone. be is a1 o~t m a pan-curve . foundation for the brick wal~ (pl. iv, fig. 15). (Cho1sy, L'Art de blltir chez les Egyptiens, pl. I.) .

13 . SAG AND STRAIGHT WALLS. A. very pecu~iar type of building is seen in the great city walls, ":hich "' consist of separate blocks of building, alternate~y with a pan-bed and a straight-bed (fig. 16). Sometimes the straight part hogs upward in the courses, but they are never so much curved as those over the pan-bed. An attempt has been made to account. f~r this form, by ~he need of preventing the wall from shdmg on a wet slopu1;g foundation. But this form is found where there is neither wet nor slope, as at Abydos, Deir el Medineh, .and El Kab and even based on a hard rock bed at Ph1lae. Such a~ explanation is therefore impossible. in fact, and apparently futile in theory. The explanat10n seems to lie in what is the main defect of these great walls. The compression of the mass is not in an entirely rigid bo~y ; so great a volume is always slightly damp at heart, owmg to moisture from below, as rock tombs cut at such a level are slightly damp if closed .. Hence the pr~ssure thrusts outward, where there is nothmg to balance it on the face. The heart sinks by this yielding, more than the dry outside, and so the face becomes detached. Deep cracks are generally found running parallel to t~e !ace, about one or two feet in-that is to say, about the hm1t of the dry facewhere it changes to the damper heart of th~ wall-. T~us a great wall is more or less in a state of scalmg, w~th shces, a foot or two thick, slowly parting and at last fallmg away. Some walls have, nevertheless, lasted remarka~ly well. The iind dynasty fort at Abydos stands 37 ft. ~1gh, and has only lost one layer of bricks from the face m nearly seven thousand years. But it stands on the dry desert plain, and was built with only six courses at once, and allowed to dry ~horoughly.

•

•

12 EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE The remedy for scaling which the Egyptian devised was to brace his wall through with a hard dry face, at every fifty feet or so. This was done by building in alternate blocks, . which were left to harden before the alternate spaces were filled in (fig. 16). This in any case limited the scaling to short lengths. Each pan-bed block had, then, sloping faces which could be examined and seen to be sound dried building, before they were covered by the intermediate blocks. ·These latter were naturally built horizontal, as the bricks butted against the first series, and could not slip out at the end ; in some instances the intermediate block even hogged upward, so as to put the bricks square to the older face. Such a difficulty and such a remedy seem to be a complete reason for this construction. Having once established a regular system, it was imitated sometimes by routine without reason, and there are cases where all the blocks were built at . the same time to this pattern, as proved by different colours of bricks each running all the length at the same level. 14. SIZE OF WALLS. The great wall of Tanis is 80 ft. thick, and was entirely built by Pasebkhanu (xxist dynasty), with bricks stamped by him throughout, from the heart to the outside of it. The wall at Buto is 70 ft. thick, at Defenneh 40 ft. thick, and at Nebesheh (xxvith) and Abydos (xviiith) 30 ft. thick. The height of the walls has always. suffered much by weathering. At Defenneh the wall has been swept off to ground level by rain and high winds. The highest wall remaining is that of the Palace of Apries at Memphis. The palace is on a platform of brickwork of cellular construction, which descends certainly to more than 45 ft. below the floor ; the pillars of the palace prove that it was 47 ft. high, so there was a sheer wall in one face, over 92 ft. in height. As a baked brick wall would not carry more 1 than 600 ft. of its own height, the unbaked bricks must have been approaching the crushing limit.

BRICK MOULDING, MODERN AND ANCIENT

\

I -

/

I : 12 BUILDERS' TOOLS. LAYOUT OF FOUNDATION

1

0 0 0 0 a 0

I: .6 e>FHCKMOUU), )(I.I l>YN , BRCN'Z.E '101>.'TAR. llA \C'.E , '!'L.AS"T"E~ E-1>.5 HoA"T"S, XII l>YN.

Pf.l\SPECTIV£ VJEw·or COFINER OF MASTASA, FOLLOWING SLOPING e>UJOE LINES ON CORNER WALL.

II

WALL FOOTING ; BRICK BONDING, PAN-BED Ill

' ' /

PAN-BED BUILDINGS ; PAINTED GRAINING IV

/

/

WA VY BRICK WALLS PAN-BED WALL REED FENCE V

llOOO WAVY BRICK WALLS AROUND P'f1'AfllllD, MAZGHUHEH. llll DYN.

MODE OF 5TJPPlflG lllltKWOllK DOWMCORMER OF PAN•&EO &UILDING.

,_ollt </

J./'/' 16 So~A... STllAIGHT WALL ~~~--:'T""p-"_N_-_s_c_o~&--L-o_c~K~~.f~~~~~~~~-P-A_N_-s_E~D~&-L_oc_K __ .,...•_E_TW_E_C_M~·L~O-CK5

MODE OF' BUIUHNG SRICI\ WALLS, To O&T/llN Dl\V AND STRONG C.1\0.SS WALLS.

~,...-r l~~.,.,...,..,..,...,.,...,,....,..,.........,....,...,..T"T"inl7

\ \

I f"EN C E Of S CO R P,J ON K I NG

/

(/

. --

BRICKWORK 13 15. DECORATIVE BRICKWORK. The sloping outer face

of the walls had an artistic value, as it greatly diminished the heavy effect of the plain masses, devoid of windows or engaged columns. It also gave an increased sense of size by the diminution as the mass receded from the eye. This is similar to the in.creased effect of length in some cathedrals owing to the diminution in breadth toward the east end. The increased sense of security owing to the batter, in so soft a building material, was also a gain to the general effect. ·

The distinctive decoration of the early brickwork is the panelling of it as a series of false doors. This will be dealt with in the next chapter along with the influence of original materials.

MOULDINGS. These were made for a cornice to brick buildings. Large square thin bricks (16·7 X 16·7 X 3·0) were cut into the profile of a cornice, and built in a row on edge. They were large enough for the weight above the wall to outbalance the projecting weight ; thus they stood safely upon the wall, like the sloping roof beams of the pyramid chambers. Brick cornices such as these were in use at Thebes after Ramesside times.

16. ARCH BRICKS. These were made with a quadrant curve cut in one corner, and placed in pairs to form a barrel roof to a passage. The name of the owner was stamped along the curve, and appeared repeated along the whole roof. Such bricks were burnt, probably to increase the strength; this may have been done intentionally after the building. Possibly the firing was only due to burning of the contents of the tomb in later times. The arch as a structural feature will be described in chapter vii,i .

CHAPTER II

REED, PALM, AND WOOD

17. PRIMITIVE STAGES. The most primitive shelters were doubtless of organic material and, where the earliest huts of Egypt can be traced, they appear to be of bundled straw lined with mud. The organic forms had but little influence on the brickwork, but were the direct origin of the structural forms in stone. Similarly in Greece, the details of stonework were detailed copies of wooden beams and nails. ·

The unwrought materials which were everywhere to hand in Egypt were palm-ribs, papyrus, reeds, and mud, with palm-fibre roughly t~isted as a bindin& mate~ial. Each of these led to some different form of construct10n-, as may be seen in the country at present. The maize, dhurra, and rice are all of later introduction. A usual -fence for cultivation, or the side of a hut, is formed by placing a row of stems close together, and lashing them to a horizontal bundle placed near the top. This is figured on the mace-head of the Scorpion King (Hierakonpolis I, xxvic; fig. 17.) Reeds were doubtless used in the same way, when there was marshy ground unreclaimed. They are also placed between courses of brick walls to aid 'the cohesion and the drying.

The primitive form, of hut is still to be seen in Egypt. Three sides of a shelter form a screen from the cold, and the open front is shaded by carrying the reed-stems of the roof forward and supporting them upon two columns formed by bundles of reeds. The whole is built under a tree to give a cool shade and break the force of the wind.

14

-----

REED, 1 PALM, -AND WOOD 15 A similar structure is represented as a primitive shrine (fig. 18). The hut has two columns placed before it, the roof projects in front, and a low fence. of pe~s in !he ground, lashed together, prevehts amm~ls mtrudmg (Medum, ix).

Columns of reeds bound together are commonly used ,, for support. To give greater rigidity, the bundle is plastered with mud, which prevents any bending of the stems. Such columns of frail material are even used for supporting the heavy. swinging weig~t of a s~aduf for raising water, as seen m the field behmd the bnckmaker (fig. 2). These columns originated the architectural forms, as noticed farther on.

18. PALM RIB. The mid rib of the palm branch was a favourite material in all ages for building, owing to its great toughness and elasticity. A layer of palm-sticks covered with mud is the customary roofing for country buildings. Whether native to Egypt or not, the palm has certainly been there since prehistoric ages, as the palm branch is marked on the pottery as far back as the Badarian age. The use of it for huts is seen on the ivory carving early in theist dynasty (fig. 19), where the curved lines of the dome roof interlace as an elastic material ; in the north they would be osiers, in Egypt they could only be palm ribs. Such a hut covered with palm-leaf mats is still the home of the Bisharin tribes.

A regular fence in straight line, and the flat sides of a hut, are at present formed by planting a row of palm ribs in the ground and interweaving others diagonally both ways (fig. 20). Near the tops they are held together by lashing to a cross-stick. The whole is then plastered with mud, through which the lines of the sticks in each direction are seen in relief. This form of construction is clea~ly shown in the figures of shrines of the pyramid period, as in the tomb of Merab(L.D. II, 18, 19) and a slab in Memphis II, xviii (figs. 21, 22). The similarity of

16 EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE cross-sticks in the palm-leaf fence and in the shrine is clear, and the cornice above the building is likewise formed froID: the loose heads of the palm-ribs. The pattern of this c~ve~to Cornice kept the original marking o_f the leaves sprmgmg from each rib, down to the latest t1m:s (see L.D. III, 115). Moreover, on looking at sections ?f temple roofs, it will be seen that usually the flat roof is at the same level as the torus roll where the cross-bun.die of palm~ribs is lashed on, and ~o supports the. ro~f 1~ a p~11!1-nb hut. The cavetto cornice thus mamtams its ongmal position, derived from the loose tops of the palm-ribs (fig. 23).

19. PAPY~us. The p~pyrus was of much importance to the Egyptians but, bemg now extinct in Egypt we have ~o. m~dern :xamples of its use to guide ~s in recogmsmg its derivations. The stems of the papyrus were much used in construction. Boats were made of bundles of the stems lashed together, and the thick outer layers we.re wr?.':1ght into sails, nets, cloths, coverlets, and ropes (Plmy, xm, 22). In early times it was so usual for ~onstructing dwellings, that the treatment of the crown of it forme~ a decorative border which was copied through all the history . .

!he deci~ive ex~mple is the figure of a boat with cabins bm~t upo!1.1t, havmg the khaker ornament along the top. This pos1t10n proves that this orrl:ament was very light, an~ 1!1ust have belonged to the hght material of cabin bmldmg (fig. 24) .. The. form of the loose feathery head of the papyrus explams this. It was impracticable to have such a mass left loose, and when gathered together it formed a good holder for the horizontal stems used in t~e roofing. These stems are always shown as concentric circles put th~ough the feathery head, which is bound . together to gnp the roofing stem in place. / The upper ~nds of the mass are further tied together to keep them tidy (fig. 25), much as the loose hair of women was tied

I

'

REED, PALM, AND WOOD 17 up in the xiith dynasty (L.D. II, 126). This decorative form is earliest known as a relief from Meydum (fig. 26), which is probably of the iiird dynasty. It was usually painted along the tops of the walls in the xiith dynasty, and appears commonly down to Roman times. The use of papyrus bundles as columns started the form found at Amarna (fig. 89), where the triangular form of each " stem is curved. These are described among forms of columns.

20. RusHWORK, though not constructional in building, was used for ornament. A fine instance of painted matting is on the ceiling of a tomb (Benihasan I, vi). An oblong space in the middle of the roof is represented as covered with plaited mats of various patterns. Perhaps also the ceiling pattern itself has been derived from matwork ; this is suggested by the varieties seen in a neigh-bouring tomb (L.D. II, 130).

21. WooD was largely used in early constructions. In the ist dynasty the man with two axes is ~me of the hi.gh officials ; the great royal tombs were entirely of massive timbering ; and the later architecture-like that of Greece and India-shows plainly the copying of wooden prototypes. At present we think of Egypt as being dev~id o( useful timber, but Floyer has shown that there are evidences of the country having been far more wooded in ancient times, belore the camel extirpated the desert flora. Timber was also largely imported from Syria, jn pre-historic as well as historic times.

The earliest constructional use of wood that remains is in 1the form of sticks and poles laid across open graves. This held up brushwood and matting on which the earth was laid. Such graves were developed into the size of the great royal tombs of the ist dynasty. In the largest of these, the wooden chamber was roofed with beams up to 19 ft. span, and such beams still remaining in t.he floor are 11 by 7 ins. in section. If they were spaced with 2

/


intervals of three diameters they would be amply strong for the load. They were doubtless covered with boards, and matting of plaited palm-leaf overlaid these, to prevent the top layer of sand running through. The cast of the matti~g remains on the top of the brick lining of the pit. The sides of the royal tombs were formed of upright planks of wood, three or four inches thick, which stood on ledges in the massive wooden floor.

Another form of roofing was by round palm-trunks placed side by side. These prove that wood was not very scarce, when it was so wastefully used. This roof was copied in stone for the ceiling of a rock chamber in the west side of the area round the Second Pyramid, also in the rock chamber of the tomb of Senusert III at Abydos.

22. WOODEN HOUSING. The most regular and usual form of wood construction was for palaces and houses. First we may notice the scanty remains which have come to light, for, as the dwellings were in the plain, norie of them could be found without searching far below the present water level. Fortunately old timbers of houses were employed sometimes for roofing of graves ; thus whole boards have been preserved, and show us their original use (fig. 27). The house was framed of upright boards which lapped one over another at the edges (fig. 28). Thus as they expanded and contracted, by rainstorm and tropical sun, there was no gap or crack opened. So long as two boards kept flat neither wind nor sand need enter. To hold the boards together, slots were cut, not going through, but returning in the face or edge of the board; thus ties, probably of hide, could lash the boards one on the other and allow of a slide of a quarter of an inch for contraction. In this way the problem of a permanent tight joint was settled.

Next, the requirements of a great hall of a noble had to be met. His retainers naturally would sleep around him r

I

r

REED, PALM, AND WOOD 19

as guards; such we know was the North European custom, and such is reflected in the girdle of graves put round each royal tomb. For sleeping on the ground the Egyp~ian thinks mostly of avoiding draughts, and weather-tight recesses all round the great hall were provided for sleeping bunks between the doorways which would be esse~ti:1l "' for hot weather (fig. 28A). This appears to be the ongm of the in-and-out bays which form the sides of the hall (fig. 28B). The actual construction of .these was ?Y t~e lapping of the upright boards, and thi~ w~s co~1e~ m brickwork ( 29), and formed the panellmg m bmldmgs which is characteristic of the early mastaba tombs (fig. 30 ). A house so constructed could be thrown open 3:11 along the sides by opening the narrow doo~s to l~t a.ir blow freely through ; it could be closed on either side m storms or on sandy days. When shut at night, there would be sheltered bunks, OUt of the draughts which would certainly cut in below the doors. Where doors were not needed for passage, they were barred across to keep out animals or thieves at night, as shown on the coffin housemodels where some are barred and some can stand open (fig. 3 1). A further consideration was that a house of this pattern could be re~dily moved so as t? be o~ the desert during the inundation and on the plam durmg the dry season being moved to and fro every year. There would be abo~t 30 boards to each bunk, s~ with some farm la~our each retainer could easily move his share of the hall m a day. While the desert is requisite during the inundation, the crop land is much cooler in the heat. These boards that have been found bear the weathering on the face, showing how far the lapping board pro~ected it ; ~n one piece the side was burnt by a fire havmg been hghted near it.

In other buildings the sleeping bunks were not recessed, and only a straight line of overlapped boards filled t~e space between the doors. This is seen on the gramte


sarcophagus of Khufu-onkh (fig. 32). There the pattern had planks as wide as they could be cut from the tree, in lapping order. The main planks were higher and went to the top of the building as structural posts : shorter planks were filled by openwork carving in wood, to prevent birds from entering. At the doorway there is recessed planking on the sides. The ends of long beams, showing above all this, suggest that a floor was let in here for an upper room, with short panellings. At the top are the ends of the roofing poles, half-trunks from split trees, and laid with the flat sides downward. They are alternate, stouter ones to carry the roofing, and slighter ones filling in between. This is one of the most complete and instructive copies of a wooden palace front. Other good examples are on a fragment in Abydos I, xiii, 168, and a painting on the coffin of Nekht-onkh, Gizeh and Rifeh, xA.

23. PANELLING. The shallow relief of the panel in wood, or in stone carving, became much deeper when it was translated into brickwork, as it could only be made by the width of a brick. The actual arrangement of the bricks, to produce the form, is copied here from a mastaba at Tarkhan (fig. 30).

The roofing by means of poles is often copied in stone. Sometimes the poles are close together, as in the tomb of Methen, early ivth dynasty (L.D. II, 4) and in the eaves of a vith dynasty tomb (Diospolis, 37, xxv). In the tombs of Ameny and Khnumhetep at Benihasan the poles are spaced apart five times their breadth, or about a foot and a half apart, the poles being a palm in width. The rounded. side is downward, as in the rock-carved ceilings. · ·

The use of wooden panelling for ornament was an early mode. The graining of wood is beautifully drawn on the wooden. cylinder measures painted in the tomb of Ra..;hesy (Quibell, Hesy, viii, x, xiii), and in a ivth dynasty tomb

PALM-STICK AND PAPYRUS STRUCTURES VI

18

HUT-5 HI\ !NE. MEYDUM

JiUT-$Hf\lNE • .IY I>VN. MCf\AF>. L.D.11, I?.

HUT I DVN.

lloVA.L. ToMaS 11,lV,

HUT-.&Hf\INE, VDVN. MEMPHIS II """'

26

24

PAPVf\US STE.MS TIED UP AS SUPPORTS

11\0DERN F'ENCE OY PALM-STICKS

23

/

HOUSE PLANK BUILDINGS, AND IMITATIONS VII

DD DU

I

I

n a

u1 II OD a DU

D

I aa / oa D kl

JU PL ... NK~OT WOODEN HOUSES

WITH tJ..sKAPED SLOTS TD CAl\l\V L.\SHJNG TOI\ JOINING OVEl\IJIP P\..ANK$.

{

o a • D D

, I

\ 1 r an ao

a a

0 u

\1 h

1:2.0 MODE: O'f LAYING &F\1CK5 TO FOP.M

f\£CESSES ... S IN TOMB WALL BE:LOW.

27

1:2.0 OVEl\LAPP~D PLANKS fOl\ DOOR.Wl'<Y,

THI' 60u9'.C.£" OF e-.1c.K wo-.K F0?\~5 BE LOW.

WOODEN C.0fFIN 1 COPI E.D F"ROM. WOODtN. HOUSE .

/

HOUSE MODEL ; STONE CUTTING AND TOOLS VIII

' 43 43A

0 DYN. l.D'{N.

1\1 OVN.

1:40 LAflC,E: AND 51'\AL.L

.~DZE!> WITH HANDLE!> .

38

45

1.V D '{ N. "-11 DVN.

1:6 STONE MAUl-S .

46

Vl . DVN. XII DVN . XVlll DVN.

Chie.F Mi"l'\ec!T' AMB U. XII XII

·1

/

Ii

REED, PALM, AND WOOb 2I

(fig. 33) there is careful painting representing a wainscot of variously grained wood (L.D. II, r9-2r),

We have here dealt with the material for construction ; the actual buildings and plans will better be considered with the temple plans, as the temple was the house of the god, each part derived, from a house for the living persons.

CHAPTER III

STONEWORK

24. MATERIALS. Egypt abounds with excellent stone of very different qualities. The Egyptians, having the convenience of water transport, never had a mile of road between quarry and building. The natural facilities for architecture were unsurpassable. The cultivation of the land likewise favoured monumental work ; during half the year scarcely any agriculture was possible, owing to the dryness, and then the submergence of the soil. Thus the inhabitants could be employed on public works without the least detraction from productiveness, but with great gain to their training in skill and co-operation.

Limestone. The main part of Egypt is a limestone plateau through which the Nile Valley is cut. This stone is of the Eocene age and varies much in character. Some is as fine grained and amorphous as chalk, and scarcely harder than strong chalk. This is an 'exquisite stone to work, as it can be flaked and broken with certainty almost exactly as desired. It comes mainly from the quarries of Gebel Mokattam and Turra, between Cairo and Helwan, and was used for the casing of the pyramid of Khufu, and the tomb sculptures of the pyramid age, the iiird to the xiith dynasties. The quality used by Zeser in the iiird dynasty at Saqqara is brittle and not in large blocks. Though of fine grain it was used in a tentative way, with compound columns supported by side walls.

Rather harder limestone is also found, some yellowish and splintery as used on the pyramid of Khafra ; other kinds creamy and very fine grained, but fragile, as at

22

STONEWORK 23

Thebes. A coarser limestone contains a large quantity of crystalline nummulites, and is strong for bearing weights, but will not dress well. It came mainly from Mokattam, and is found along the Nile side ; it was used for the core of the Khufu pyramid, and the great en-closure walls near by. .

In various places, especially near Amama, a limestone " is found which has been so consolidated by infiltration that it is changed to a compact and hard marble. This was a favourite stone for statuary and the best inscriptions, as in the xiith dynasty at the Labyrinth, and in the xviiith dynasty under Amenhetep III at Thebes. The other principal limestone . quarries are at Surariyeh, lat. 28° 20'; Zoweydeh, 28° 5'; Sheykh Timay, 27° 51(., ; Sheykh Sayd, 27° 42'; and Gebel Abu Foda, 27° 30'.

Alabaster. This is found in thick masses in the limestone, and is entirely due to solution of the rock by rain, and redeposit of the carbonate of lime in crystalline layers on the sides of waterwom caverns. The successive coats of deposit can always be traced in it. The great historical quarry is at Hatnub, east of Amama (27° 34'). The age of working there is shown by the names of Khufu, Pepy I and II, and Senusert I. The quarry is open to the sky, being a large pit with a sloping descent. Another quarry is said to be behind Daiidiyeh, lat. 28° 9'. The qualities of alabaster vary much. That used in the early dynasties is very fine grained ; beside being utilised much for dishes and vases, enormous blocks were moved for building, as at the Granite Temple, Gizeh. In the xiith dynasty, a honey-yellow variety was generally used. In the xviiith dynasty, more crystalline kinds appear, white and fairly translucent. In the xxvith dynasty, a dull opaque variety was common, often with bands of brownish white. All of the true alabaster (anciently so named) is carbonate of lime, as hard as marble, and not the softer sulphate of lime, gypsum, which is now called alabaster in Italy.


Granite. The red granite of varied quality comes entirely from the great eruptive belt at the First Cataract. It was wrought in the middle of the ist dynasty, as early as the reign of King Den, who had a floor of granite in his tomb. Enormous masses were used for paving in the unfinished tomb of Nebka (iiird dynasty). Under Khufu, beams of 40 to So tons' weight were freely cut, forty-three such forming the roofs of his chamber, and a furlong length of blocks, uniform in gauge, serving for the walls and floor. The earlier working is all of waterwom and rounded blocks, dressed to shape ; such were of safer mat-· erial, as any cracks were certain to have opened by weather• ing and so become visible. In later ages, the rock was quarried out of the solid mass, and an unfinished colossus of Arnenhetep III proves the age of such working at Aswan. The quality varies ; dark red was used in pyramid times, a medium red with small green spots under the xiith dynasty, pale red with large crystals under Ramessu II, a coarse full red in the xxvith dynasty, and a rather lighter colour in Roman times. The black granite was used by the Uah-ka princes of the ixth dynasty, and for the fish-offerer statues ; a grey granite was fashionable in the xiith and again in the xxvith dynasty. As a rule, the work of the black granite school is always the finest, for instance on the pyramidion of Amenemhat III at Cairo.

Sandstone. The soft Nubian sandstone was greatly quarried, from the xviiith dynasty to Roman times, at Silsileh, lat. 24 ° 40' ; this is the northern edge of the great sandstone region which extends thence through Nubia, only broken by the granite ridge at Aswan. Other quarries were worked at Gebel Hamam, 24° 15'; Kalabsheh, 23° 28'; and Meroe, 16° 52'. The stone is weak, and it is impossible to do any fine work with a grain so coarse and so friable ; the free use of it led to great degeneration in workmanship. Dark brown sandstone

{'

STONEWORK 2.5 was occasionally used in the xith (Abydos) and in the xiith dynasty (Koptos).

Quartzite is only found at two places ; at Gebel Ahmar, two miles east of Cairo, there were some hot springs, due to volcanic action, like the basalt some miles to the north ; these springs have cemented together the sand of the desert into an immense mass of silica, with very slight " porosity. The stone is stained by iron with every colour, varying from white to yellow, brown, pink, and purplered. The red tints have probably been brown, but changed by volcanic heat. The hill has been quarried away, from the time of the ivth dynasty onward, and immense masses were taken in the xiith and xviiith dynasties, so that there is now hardly more than a mass of chips about eighty feet high. In the heart of it is a small nucleus which is still worked for millstones (Clarke, Engelbach, Anc. Eg. Masonry, figs. 31-33). The pebbly sandstone conglomerate used for the colossi of Amen-

. hetep III at Thebes is stated to come from near Gebeleyn.

Basalt of a dark brown colour occurs as a thick bed at Abu Zabel and Khankah, about fifteen miles north of Cairo, where it is still worked largely for road metal, by convict labour. The first great use of this stone was for the paving of the temple of Khufu's pyramid, where it covered more than a third of an acre, entirely of sawn blocks. It was also used for the edges of one of the small pyramids of Khufu. It rarely appears after the Old Kingdom.

Black basalt occurs in the columnar form in the desert west of Behnesa : small columns of black basalt were used at Ehnasya (E, p. 15). Basalt beds also occur northwest of the Fayum.

Greenish basalt of fine grain was much used for statuary, but it is difficult to distinguish in finished work from metamorphosed volcanic ash, or slate. The statue of


Tehutmes III in Cairo, and the splendid head of Greek age at Berlin, are well-known examples of statuary in this stone, but the source of it has not been discovered.

Diorite probably came from the desert south-west of Aswan. It is mostly translucent, and consists of felspar with schistose streaks of hornblende and some dolomite, apparently metamorphic. It was used for the finest work in the Old Kingdom, statuary, bowls, and vases; the edges of one of the Khufu pyramids were cased with diorite.

2 5. QUARRYING

Limestone. The essential principle in Egyptian quarrying was the cutting out of the stone from the rock, carefully avoiding the natural joints. An Egyptian quarry is not a shapeless hole ; it is an orderly workshop where fine material is removed· as regularly and evenly as wood taken out of store ; this can be seen in action at Helwan. The grand quarries of Turra follow the good beds of limestone, leaving regular pillars in rows to hold the roof. The same is seen in the south, at Qau (pl. ix, 34, 35). Attack on a face was made by starting at the top, cutting vertical and horizontal grooves inward round an intended block, and then cracking it out. Lines of red paint marked on the roof each successive front of the working face. When the quarryman was once on a ledge he cut downward, and then cut under each block to be detached, removing it wrought on all sides. For blocks that were too large for the workman's arm and his pick to cut the whole face, a narrow passage was worked out of the rock around the block, for the quarrymen to pass (36). For pillars, blocks were cut vertically (37), so that the bedding should be correct. e

Sandstone. The great example of precision was at the sandstone quarries of Silsileh. Large cracks intersect the rock ; but instead of working in from the fissure

STONEWORK 27 where the rock was damaged, the cracks are left strictly untouched, with walls a foot thick on ea~h side ; deep quarry pits are worked out twenty or thirty feet deep, between the unbroken sides of cracks. Thus the deteriorated faces, hardened or rotted, were left unused.

The regular use of trenches for cutting out rock is seen " behind the pyramid of Khafra. The trenches are parallel, crossing squarely, 20 ins. wide, leaving 109 to 112 ins. of rock between them for removal.

Granite. For quarrying blocks of moderate size, a groove was worked out about an inch deep ; along this, deeper holes were jumped, at about two feet apart. These may be seen on the backs of the granite roofing beams of Khufu and Menkaura. There is no trace of the crushing by wedges, in these hol~s,_ nor any_ green stain of copper. Two methods of sphttmg g~amte are known in India, one by dry wedges of wood dnven hard and then wetted, the other by heating the granite along the groove by fire, and suddenly quenching it with water. The deeper holes cut by Egyptians at intervals indicates that the wetted wedges were used. For modern Italian methods of wedge-splitting, see Ancient Egypt, 1916, p. 110. Larger masses, such as obelisks~ were cut out by pounding a trough along the rock, usmg stone ball hammers, probably set at the end of long handles, a form like a pavior's rammer (Engel?ach, Probl~ of t~e Qbelisks). The difficulty remains about gettmg sufficiently powerful blows horizontally for the under-cut. It may have been possible to have a slow fire along t.he bottom of the vertical troughs, and then to flood water m, to force a horizontal crack from trough to trough.

The largest blocks of granite were the standing colossus of Tanis, about 92 ft. high, weighing about 900 tons ; the seated colossus of the Ramesseum, 57 ft. high, and over 1 ooo tons · the Lateran obelisk of Tehutmes III, 105! f;, high, w~ighing 480 tons, and the Karnak obelisk of


Hatshepsut, 97! ft. high, of 330 tons. The obelisk of Heliopolis is about I 10 tons. '

Quartzite. The sepulchre of Amenemhat III in the Haw~ra pyramid is the most finished piece of work, being beautt~lly fl~t and true on the inner faces, and about 26 ft. ~ong ! it weighed about 110 tons., being about two feet m thickness. At the quarry, the quartzite seems to have been cut by grooves pounded as in the granite. The Memnon colossi of hard pebble conglomerate, erected by Amenhetep III at Qumeh, weigh 1,I75 tons.

. ~he quarry marks were . fixed for each quarry, and at ' Stls1leh the mark is carved high up on the face of the

quarry, sometimes in relief. These marks seem in many cases to be connected with the foreign signary found in Egypt, probably due to labour of captives in the quarries. Each block cut out was marked with the sign of the quarry, and the sourc~s used for the various buildings can still be tr~ced .. On hme~tone blocks the quarry register is often ~amted m red, with the year, month, and day of the cuttt1:1g ; these blocks woul~ have been the tallies placed with e~ch ~eld of blocks laid out as a store during building. The kmgs i:ames and the dates Ir].ay be valuable historically as a gmde to the P?sition i~ the.Sothis cycle of dating (see Meydum, pls. v, v1, and Historical Studies, 10-12). ·

26. MARKING OUT WORK. In tbe rock-cut passages and tombs, the syst~m was to cut a rough driftway, ~maller than was designed, and to finish the roof of it m a true plane. A red axis line was then drawn along the ~oof, the w~lls were dressed away to be equidistant from tt on each side, and vertical; lastly, the floor was dressed to ~e parall~l to the roof. This may be seen in rock cuttmg at G1zeh.

The same system was followed for rock chambers. It has long been a puzzle why the subterranean chamber of the pyramid of K~ufu should have a finisP,ed ceiling and walls, but an entirely rough floor with a deep hole in

STONEWORK 29 it (38). The meaning is seen when we recognise the regular method of rock cutting. The roof is finished, the walls are started. A pit was sunk as low as the intended floor of the chamber. Had it been finished, then the sloping entrance passage would have run on down to the chamber floor, and the chamber would have been a lofty one, twenty feet high.

The system for marking the building lines on roof beams was to draw on the beam one line for the middle, and two end lines to go over the chamber walls, and supplementary lines at one cubit from each of these in case they should be effaced. To make the positions of the lines clearer, triangles were drawn based on the lines, so that the broad patch of colour could be seen readily at a distance (Pyramids and Temples, 93, 94). Such triangles are shown on the cubit lines in fig. 10.

Similarly in building a brick pyramid, the work was gauged at intervals and the axis marked on it, with supplementary marks each side, as at Hawara pyramid " 2 cubits from the heart (axis) of the building."

In the masonry likewise the work was all marked out in . red on the side of a block, ready to cut it out in profile. The standard diagrams for a palm capital and a Hat-hor capital (fig. IOI) are drawn full size in a quarry at Gebel Abu Fcdeh (Season in Egypt, xxv.); see further, under these forms of capital, in Chapter vi.

27. TooLs. Th~ earliest tooling on stone is that on the statues of Min found at Koptos, where designs are worked by hammer-dressing the ground. At the end of the ist dynasty, the stele of Sabef was hammer-dressed (Royal Tombs I, xxx). Similarly the blocks of the oldest stone chamber-that of Kho-sekhemui-are partly hammer-dressed, on natural cleavage faces. The stone hammers used for dressing were discs of compact amorphous black quartz (homstone) or compact syenite. They were held in the hand, as were also the polished

/

('


stones used for beating out metal. How the shock and jar of the blow were prevented from injuring the wrist is unknown. This system of hammer-dressing was very usual in all periods, for reducing masses to curved forms whic_h could not b~ sawn out. It was mainly used on granite, and the evidence of it is sometimes seen in the whitish spots of stunned stone left visible in polished surfaces of statuary. Similar pounding work was used to hollow out the large tombs at Antaeopolis.

For dressing down stone by blows, large and heavy stone mauls were used. These were of quartzose rocks in the ivth-vith dynasties (fig. 39), and of silicified limestone or chert in the xiith dynasty, at Beni Hasan (fig. 40) and Qumeh.

The ~esult o[ hammer-pick dressing is seen in ix, 41. The pointed pick of later times shows in 42. The claw tool, like a comb, is of Roman age.

For cutting soft stone, the copper adze was usual. It v~~ied in form, flat top, rounded, or with a knob head, vm, 43-47. It was mounted by binding on to a wooden handle ; ~ v~ry large adze used by boat builders (iiird dynasty) i~ m fig. 48, and the small size used by carpenters m fig. 49. For guidance in adzing a flat face a testing-plane covered with ochre was used. '

For dressing stone, the adze was used in the chamber of Kho-sekhemui (iind dynasty), but the blade was of flint as is shown by the chips on the edge leaving raised ridge~ on the stone ; on the contrary, a metal tool has jagged dents on the edge which leave scores in the stone facing. The copper adze was the usual tool for dressing limestone in the ivth dynasty and onward.

Sc~aping was usual for finishing surfaces of limestone, especially around figures of hieroglyphs in relief. At the end of the iiird dynasty, flint scrapers were in use (tomb of Ra-nefer) and copper scrapers (tomb of Nefermaot), see Medum, 27.

.

!\ I

STONEWORK 31

The chisel was in use early in the ivth dynasty, but its exact starting-point is not yet known. It was usually round in the body, sloping off to a sharp edge (50-52). The main use was for reducing masses of limestone or soft sandstone; it would be quite useless upon granite. The supposed " bi-metallic" chisel (Choisy), with a bronze ·" body and almost pure copper exterior, is doubtless due to corrosion removing the more oxidizable tin alloy from the copper to the surface, but leaving the interior unchanged; such a gradual transference of alloys, leaving a spongy mass of purer metal, is very well known.

The copper tools used during the Old and Middle Kingdoms were generally hardened by arsenic, usually t to 1 per cent., sometimes as much as4percent. Rarely, one or two per cent. of tin is also found. The hardening was due to arsenic and copper oxide, with heavy hammering, and these means will now harden copper to an edge about equal to soft steel. From the xviiith dynasty onward, bronze is usual, containing 6 to 15 per cent. of tin.

The mallet used for striking the chisel was always of wood. There is the club mallet shown in early scenes, and found in the xiith dynasty. The more usual form was that of the modem mason's mallet (53-56), which is found in all ages from the iiird dynasty onward.

For the work in granite and diorite, no doubt emery was used in prehistoric times and onward. Blocks of emery are found in prehistoric graves, and no other material would have ground and polished the prehistoric vases of porphyry and granite.

In the ivth dynasty, sawing and tube drilling were the habitual modes of working granite and basalt. See Pyramids and Temples xiv, and Tools and Weapons Iii, for illustrations. The cuts were cleaner and more rapid than in the diamond drilling of the present time. What materials were used can only be inferred. Certainly copper blades eight feet long must have been employed,


as the cuts run the length of 90 ins. of granite. That fixed points of cutting stones were inserted is known from the emery teeth found broken off, in a saw cut in hard limestone, at Tiryns. But it seems hardly credible that emery would make so clean and forcible a cut as we see in diorite and quartz. Engineers at present declare that only b~rt (amorphous diamond), could cut so sharply. In our ignorance of the range of early Egyptian materials we cannot deny that diamond was used. The outlines of large hieroglyphs in granite, as on the obelisks, were cleared at the comers by minute tube drills, and then graved out by a hand-tool of copper from comer to comer, fed with emery ; the middle piece was broken out, and the floor of the sign hammer-dressed, and finally polished with emery. The details of the history of tools cannot be followed here, as we only need to indicate how the stone could be worked. See the Catalogue volume, Tools and Weapons.

CHAPTER IV

TRANSPORT

28. THE COUNTRY. The natural conditions of Egypt were most favourable for great public works. The fertility of the soil was such that one crop in the year, growing from November to April, was enough to maintain the people. By March or April, in the old system of basin irrigation, all the crops were being cleared off the ground ; the people, after that, were at leisure for public works, so that levies could be raised without any hardship or loss to the country. Then inundation follows in July, and lasts over the country till the . end of October.

· -This made it easy to transport stones on boats or rafts from the quarries to the building sites. By the beginning of November every man is busy again sowing his land. Hence there was a season clear of all other labour, beginning in March or April and ending in October ; so unlimited levies could be drawn for quarrying and transport of stone without impoverishing the people.

The Nile inundation usually covered the whole of the flat plain, and in shallow barges, or on rafts, stone could be brought close up to the foot of the desert. This enormously aided the supply of material, as building was hardly ever a quarter of a mile from this water carriage, aided doubtless by canals, so far as possible.

29. SHIPPING. The transport of ordinary building blocks is specified in some accounts scribbled on flakes of limestone, concerning the building of the Ramesseum (Anc. Eg. 1915, 136). The boats employed were about the usual size of cargo boats on the Nile at present, of 1 S

3 33


to 20 tons' burden, or 70 to roo ardebs. Each boat carried 5 to 7 blocks ; the largest block was about 5 ft. long, the load being 40 to 55 cubic cubits. The boats floated down from the sandstone quarries of Silsileh in parties of five together. The four tablets of accounts record the sizes of about 120 stones, which is rather more than there are in the whole wall at Thebes with the scene of the Khita war. (Stud. Hist. iii., 43-44.)

In the sculptures of Deir el Bahri (Naville, D.B. cliii-iv) there is shown the transport of a pair of obelisks, about 27 ft. long and 45 ins. square, placed end to end on a barge. They were apparently not the great obelisks, of roo ft. high and 7 ft. square, as they are shewn only a quarter of the length and half the thickness which those would have appeared in relation to the crew, and also it would be very unlikely that two such masses as the great obelisks of over 300 tons would be needlessly taken together in one load. They had been slid on wooden sledges, which remained under them in the barge. The barge was towed by three lines of ten rowing boats each. The middle line of boats had 17 oars on a side, the outer lines had 15 oars a side. There were thus 940 oars for propulsion. The obelisks were probably not lowered into the bottom of the barge, as that would greatly add to the trouble of moving them out. Judging by the methods of building, it seems likely thgt the boat was banked round and filled with sand while resting in stocks on shore. The obelisk was then drawn on to the sand filling, which was next basketed out, leaving the obelisks on thwarts. When the Nile rose the whole floated off. Similarly for unloading, the barge would again be filled with sand. For the forms of ships, see the article in Anc. Egypt, 1933.

30. HAULING. The method of moving large blocks was by dragging them on sledges, and not by rollers as in Assyria. The figure of a sledge drawn by two oxen,

TRANSPORT 35 bearing a stone, is shown in the Turra quarries of the xviiith dynasty. A fragment of a sledge of sont, the hard acacia wood, was found thrown into the chip filling of the xiith dynasty pyramid at LahGn. A well-known picture of a colossus lashed to a sledge was formerly in a tomb at El Bersheh, now destroyed, but published by Wilkinson. (W.M.C., 1878, II, 305) and Lepsius (Denk. H, 134). " The statue was lashed by cords, over pads to prevent their marking the stone. The cords were twisted by pieces of stick until they were quite tight. The sledge was drawn by four double files of men, dragging at four long ropes tied to the front of the sledge ; there were 21

pairs of men at each rope and one leader, altogether 172 men. If we allow ten men to a ton, that would shew a maximum of 17 tons; this would imply that the seated figure was about 14 ft. high. Three men carry pairs of water jars, while another is pouring water in front of the sledge to make the mud soil slippery. One man stands on the knee of the statue beating time for the hauling. Another is burning incense before the colossus as it advances. Severi ranks of eleven men advance toward the statue holding branches. These numbers are doubtless ten men and one head man in each rank, as · the Sinai -expeditions had always one foreman and ten workmen. The men are not soldiers, but of the same class as the haulers. One rank, like one row of haulers, has the long hair curly, and wears a long garment which reaches to the calf of the leg at the back.

This system of simple hauling is still found to be the most effective for occasional use, where appliances are not worth obtaining. Blocks up to a couple of tons I have had hauled up and down over a bank of high brick walling at Abydos, as the natural method to which the people were accustomed.

31. CAUSEWAYS. Where stone was required for a large building on a rise, · it was then worth while to provide


regularly graded hard ways to draw it up to the required level.

To see what is practically needed, we may observe th iiird dyn. pyramid of Meydum. This was built ·in 17 years, as we know by the quarry dates on the casing. It consisted of about 600,000 blocks averaging 2 tons each. Now 17 years is about 6,ooo working days; so 100 blocks

- a day had to move up to the pyramid. Suppose a 2-ton block to be hauled 2 ft. in a minute, or 120 ft. in an hour, up the sloping causeway, it would take a day to drag it up to the pyramid. Thus there would be 100 blocks in transit at once. Four files of five men each would be needed to move one block. Allowing some free space, the gangs could not be nearer than 40 ft. apart. Thus only 20 or 2 5 blocks could be in transit on one causeway at -once. Four or five causeways would be requisite in constant use, to bring up the stones in time, and each of them crowded as closely as practicable. The men employed must have been about 2,000 for the hauling alone, continuously all the year. '

At Meydum, on the east side, beside the temple causeway, which was doubtless used before it was finished for the temple, there is also the old causeway for the heaviest blocks, carefully graded in the rock. On the south I observed two lines of graded way, and one or two more on the north. Thus there were the needful five or six lines of approach for the material. We see, then, that the Egyptian must have had many causeways for each pyramid, the largest and best of which were for the great beams, while the ordinary core stones could be brought on inferior roads. All of the causeways must have been continuously occupied all the year, with as many working gangs as could act without interfering with . one another.

The great causeway at Meydum is 201 ins. wide, and lined with side walls narrowing it to 123 ins. wide= 6

---~--~-----

.,

TRANSPORT 37

cubits. It had a stone paving, bedded on brickwork. The rise of it is almost 1 in 1 o ; the sloping length is 560 ft., and the vertical rise 52 ft. (Meydum iii). The main causeway of Khufu at Gizeh, slanting up the cliff face, was built of enormous blocks. That of Khafra was cut in the rock along a ridge, and afterwards closed at the end by ; the granite temple. The long causeways of the pyramids of Abusir, Saqqara and Dahshur are obvious on the ground, and may be seen in all the plans. The causeway of Khufu was reported, in later times, to have taken ten years to construct, along with the needful rock excavation for the pyramid. Herodotos describes it as 60 ft. wide, 48 ft. high in parts, and 300 ft. long. As the pyramid of Khufu contains over four times the amount of material of that at Meydum, and occupied very little longer to build (20 years instead of 17), there must have been about 15 or 20 lines of transport. The causeway 60 ft. wide would take-nearly as much as the whole Meydum traffic, but it cannot have carried more than a quarter of what was needed for the whole of the pyramid of Khufu. Another causeway is seen toward the south. Probably the Khafra causeway was originally made by Khufu to supply the western side of his pyramid, and other tracks may have existed parallel to that.

32. HANDLING. The practical shifting of blocks in detail was doubtless done by levers. On the granite blocks ·of the pyramid of Khufu, where not finally polished, there may be seen a projecting boss of stone, about 5 ins. wide and an inch or two thick; and on the polished blocks of the King's Chamber the positions of two larger bosses, dressed off on each face, may be seen by slanting light (57-58). Such bosses are also seen on finished work in granite and limestone, as at the ends of sarcophagus lids (Meydum, x, 4). Other large blocks of rough limestone have a recess cut in the base edge, often about 5 ins. wide, 5 high, and 2 deep. These bosses and


recesses are evidently to give a lifting point for , a lever or crowbar.

Models of crowbars (59) with bent ends, made of copper, were placed in the foundation deposits of tools under the xixth dynasty temples of Ta-usert and Siptah. The thick snub end of the first is well designed.

For small shifting of blocks, there appears to have been used a large lever horizontally rotating on its fulcrum. The blocks of limestone with deeply scored cavities in them, caused by rotation of an irregular knob under very heavy pressure, are commonly found in builders' rubbish at Meydum (60). They were used and re-used, until there was no clear place left on either side, and often they had broken up by the pressure. These have commonly been used for a vertical pivot, as the blocks have no sort of regular form, and fit any position as horizontal bearings. The only instrument that seems likely is a long wooden lever, with a peg beneath it as a fulcrum. After taking a lift with it, under a boss or in a hollow of a stone, the lever was then turned on its fulcrum, and so drew forward the stone. Thus by turning the tail of the lever round two or three feet, the stone would be moved forward a few inches. This is the most effective way for a few men to move a large block which is beyond their direct powers, as I know practically in Egypt. After one lift and drag, the fulcrum was shifted forward, and the lever set on it for another lift. Metals being valuable, probably all crowbars then used were beams of the hard sont or acacia.

33. RAISING. The simplest of all ways of raising great weights is by ramming sand under them. Two Arabs contracted to take a colossal sarcophagus out of a deep pit. A short stick was their only apparatus. One man rammed sand hard under the sarcophagus, regularly working round it, the other threw down more sand as it was used. In a few weeks the great mass stood on the top of the well, which was now full of sand. For some

I .v

TRANSPORT · 39 purposes, where time was no object, the ancients may have worked similarly ; but great royal works were a busy scene crowded with as many men as could reach the work, and every hour was important.

The easiest method of raising long beams of stone was by tilting up. If a beam is supported on two piles near the middle of it, a moderate lift will raise it from one " pile or the other. If the piles be a tenth of the length of the beam apart, say 18 ins. on a 15 ft. beam, only Tu- of the weight has to be lifted at one end (60). A gang of men which can stand on half a beam, walking up to the higher end alternately, would suffice to lift a beam of granite 9 ins. deep, if the supports were a tenth of the length apart. Or for an obelisk 7 ft. square, men standing 18 ins. apart over half of it, would require the supports to be 20 ins. apart under a 100 ft. obelisk. If the obelisk tilted 5 ft. up and the same down at the ends, when rocked, the slope would be 1 in 1 o and the pile from which it rose would have 2 ins. clear over it, to place a fresh support upon, so as to raise it. Thus the obelisk would rise 2 ins. at each tilt. As the 160 men on it might take a minute to walk 50 ft. in close pack, from one half to the other half of the obelisk, the main part of the time would be taken in adding and adjusting the supports. Perhaps five minutes for one lift might be required, lifting the whole, therefore, 2 ft. in an hour, or 20 ft. a day. I have actually used tilting, to raise a column up a stairway.

The granite be~ms, averaging 55 tons, of the roofs over the king's chamber of Khufu's pyramid would require supports 7 ins. apart, to tilt when one half was loaded with men. If the ends tilted up and down 3 ft. on 13 ft. of half length, that would give l! ins. clear for adding to one support at each tilt. The support must not be less than 11 square ins. of granite or it would crush down.

The main trouble comes not in actually lifting the


weigh~, but in securing it. The elasticity, or crushing, or wo?blmg, of the supports m~y easily take up all the gain. It is necessary to have blocks of the hardest stones to

form the supports, if narrow. A large obelisk would need granite bearings of at least half a square foot, to save them from crushing with the weight. . 34· CRADLES. In the xviiith dynasty, models of a

simple form of cradle were often buried in foundation deposits. The use of these to give shifting support to blocks of stone is obvious ; but the details that have been suggested, as by Choisy, are impracticable. In order to give effective help in raising the centre of gravity of a block, the centre must be not too far below the centre of curvature of the cradle (62). A block wider than its height could scarcely be rocked at all ; it requires the block to be on its end, nearly twice as high as it is wide, for the cradle to rock effectively. No form of lever applied to the cradle bars would act, as it would smash the cradle by its leverage. Pushing the block over and perhaps pulli~g it also by a rope, would be ~he eff;ctive mode of rocking. The practical adoption of such a form ther~fore requir~s us~ to picture.the use of it in these proportions. Rockmg it first from one side and then to the other, wedges of wood could be put beneath it, and so the mass steadily raised until shifted on to a higher step of building.

STEPPING UP. For any raising of blocks, a thoroughly firm stage was needed. This was sometimes on the lower levels of the masonry, from which a block could be rais~d to a higher course. In great work, however, such petty methods would be quite impossible, and earth slopes were necessary. ·

35· EARTH BANKS. For the hundreds of blocks nee~ed daily in building a pyramid, the only practicable method would be dragging blocks up a long slope, such as we see was provided below the Meydum pyramid.

II \

TRANSPORT

The earth bank needed for this would be held in place by brick walls through the mass. Such walls are seen in the remains of the earth banks at the great pylon of Kamak (63); and similarly at the quarry of Qau,.a long earth slope was held up by a thick brick wall. The staging at Karnak extended to near the top, as there are rows of rafter holes high up in the stone face, for a shed.

A scheme of work to cover all the requisites of a pyramid has been suggested (Anc. Eg. 1930, 33). This . involves a great earth bank the width of one face, up to about 400 ft. high. The blocks would be dragged up in parallel tracks. The exactitude of the casing, already cut to the angle, would be provided by laying the case of a course first in place, sighted down the three empty sides to the base. Then the core blocks would be brought in and packed behind the course of casing. The embanked side would be finished last, sighted from corner to comer, before proceeding with the next course. The top hundred feet, less than a hundredth of the pyramid, would have to be raised by staging on the courses. As a single statue had a slope a third of a mile long for raising it (figs. 65-67), there is no difficulty in believing that a vast bank was used for a pyramid.

36. EARTH FILLING. Not only was earth used outside a building but, from remains of brick walling and earth in the Great Hall of Karnak, it appears that the hypostyle halls were filled up solid with earth, as the work progressed, in order to give a firm ground for moving each course into place. The walls being built first, the measurements could be taken off for each layer of drums of the columns, so that there was no risk of getting them irregular owing to the lower part being invisible. The blocks were all built in with a surplus on the faces (64), so that an inch or two could be removed in the final dressing. The dressing probably took place while the earth was being removed. This system of solid filling is quite

/


practicable, and was used by M. Legrain in making the restorations of the Great Hall, at no more cost than tackle, and with much more safety when in the charge of unskilled men.

37. ERECTION OF MONOLITHS. This work demands more skill and enterprise than any oth_er form of transport, and it has always been looked on as a crowning triumph of mechanics. In classical or papal Rome, in Paris or London, such labours have always caused the greatest interest. Happily we have a measured record of the arrangements for the erection of colossi of Rameses IV, which explains much of the system (see figs. 65-67). A causeway of earth was made, of 730 cubits long, 55 wide at_ the top, and 60 high on the slope. The sides were held up by 120 frames of beams and brushwood, some of 30 X 7 cubits. (Stud. Hist. III, 169). The direct height is not given but, as the slant height is stated as 60 cubits, probably the proportions of the slope had a multiple of 3 or 5 in the diagonal. As facings were used to keep the earth from crumbling, the angle must have been steep enough to need them, and not merely the angle of rest. From practical examples of piling up a bank of damp earth and mud, in Egypt, 42° is the average, and 45° the steepest slope, without any retaining cover. Now as the Egyptian reckoned profiles in terms of rise and base, the question is what simple proportions would be near this ? A rise of 4 on 4! base has 6 diagonal, angle 41° 38' ; 1 on 1 base is of course 45°; and the converse, of 4! on 4 with 6 diagonal, is 48° 22'. The facings suggest that the higher angle was used, but if the earth were crumbly and not moist, it might be the lower. If we take 45° it can hardly be far wrong. That would mean 42! cubits base and height for 60 slope (17 to 24 for diagonal ratio = 1·411). Hence the bases of the two slopes would be 85, and as the top width was 55 cubits, the whole base was 140 cubits. The slope of 60 cubits was faced by two rows

TRANSPORT 43

of frames 30 cubits high. This much is pretty closely defined by the Egyptian account.

When we come to draw this to scale, we see that the slope up was 1on17, the.causeway being about~ q~arter of a mile long. By haulmg the colossus up this, 1t was raised 42! cubits or 73 ft. The size of the colossi is not stated, nor is there any trace of a colossus of this king by which we could judge. From the height to which it was raised it must have been large and, if we take the usual size of pylon colossi at Kamak, it might be about 24 cubits high or 41 ft. The cross section of the bank shews that there was abundant strength, and room for the trains of men hauling the colossus along.

What happened when it reached the head of the causeway, we can best judge by looking at the section. It would begin to crush down the edge of the bank wh.en hauled as far as might be (A). The centre of gravity of the block is marked by a spot, so that the movement can be traced. Holding back the block from sliding, by ropes passed round the toes and fastened back to the causeway, the men would dig out the earth below the feet of the block. Such earth compressed by piling can be dug away vertical before it caves in. After cutting a pit in the end of the bank, the colossus could be liberated, a~d would slip down into the pit in positio~ (B). By. carvn~g away the earth beneath it, and rammmg earth m behmd the head, it would be slipped down into positi?n (C). There, by scraping out the earth, it .could be slipped on to the pedestal. By thus keeping the block he~d up by ea~th, it could be dealt with gradually and precisely by cuttmg out earth on one side or another, to keep it from falling over or tilting sideways. The amount of fall or slip allowed would regulate how much it moved forward, and so adjust it to its base.

The final settlement of a great mass on a clean surface of base has not been satisfactorily explained. The proposal

I


of Choisy that bags of sand were used is quite impossible as sand will not run except from a face steeper than th~ angle of rest. The long bags, which he mentions, could never be emptied when a great weight was resting on them. To scrape out the sand would be impossible as ~he colossus would tip ov_er on to the scraper. The ac;ual msta?ce known, of lowering a sarcophagus lid by resting it on pits of sand, depends only on sand running out of the bottom of a cavity. Practically, it seems most likely that the colossus, when nearly down, was held by shores of timb~r while the pedestal was swept clear; and then, by ~eckmg out the earth under the shores and letting them smk evenly, the block could be let down a few inches into place.

We see ~hus that in any case the main principle was to bank up with earth, as in the building of hypostyle halls ; and the matter of handling great masses in such an instance is safe and practicable, whatever may have been the minor details.

The Egyptians probably used simple means, rather than elaborate mechanics, for obelisks. The suggestion of Choisy is quite impossible, in view of Egyptian material and methods. To swing an obelisk on trunnions as we did with that in London, needs a great amount of metal girders and bands. We cannot suppose that about 10 or 15 tons of bronze were made up into a bed and trunnions by which to swing the obelisk upright. Nothing les~ than 21tr of the weight of the obelisk could suffice, as the bronze clutch bed had to hold the weight hanging from the trunnions as it came upright. Nothing but metal could hold up 300 tons by a butt grip. The mere tensile stre~gth of the bed would need 5 tons of metal, to say nothmg of the double bands needed under the foot and the 'great cross strength of the trunnions. We need not consider a met~od which was impossible, so far as we know the materials and methods of that time._

I -I TRANSPORT 45

The earth banking which was certainly used for colossi would also be applicable for obelisks. There would be no difficulty in getting an obelisk up to 45° by tilting over the head of a bank. The base would then be protected by planks and matting to keep the pedestal Clear ; the earth bank would be advanced on either side to hold the obelisk from skewing, and ramming earth in hard behind it would gradually push it forward. Thus it might be steadily advanced toward the upright. The great obelisk of Hatshepsut would at 70° require ·a pull of 40-tons at the top to bring it lfpright; at So0 it would need a pull of II tons; and at S4!0 it would settle into place by itself. As a 6-inch hawser holds about 3 tons, so 4 hawsers would pull it up from So0 or 13 hawsers from 70°. Probably it was brought up by ramming earth, to about 1 in 4, or 76°, and then S hawsers, with about Soo men pulling, would suffice to bring it to the vertical. Such seems to be the practical method of utilising the usual Egyptian resources and methods without running any risks, even in handling the largest masses. A more fool-proof method is proposed by Engelbach (The Problem of the Obelisks), having a pit of sand on to which the obelisk tips endways, and then sinks into position as the sand is removed. The difficulty of removing all the sand while the obelisk is pressing down, however, seems greater than the difficulty of dealing with stiff clayey earth or brick wall, which can be cut vertical under pressure_. -

CHAPTER V

STONE CONSTRUCTION

38. FOUNDATIONS. The early monuments are founded on rock where possible, as at Meydum and Gizeh. The rock bed was dressed to an exquisitely true level at Khufu's pyramid, though left with rough face in order to hold mortar.

Where rock was not accessible, the stones were placed upon a bed of sand. The sand used was in all ages the cleanest that could be got: at Sneferu's pyramid it was washed so as to be uniformly coarse clear-grained grit, in later times it is .clean washed yellow sand, and only in the most careless work is it common sand. The depth of the sand varies from an inch or two, to as much as 12! ft. where it was desired to reach through a mass of brick ruins. So customary did this sand bed become, that by the xixth dynasty trenches were cut in the rock, and filled in with sand on which the walls were laid, as in the funerary temples at Thebes. The importance attached to ,the sand bed was such that at Koptos the Ptolemaic builders had sand brought from two miles distant ; and it was used to such an amount that it would have occupied a train of 100 asses for half a year's hard work to bring it in. These sand beds are of the greatest importance in tracing the positions of destroyed buildings : often it is possible to restore completely the outline of a building of which not one stone remains, by means of tracking the few inches of sand on which the masonry had rested. Further, the foundation deposits put into the sand generally give the date of the building.

41}

STONE CONSTRUCTION 47

The purpose of a sand foundation was obviously to give a dry basis on soil of slippery mud, and to allow of soil expansion without fissuring the buildings. It must have been adopted first for building on the Nile plain, though afterwards used upon the desert. The facility of adjusting the first course to a true level, by sinking the blocks more or less in the sand, doubtless brought it into favour. This would be . specially so, as the foundations were generally of untrimmed blocks, which extended beyond on each side, and only the top face was dressed.

In some cases, strange to say, mud bricks were put beneath stone as foundations, as at the pillars of the Ramesseum (according to Choisy) and in some Nubian temples.

The depth of foundations varies much. In most instances it is of two or three courses ; it may be only a single course as at Ehnasya ; or may be 8 ft . deep as at the temple of Tehutmes III at Koptos ; or 10 courses, 16 ft. deep, as at Athribis. 1

Sometimes the foundation was much wider externally than the wall, and there was a sloped footing originally to keep rain from dropping on the foot of the wall ( Kahun fig. 6). This is ,seen in the basalt footing and wall of Ramessu II at Memphis (7) (Memphis I, xxi), and the front of the tower at Medinet Habu of Ramessu III. There is no regular feature of steps or stylobate.

39. WALL BUILDING. In early times, as in the pyramid of Khufu, it was a principle to adjust each course to a level top by sinking the irregularities of thickness into hollows cut in the course below. In outer faces, however, the course lines were kept regular. The core masonry of the pyramids is rough, no attempt being made to keep to close joints, and the stones were regarded more as props for the upper part than as forming a continuous structure.

Lines were drawn on the wide foundations to define


the place of the coming building (see Ehnasya, x, and

Athribis, xxxv). Such lines were the real setting out of

the building, the foundation course being only laid approximately.

Dovetails or cramps were usual in stone work. At the

granite temple of Khafra the architraves were secured to the pillars by copper plugs., but every joint has. been

broken away by plunderers to extract the metal. This is

like the hewing of holes at every joint of the Colosseum to extract the metal cramps, so that these buildings are much weaker now than if no metal had· been used.

There were no cramps found in the gateways of Pepy, nor the work of Senusert or Amenhetep I at Abydos, and it is doubtful if ever cramps were much used in limestone

work. On the other hand, the sandstone buildings of the xviiith and later dynasties may be seen to have every block of walls and roofs cramped to the next (T.K. xxiv). The material of these cramps is usually ebony or sont

acacia, sometimes black granite and, it is said, bronze.

They often bear the names of the builder, especially of Sety I.

In the pyramid of Sneferu the stone blocks are twice as long as they are wide, like bricks ; and they are laid

with a course of headers and course of stretchers as in the -usual brick bonding.

The system of building the two faces of a wall without any cross bond seems inexplicable to us. The blocks

seem to have been simply regarded as piled supports, and the breadth of each stone sufficiently secured its

stability upon the lower part. Thus when a temple was being destroyed, it was possible for a whole face of a

wall to be removed, leaving the other face and its roof

complete. This is seen at the Ramesseum, where the

battle of Kedesh is figured on the remaining face of a wall.

This method led to filling in with rubble between two

' ~ I J

l

STONE CONSTRUCTION 49

faces, as may be seen in the Sety temple at Abydos

(Temple of Kings, xxiv). Still worse is the very unsound plan of building a pylon as a mere shell, and filling it with

rubble as in the burst pylon, Karnak (68). The mortaring in the pyramid of Khufu is very coarse

in the core-masonry, mere lumps of brown marl paste to choke the hollows, but where it was important it is of the "

finest. The walls of the chambers are mortared with

such fine joints that they can scarcely be traced. On the

outer casing, joints with a length of 6 ft. have an average

width of o~ly ifo in., and the mortar extends over the whole joint face of 35 sq. ft. Certainly the stones must have been wet to enable it to run in; even so, the setting

of such large masses with such close joints at sides and base is beyond our experience.

40. WALL DRESSING. The ideal in early times seems to

have been copied from rock cutting. An artificial rock of blocks was piled together, leaving rough hollows where passages and chambers were intended. Then the masons

dressed down the surfaces just as they were already

accustomed to dress rock faces. The proof of this may be seen by the blocks all running round the inner corners a few inches (69), showing the amount which had been

dressed off the faces after building. This system appears in the pyramid times as at the limestone temple of

Sneferu, the granite temple of Khafra, and in the mastabas, for instance Gemni-kai; in the xviiith dynasty, the temple of Tehutmes III at Karnak ; in the xixth dyn.

temple of Sety at Abydos ; in the xxth dynasty at Medinet Habu ; while the wall may be seen still in the rough in part of Kalabsheh, and with the first drafts cut across it,

to define the face, at the kiosk of Trajan on Philc:te. The same method of building in the rough for columns

appears at the Great Hall of Karnak, where the great

columns, of the part engaged in the vestibule wall, still

have the excess left on the faces of the blocks (fig. 64) ;

4

50 EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE the dressing was stopped when.the builders determined to insert the vestibule, and this reveals the curious fact that the detailed sculpture was carried out on each block as soon as its face was dressed, without waiting to trim the next block.

The method of cutting down to a true face was thoroughly correct (W.M.C. 430). Straight lines were drafted along the edges of the face, very generally by making a saw-cut, about half an inch to an inch into the stone. Then, the face being horizontal, two offset pieces A B, about 4 ins. long, were held upright on the drafts, with a string stretched from top to top (70). Another offset piece C, of the same length, was placed on the stone face, and the excess of the stone read off on the stick against the string. The stone was then reduced by adze or by chisel until the excess was removed all over, testing it continually by the piece C (P.T.W. lxxix). The set of three offset pieces was found (Kahun, ix, 18) with the string, and stray pieces have often been found elsewhere.

For large' faces it was needful to take special measures, to avoid a twist or wind in the face. For this, diagonal drafts were necessary, to lie in one plane, and the string was stretched diagonally (P .T. W. lxxix). Such a diagonal draft can be seen, still shewing, on the great block of granite over the entrance to the king's chamber in Khufu's pyramid.

The face having been generally brought to a flat plane, the dressing of it smooth was tested by a true facing-plate smeared with red ochre. Wherever the ochre touched the face, the stone was slightly trimmed with the adze, the strokes crossing in all directions. As soon as the red ochre touched on spots not over an inch apart .all over the face, it was considered finished for joint faces : and it was in state for grinding or scraping down to produce smooth faces. The red ochre spots are visible on every projection

STONE CONSTRUCTION ~

in the dressed faces both of masonry and of rock in the great pyra~id work.

41. ROOFING. The system for roofing was to place architrave beams from column to column, and rest the roof slabs upon these. For great spans, where the weight of the beams was awkward to handle, two narrow beams " were used side by side, as on the largest columns of the Great Hall of Kamak, and of the Ramesseum. This did not sacrifice any strength. It was also the system at the

__, Parthenon. The roof slabs were roughly dressed on the upper surface. Usually a shallow groove was sunk in two slabs along their joint, apparently to hold a stopping of mortar to prevent wet penetrating. Sometimes the edges are raised, so as to prevent any water running off the stone into the joint.

42. IRREGULARITIES. In some ins.tances, irregular fitting of courses may be seen, notched m small steps up and down. A dressed stone wall is never found of polygonal blocks, or without horizontal joints ; the irregularities are limited to small shifts of the joint in rare instances. The courses may vary in height, as in the pyramid of Khufu, where no two are alike. Groups of courses start thick, and each successive course is thinner until the smallest is reached, above which a fresh start of thick courses appears. This must be due to laying out a large field of blocks at the quarry, and picking over from the thickest down to the thinnest ; after which a fresh quarry field was used. Yet the fresh start is made at the definite break of horizontal area (see Anc. Eg. 19Z5, 37). In fine work; however, as the granite of the chamber of Khufu, the average variation on courses four feet high is 0·056 inch, throughout a run of 515 ft. length o~ blocks.

Patching of defects in granite was done with plaster, and coloured ; a large patch remains at the top of the chamber of Khufu. In limestone, pieces were let in , where stone was defective or broken. The casing of

/

t._ ______________________ _. ______________ ~~

~

~

----

52 EGYPTIA~ ARCHITECTURE

Teta's pyramid was badly handled, and the acute edges were often damaged; these were largely patched by insertions. Similar patching is seen on the south pyramid of Dahshur. Bad places in rock cutting were filled with cement which has lasted much better than the rock, as in tombs at Gizeh ; or pieces of stone were inserted, as at Tell el Amarna.

/

QUARRIES. DRESSED STONE FACES IX

/

MASONS' MALLETS AND LIFTING

XII DYN. Xll,XVlll DYN

ROM"N . J:!l WOO·DEN MAJ.LET$ Of" STONE· MASONS

XII DYN.

1·:100 J..ARGEST C.RANITE .BEAM .OF KHUFU R.AISE.D BY l\OC.KINC. O.N · /\LTEl\NAT£L.Y IVd·SEO SUPPORTS. IVJIYN.

=====:::::::=:::::::::=·.::..a 59

i:10 .

llRON.Z.E MODEl..S

.oii CROW-BARS

StPJAH, XIX .D'CN :

1'.UlC.RU M llLOC.K oF 0PIVOTTIMG.-l.!VU

. ·ALTEf\NATE

WEDCOEs

0 0

C.• c.

..

x

82

STONE

• CRADLE

M t.v .o'u M . . . Hl PYN. ROCKING UP STONE . O~· A CRADLE

EARTH BANK, STONE DRESSING XI

/

/

I

STONE RAISING, DRESSING FLUTED COLUMNS XII

1:1100 SUC.C.Ef,SIVE P05'1'TlON5 1 A,&, C.. IN LO"°"ERING C.OLOSSU5 P'ROM l!iANK

J:Ju>O SECTION OF .HI GH ' ·EN.!> OF" 51..0PING &AN K.

AND ER.E.C.TINC IT OH TH!. B~5E.

67 1:5oOO PflOf"ILE OF" BANK , S L.6P I NCl1""l ] ,F'OR. RA1$JNG C.OL-OS.SI.

SET OF LEVELLING OffSfTS.

73

[ __ ::::r T __ ;::J

PORTIC.0 WITH TWO C.OLUMNS Ill DVN. HIE ROGL'IPll, TOMB OF ME TH EN.<-o. u.vt.

( T 1 74

'

/

l

W~AW?emnzzn222

------~~L - -----. I , --------J_.J.....__ ___ _____ _

------.-rL _ ____ _

----~,!----

. 71

llSll !ISllllSllllSll

76

WOODEN HE/ID-RUT WITH FLUTEll COLUMNS! FLUTING 01 RlLIE.F fUJ)C£$.TA~KHA.N1 11 1 DYN.

(.OLUMH WITH HOLLOW F"LUTIN C'' P..Et>, SL.AC.I< BCLOW

)41£1'\0C.LYPti, M£t>UM. UI D'(N.

CHAPTER VI

FORMS OF SUPPORT

43. TORUS. Besides the surface treatment of the wall, which we have already noticed, there was another characteristic feature, the torus roll down the outer edges of buildings, particularly on the edges of pylons and fa~ades . This appears first in what are clearly structures of reeds, maize, or palm-sticks; where the detail is shown on a larger scale, it always has a line of binding around the torus. Until the Ptolemaic age, the torus under the cornice, and down the edges of the building, is lashed around, and the line of binding carried diagonally on to the following lashing (71). The combination of this roll with the sloping faces derived from brickwork may seem incongruous ; but it may arise from corners of a brick building having a fender of maize stems at the edges to save them from damage by passing burdens. In Palestine, blocks of stone are put at the danger point in brick corners.

44. PILLAR. The simplest form of support is the square pillar, mainly found in rock-cut chambers, or those early structures which were imitated from rockcutting. It was usually equal-sided, but some oblong pillars occur in the Granite Temple of Khafra (72). The square pillar never has a capital or abacus, nor is it diminished upward until the xviiith dynasty. It was only when the polygonal imitations of wooden columns set the standard of taste, that the square rock-pillar lost it~ simplicity.

The height and interspace of pillars of various age 53


differ considerably. For comparison, it is best to reduce all dimensions to the unit of the greatest diameter, the recognised modulus. This will be called here 100 in all tables of proportions, to avoid decimal points. The height of the pillar, the interspace between the faces, and the top width when it tapers, are here stated. L.D. refers to Lepsius, Denkmiiler; W.A. to Wilkinson's Architecture (measured from drawings); Ph. to measurements from photographs: some of which were taken on purpose for this, so as to show a complete example, free from obstructions ; measurements are made at the sides of the pillars, in order to be comparable with the diameter.

Inter- Top Dyn. Pillars Height space Width Material

iv Gizeh, granite temple 444 J 210 G l.254

iv Saqqara L.D.I, 42 390 261 L

v Saqqara L.D.I, 39 560 {258 L 295

vi Zowyet El Mayitin L.D.I, 57 295 { 174 to L 200

xvi ii Speas Artemidos Phot. 470? 150 L xviii Deir el Bahri, lower Ph. 485 148 L

xvi ii Deir el Bahri, upper Ph. 480 { 189 to 86 L 200

xviii Kamak, Tehutmes III W.A. 400 186 94 L?

xviii Kamak, Tehutmes III 384 {154 . 97 L? 167 xvi ii Kamak, Tehutmes III

granite Ph. 605 G xvi ii Medinet Habu, Tehutmes

III Ph 392 160 s xv iii Kamak, Amenhetep II . L.D. 181 xvi ii Kamak, Amenhetep II . W.A. 420 169 89 xvi ii Karnak, Amenhetep III. ~Prisse 317

XIX Abydos, Sety I . . Ph. 360 168 L?

xix Qumeh, Sety I L.D.I, 86 ' 450 {278 entr. s 145

xix Tomb of Sety I L.D.I 96 { 299to{156 to L , 319 188

xix Redesieh, Sety I L.D. 360 212 L xix Derr, Ramessu II . W.A. 261 132 87 s xix Ramesseum, Ramessu II. Ph. 410 {79 to 86 s

87

xx M. Habu, Ramessu III . Ph. 360 J 105 to 97 s l. 161

G granite, L limestone, S sandstone.

FORMS OF SUPPORT 55 The purpose of these variations is largely to agree with

the nature of the material. Setting aside the rock cutting, the height of sandstone is 3'69 (261-410), of limestone 455 (390- 560), of granite 444 and 605.

The same difference is seen in the interspace ; in sandstone it is 150 (83-212), in limestone 210 (148....,276). ,, The weaker sandstone requires the columns to be thicker, and the space less, beside necessitating shorter architraves.

The rock cutting in limestone is more massive than the built forms. The pillars are only 300 in height, with 167 interspace, in place of 455 and 210. This was in order to save labour in excavating the chamber.

The diminution of the diameter toward the top varies, in different instances, from 86 to 97. The purpose of this was to diminish the load on the base, by reducing the area in proportion to the load i~ had. to bear. Taking eight instances of columns where the total load can be traced in publications or photographs, the load at the top of a column is between 0·37 and 0·83 of the load at the base; requiring therefore a diminution to between 0·61 and 0·92 of the main diameter. The diminution is never so much as the decrease in weight would justify ; the lower part remains the weakest part of the column, but that was due to a desire to avoid bulk below and leave freer space around it.

45. POLYGONAL COLUMN. Here a new motive appears in the abacus. This has no meaning in stonework, as it only adds a load, and one liable to crack from its thinness. But in woodwork some bonding is needed to carry the ends of the architraves, and prevent them bearing unequally on the tree trunk. Still more is an abacus needful for a column of stalks or reeds bound together. Hence all columns with abaci show their origin in organic prototypes (73). The examples of polygonal columns are here stated, with the lower diameter taken as 100.

56 EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE Shaft Abacus Top Inter-

Dyn. Sides High High Wide Wide space iii Meydum hieroglyph 16 413 70 iii Zeser colonnade 16 Ph. 170 iv Methen hieroglyph (73)· ? 580 90 xii Benihasan, Ameny 8 525 21 100 181 xii Benihasan, Ameny 16 482 19 96 92 294 xii Benihasan, Khnumhetep II 600 240

xvi ii Deir el Bahri, Hatshepsut . 8 Ph. 550 38 85 85 188 xviii Kamak, Tehutmes III Ph. 560'1; 40 95 95 192 xvi ii Medinet Habu, Tehutmes III 16 Ph. 537 52 104 95 xviii Semneh, Tehutrnes III W.A. 378 22 97 275 xviii Kummeh, Tehutmes III L.D. 342 xviii El Kah, Amenhetep III 398 24 92 290 xvi ii Ivory model kohl-tube 461 49 100 100

xix Beitel Waly, Ramessu II W.A. 216 25 85

The FLUTED COLUMN appears early in the ISt dynasty (R.T. II, xxxiv, 73), and was usual in the iiird (74) with an abacus. Both the hollow fluting and the solid fluting were used by Zeser (iiird dyn.) (75). In the later architecture, the polygonal column has the four cardinal faces flat (sometimes inscribed), while the other sides are hollowed. In all instances the hollowing is only about a tenth of~ the width, or less, differing from the deeper hollowing of the Doric, or still more the Ionic • .

The columns were coloured black below and red above (76), iiird dyn., or black below and white above, xiith dyn. Some closely fluted, engaged columns, were all red, with green abaci (xii, Labyrinth). For the essentially important architecture of Zeser at Saqqara, the carefully justified restorations by M. Lauer are copied liere, by permission. I am indebted for the Zeser illustrations, 77, 78, also 84, 86, to the official publications.

The proportions at Saqqara (Zeser, iiird dyn.) (77) are, max. diam. 1·0, interspace 2·19, height 5·29, abacus 0·38. In the very slender Hat-hor columns (78), these dimensions are 1 ·o, taper to o· 56, interspace 5·2, height 17·8, all engaged columns.

46. TENT PoLE. A strange type was evolved from the great tent pole, such as is shown in the centre of the vizier's audience tent, which is the hieroglyph (79). This pole

FORMS OF SUPPORT 57

(80) became copied, after a long interval, by Tehutmes III at Karnak (81). The proportions of these are:

height, shaft 429, capi_tal 127, abacus 39, architrave 71 width, base 100, near capital 108,' capital 126, abacus 94, interspace 211.

47. PALM. This is one of the finest forms of capital ,, used and the least corrupted in copying. The grand colu~ns of the vth dynasty temples are monoliths of granite over twenty feet high (82). The shaft never has any structural detail, but a conical taper without enta~is. From the earliest to the latest example, there are nme branches around the head. The bands below the branches are five, an exception is six at Korn Ombo. On the front of the column is a loop below the bands, which was faithfully copied from the vth dynasty down to the Ptolemies. The branches are distinctly an applied ornament, quite independent of the bearing parts.

At Amama the capital had coloured glazes inserted along the leaf lines, and enclosed in gilt setting (P ., Amarna, vi). In the xxist dyn. the tops of the branches were exaggerated, hanging down (83). In the xxvit!i dyn. the older type was rev~ved, .:"'ith the tips slightly more upright (Palace of Apries, xn). The secret of the grace of the early examples lies in the faint gathering i~ of the outline of the capital above the band, so that there 1s a continuous curve to the tip : in late times the lower· part of the body is quite straight.

The taper of the shaft varies from t to Pi, bu~ in terms of the height it is less variable, as 1 m 31 to I m 42. It seems therefore that the taper was more regulated by the height, or as a slope of 4-1' to 56' up the side. The interspace is far less than it i,S with pilla~s or polygonal ~olumns : this is probably because this form was mamly used in fa9ades, where the wide space would seem weak. The form was often .copied in glass, during the xviiith dynasty, for kohl-tubes.


Height Width Top Inter-Dyn. Shaft Cap. Abacus Shaft Cap, Abacus Bands space iv Throne of Khafra Ph. 670 JIO 56 280 JIO v Sahura 500 I49 J2 88 125 Bo J5 v Ne-user-ra 50I I50 JI 88 J5 v Unas Ph. 578 I87 J5? 85 I6o IOO 49 xii El Bersheh (pl. iv) 457 126 14 8J 142 91 32 xii Kah).ID, ivory model I58 85? 15J xii? Ehnasya 526 140 J6 85 140 102 J7 I62 xii? Bubastis 486 144 J5 88 142 104 xv iii Soleb, Amenhetep L D J84 104 JJ 91 156 84 f 107 II . . J9 l122 xxvi Memphis, Apries Ph. IJO 92 150 41 Ptol. Korn Ombo Ph. 4I8 IJ2 JI 92 148 88 45 II5 Ptol. Edfu Ph. 4J2 II9 JO 89 150 89 J4 III Ptol. Philae Ph. 465 IJI 51 85 IJO 8J J9 157 Ptol. Philae W.A. 4JO 12I 29 88 151 8J J5 144 Ptol. Philae W.A. 400 II9 50 8J 144 75 40

The proportions in the various periods are tolerably

consistent. The first example is a relief of a sma emblem

on the throne of Khafra, so it must not be accepted as of structural proportions.

48. RusH BUNDLE. The so-called dad or zed column

is explained by the examples in the iiird dynasty at

Saqqara (84). The column appears a bundle of papyrus

stems, with four bands around, and a quadruple tie below

the spreading head, sometimes coloured alternately (85).

This seems ·to us to resemble a bundle of rushes

or papyrus stems, tied near the top, and doubtless plas

tered with mud to keep them stiff. Such bundles of

stems are commonly used now to support shadiifs. For

merly it was a favourite form for furniture, and for

window bars, but was not used in stone architecture.

The origin of this group may be four separate

columns. These would refer doubtless to the four

supports of heaven, for the group was the emblem of stability.

49. PAPYRUS. There has been confusion between

papyrus and lotus forms, which are oft.en combined. The essential facts are :-

1. The Egyptian lotus stem is a flexible form, which

FORMS OF SUPPORT 59~

cannot hold itself upright ; it only floats in the water.

It cannot form a column. .

2 . The papyrus stem is stiff, and was used largely m

construction, when tied up in bundles. .

3. The papyrus ~ead is ~ ?1ass of loose filaments, copied

in expanded form m the mrd dynasty. 4. The unexpanded form was copied m the vth

dynasty. 5. Lotus petals were, in the vth ~yn~st!, added to the

unopened papyrus column, convertmg it mto a group of

lotus buds. ; 6. The blue lotus is generally copied, but the short and

thick white lotus (with red inside) also appears.

We shall have separate classes thus :-

A. Clustered papyrus with open head (iiird dyn.)

B. ,, · ,, unopened head (vt~ dyn.)

C. ,, ,, degraded smooth (xixth dyn.)

D. Blue lotus added. E. White lotus added.

For the varieties of treatment of flowers, see Anc. Eg.

1917, I. . . h 5o. A. PAPYRUS, OPEN HEAD. T~is a~pears m t e

beginning of the iiird dyn. (Zes~r), with a smgle stem, of

curved triangular form, and widespread head (86).. In

. later times the single triangular stem seemed .too slight,

and a plain shaft was used instead, yet the _smgle .stem

motive remains, as shown by the whole cap1t~l bemg. a

single plant. The forr;i did not become usual till later m

the xviiith dynasty, as m th~ Luqso~ colo~nade of Amen

hetep III (87). This was slightly wide~, m. the b~ll of the

capital under Taharqa (88). The capital is copied !rom

the sp;ead head of fil~me?ts, with ~rtificial sepals pamted

around the base, which imply a smgle head. The pro

portions, to the maximum diam. as 100, are as follow:-

60 EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE Height Width Inter· Dyn. Shaft Cap. Abacus Top Cap. Abacus Bands space

iii Saqqara, Zeser . Ph. 645 180 90 f 118 iii Saqqara, Zeser . (fig. 86) \_250

416 ISO 40 9S 220 9S xviii Luqsor, Amen-hetep III . . Ph. 108 178 {132 SI2 JI 93 90 43 166 xv iii Luqsor, Amenhe-

tep III colonnade Ph. 446 114 8s 83 174 37 }~~6 xix Karnak, Sety I . L.D. 4S7 90 41 88 200 75 50 174

xix Ramesseum, R. II Ph. 88 I03 379 24 90 170 ' 90 39 \_118 xx Medinet Habu, R. III . Ph. 290 95 30 8s 145 94 33 82

Karnak, Taharqa Ph. f 100 xxv 530 99 45 8I 196 79 \_138 Ptol. KomOmbo . Ph. 4IS 97 JI 91 170 89 3S I2I Ptol. Philae . W.A. 410 94 2s 8s IS3 81 36 ? Basalt model U.C. 7S 88 ISS 34 Ptol. Green glaze U.C. 89 6I 88 172 177 Ptol. Green glaze U.C. s2 I6 88 126 133

The two amounts of interspace are along the row, and across the axis; as this order was used for axial avenues, the difference is notable. The width of the capital, overhanging more than a whole radius, was a needless load on the column, - and when exposed always broke away.

PAPYRUS, OPEN HEAD, CLUSTERED STEM. This is only recorded from Amarna (89), in limestone copies of an assembly of glazed sections encircled by gilt bands. Being only seven feet high, it was evidently in use for rooms. The dimensions are:-

92 102 to 146 wide.

51. B. PAPYRUS, UNOPENED HEAD. So far, there is no example before the vth dynasty (90). The motive is eight papyrus stems, bundled at the top ; the basal leaves and the sepals show this plainly: The triangular form of the stem is observed, implying that each stem is packed with a flat side against a centre mass, and a ridge outward.

The form became degraded in the xviiith dyn. and on-

FORMS OF SUPPORT 6r ward, so that it is difficult to distinguish it from the lotus pattern (91). The examples vary as fQllows :-

Width Inter· Height Dyn. Shaft Cap. Abacus Shaft Cap. Abacus Bands space

v Abusir, Sahura . 481 148 38 78 109 113 Abusir, Sahura . 423 u8 33 87 I02 98 42 v 80 36 xii Benihasan . W.A. s36 II4 IS 74 92 3Il

xvi ii Karnak; Tehut-88 189 mes III . Ph. L.D. 417 12S 26 S4 IOS 47

xviii Luqsor, Amen-46 9S So 94 hetep III . Ph. 384 120 79 40

xv iii Soleb, Amen-hetep Ill . L.D. 4IO 120 42 86 99 74 42 69

xvi ii Amarna . W.A. 227 89 19 S6 IOI So 26 xvi ii Amarna 340 u6 28 24 80

86 82 xix Qurneh, Sety I . L.D. 292 IOS 4S 100 33 220 i, 86

xix Luqsor, Ramessu II. . . Ph. 421 n8 33 79 100 92 42 3SO

xix Silsileh, Ramessu II. . . Ph. 2S8 I06 29 8s 97 78 30 3S5

xix Luqsor, Ramessu II. . . Ph. 428 II3 33 83 IOO S9 378

These are distinctively of the papyrus, except fr?1!1 Benihasan which on the strength of the coloured d1vi-' . sions may be of the lotus.

52. C. PAPYRUS, DEGRAD.ED. Th~ next stage was ~he abolition of lobes of the capital, making a smooth corneal surface, usually covered with hieroglyphs (92): Dividing lines remain in the hall of Sety I ; some arbitrary bands still appear at the Ramesseum, but all trace of. detail is lost in the Great Hall of Karnak. The proportions are :

Height Dyn. Shaft Cap. Abacus

xix Abydos, Sety I . 402 124 39 xix Qurnehhall, Sety l,L.D. 277 S9 49 xix Karnak, Sety I .

u6 L.D.W.A. 304 41 xix Luqsor, Ramessu

II. . . Ph. 3S2 98 48 xix Ramesseum L.D.Ph. 312 90 26 xx Medinet Habu, R.

III . W.A. 22S 62 30 xx Medinet Habu, R.

III (fig. 92) . Ph. 260 80 27

Width Inter· Top C:}p. Abacus Bands space 89 JOO 1S6 90 IOI S9 25 211 So

79 So

93 7S 3S SS

SS 103 Ss 24 112 S2 96 Ss 29 87

62 EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE The width and stumpy proportions are probably due

to the inferior stone, and work of the debased age. 53. D . BLUE LOTUS. This as a column decoration

belongs to the Old Kingdom, and is not seen later except at Benihasan. It is finely carved about the vth dyn. with venation over the petals (93), or bounding the petals (94). The lotus has no strength for a support, so it can only be looked on here as applied to a truss of papyrus. The little buds, represented as tucked in below the binding, mark the artificiality of the composition. Yet it is beautiful in the copying of natural form, and a happy adaptation. As it has never been found in position, we know nothing of the details of the shaft.

54. E. WHITE LOTUS. The thicker buds of the white lotus were rarely represented. A noble capital . found at M~mphis (96) has no date of position. From the fine work, it cannot be late, and as it is so closely like the capital of the lampstand of the xiith dynasty (95), it may belong to the same age. It occurs, more slender, in 'the painted capital at Bersheh (97). It was parodied in the Ptolemaic period (L.D. I., cvii). Between the buds of the white lotus, there are inserted in low relief the flowers of the blue lotus.

55. HAT-HOR. The devotion to Hat-hor dates from the beginning of theist dynasty (see palette of Nar-mer) . . It is therefore not surprising to find the Hat-hor capital already in the reign of Zeser, iiird dynasty (C.E. fig. 5) (77, 98). The long lo~s on each side show the intention, but the face has never been carved, and is left in the block. Just the same neglect is seen in the shrine of Hat-hor at Speos Artemidos, where the head and shrine over it are left blocked out (99). At Deir el Bahri, heads of Hat:-hor are' placed on the top of very tall columns flanking a doorway (N., D.B. ciii). Hat-hor heads are also on columns at El Kah (L.D. I., 100), and at Sedeinga (xiiith dyn.), and on square pillars at Abu Simbel (xixth

/

FLUTED COLUMNS OF ZESER XIII

FLUTED, PALM, AND PAPYRUS COLUMNS XIV

/

TENT POLE AND PAPYRUS COLUMNS

/

LIMESTONE: k\r>\PONSTAND

XllDVN.

xv

PAl.NTE:ll CAPITAL. SE:RSHEH XII DVN.

PAPYRUS AND BUNDLE COLUMNS XVI

I

/

'i

PAPYRUS COLUMNS, XXV, XVlll, XX DYNASTIES XVll

/

LOTUS COLUMNS XVlll

-· ' . . ·r'-"

/

HAT-HOR COLUMNS XIX

/

/

DRAWINGS IN QUARRY, LAMPSTANDS xx

J »~ ...... , Jo. t , o.' ua.-J.i.la.l .J:9"idA1 ... Fo.J.&k s~.._l .. ya.o .

1Q3

t:b RE.LIEF .co1.u MN

IOIUFU:KHAF.GIZEK

IV DYN.

MCJliEI. LAMP .OM STAND . Lf\&YRINTll.

XII DVN.

ROCK CAPITALS ..

IS&AVDA,VIDVN:

11)1 - -

l ) (

\\ : I

' < I

I ,

~ \

f I / ------r---... ~r K.

~ I i---r--' \ / ~ ,__

;1 ~ ~ \~ I \

\_ ~ U/ -~ I \ I ; I

104A

.I BOWL ON STANO

c.iz EH IV DVM-.

1:1, LIMESTONE COLU,.N.l\AHUN:Jtl~!).

\ -

/

FORMS OF SUPPORT 63

dyn.). In the close of Ptolemaic work the great example is the court of the Hat-hor temple at Dendereh (100). As that was occupied in Coptic times, it is difficult to find an unmutilated face. The proportions are as follow:-

Height Width Inter-Dyn. Shaft Cap. Sistrum Top Cap. Sistrum space

iii Saqqara, Zeser (figs. 77, 95) . . . l7·8o 100 42 100 520

XV!ll El Kah, Amenhetep III 276 46 77 81 54 337 xviii-"- Sedeinga, Amenhetep III 270 130 58 94 131 105 169 Ptol. Dendereh. 344 ll2 96 87 ll4 82 105

The drawing of a Hat-hor capital in a quarry at Gebel Abu Fodeh shows how work was designed (101) and blocked out before final carving in the round (Petrie, A Season in Egypt, xxv). Along with this is another design of a capital (102)' which might be for a papyrus column or possibly for a palm column. The meaning of the constructive lines is not clear ; AF = FG = GE, and AE = radius. 2HJ = CH. On G line, axis to G = FH. On G line semicircle = !C to axis. 3DB =BJ. The motive or system of these connections is not obvious.

Other figures are also sometimes added to architecture, as Bes at the birth-shrine of Dendereh. The florid complications of ornament on Ptolemaic and Roman capitals are merely artistic effusions without meaning.

Another form which is decorative, though not structural, is the lampstand (103), which appears in the ivth dynasty ; and was carved in the solid, with a. flame as well, in the xiith (104). Bowl lamps on ta.II stands are painted in the tomb of Hesy (iiird dyn. Q.H. xvi).

A strangely clumsy form of capital is the crutch form, used in rock tombs (105), and on a column at Kahiin, xiith dyn. (106).

. ,,

r

CHAPTER VII

STRENGTH OF MATERIA,L

56. PROPORTIONATE STRENGTH. We have seen that the relations of pillars and columns to the interspace vary much but, so far, we have only been observing proportion. When we take into account the absolute ~imensio~s, we. reach a controlling factor of the proportion. It is obv10us that a small model cannot be copied on a colossal scale without breaking down by its OWR

weight. The larger the scale, the narrower must be the interspace in proportion. A higher hall than that of Kamak would become choked with columns, if of weak sandstone ; only granite would leave space below for a larger scale. -

In the following table, the whole height of the shaft, capital ~nd aba~us, are taken together for comparison. Dimensions are m metres. P marks the papyrus capitals, G the polygonal columns, H Hat-hor capitals . .

Dyn. Columns Inter-Height space Style

xxv Karnak, Taharqa I . 20·7 128 p xviii Luqsor, Amenhetep III 19·8 149 p

xix Karnak, Sety I . 19·4 140 p Ptol. Dendereh . . 14·5 137 H xix Karnak, Sety I . 14·2 II3 p

xix Luqsor, Ramessu II 12·3 96 p xix Ramesseum II·3 III p

xviii Luqsor, Amenhet~p IIi II"3 96 p · Ptol. KomOmbo . . 10"9 135 p

xix Ramesseum 9·7 98 p xix Abydos, Sety I 8·o 186 p xix Ramesseum 7·3 146 p

xviii Karnak, Tehutm~s III: 6·3 176 p xix Qurneh, Sety I . 6-3 220 p xix Qurneh hall, Sety I 6-o 2II p xii Hawara, Labyrinth 6·o 202 p xii Benihasan, octagon 5·8 181 G

64

..... - ~ - --

l i

i

j •,

Ii

I

Ii

i

'

' i

I' '·

'

STRENGTH OF MATERIAL . 65 Inter-

Dyn. Columns Height space Style xvi ii Deir el Bahri, 16 sides . 5·5 188 G

xii Benihasan, 16 sides 5·3 XVlll Karnak, Tehutmes III 5·1

294 G 192 G

Xll Benihasan, 16 sides 4·7 xii Benihasan . . . 3·0

xvi ii El Kab, Amenhetep_ III 2·8

240 G 311 p 290 G

xviii Amama, cluster 2·2 410 p

(Benihasan is all rock cut)

Pillars (not rock cut) xix Ramesseum 10·2 82 xx Medinet Habu 8·3

xix Abydos, Sety I 5·4 99

168 iv Gizeh, Khafra 4·4 253

xix Qumeh, Sety I 4·3 212 xvi ii Karnak, Tehutmes III . 4·0 xviii Deir el Bahri, low 3·9

186 148

xvi ii Deir el Bahri, high 3·8 195 xvi ii Medinet Habu, Tehutmes III 3·5 160

xix Sety I tomb, rock cut 3·2 156 xix Sety I tomb, rock cut 3·0 173 xix Sety I tomb, rock cut 3·0 188

Here a sharp change takes place above 8 metres high, interspace being hardly over 100; below the 8 metres, the relative spacing is steadily wider in the lesser heights . . This points to the difficulty of getting architraves to harmonize with the proportion of great heights.

It seems, then, that the strength of architraves is much the same up to 8·o m. At greater heights they were left weaker and thinner than they should be, in order to gain space between. The pillars are placed closer than the columns. The polygonal pillar is limited to 5·8 m. high, perhaps because it would look too massive and overbearing on a larger scale. Roughly, the height of columns now lost can be read off, within about t either way, from interspaces of over 170.

57. ABSOLUTE STRENGTH. We have seen how the strength was adapted to the proportions, but the absolute strength must be considered. The best way to regard this is to conceive of the whole load of architrave and roof being piled up on a column, of the same area as the column. Thus the total pile on each column base is

5

,


equal to a column between 9 and 3r metres high. The instances for which we have the data are, in metres :-

Ratio Roof Ratio of of Top Taper Area Column to Depth Height Total Pressure needed per its Roof of Stone of Stone on to Base at Top, Column Area on Column Column Base Pressure Base 100 xvi ii El Kab, Amenp. III 6·om 15·8 6·2m 2·8m 9·om 69 83 xix Qurneh, Sety I . 19·6 15·2 15·2 6·o 21 ·2 72 85 xix Abydos, Sety I . 17·0 11·0 12·1 8·o 20·1 60 78 XlX Karnak, Sety I . 30·2 5·3 8·5 14·3 22·8 37 61 xix Ramesseum 20·5 13·3 7·7 6·o 13·6 56 75 Ptol. Ombos 24·6 8·7 17·8 10·9 28·7 62 79 Ptol. Dendereh 21·0 6·4 16·5 14·5 31·0 53 73

Taking the first instance, the area of the roof supported by one column is 6 square metres ; the ratio of this column to the area it supports is r : r 5·8 ; the weight of the architrave and roof, if piled up on the column area, would be 6·2 m. high of stone ; the height of the column itself is 2·8 m. so the total pressure on the column base is equal to 9·0 m. height. The ratio of the pressure at the top to that at the base is 69: roo; therefore the column should taper in the diameter proportion of roo to 83.

The heaviest pressure at Dendereh equals 3r m. of stone on each column base. We do no't know the crushing pressure of Nubian sandstone, but as chalk would crush under roo to 200 metres of itself, and baked brick under 200 m. height, there may be a factor of safety of 2 or 3 to r.

58. CAUSES OF FAILURE. Nearly all Egyptian buildings have suffered from wilful damage, such as the blowing up of pylons by Mehemet Ali. When we compare the state of the buildings which have retained their roof, such as the temples of Dendereh and Edfu, these are as sound as when set up.

The constructive failures are due to hollowing drums of columns so that all pressure comes near the edge, or rubble hearting inside a pyramid or pylon. A main cause of failure is the stripping of a roof, and so exposing archi-

STRENGTH OF MATERIAL

traves to unequal temperatures ; thus the lower face is forced off, weakening the beam.

Of natural changes, the continual rise of salts from the soil is the most deadly ; the moisture evaporates and the salt crystallizes, making limestone and sandstone go to powder, and granite break into crystals. When the stone " is portable it should be laid face down on damp sand, .a~d the salt will all pass out on the back ; where the sto:ie is m a building, it should be frequently plast~red over with wet sand · the surface salt will then all pass mto the sand, and can be removed, and repetition will gradually remove it all. The most fatal treatment is that in museums of placing stone cemented on to a wall (as Serapeum steles at the Louvre), when all the damp works out on the face, covering it with crystallizing salt.

Earthquake has not made g~eat displacem.ents, as the obelisks still standing are evidence ; but it has been extremely severe in wrenching, as all the deep beams ?f granite over the King's Chamber in the Great Pyramid are snapped through at the south end, or else dragged out in the upper chambers. The whole roof hangs now by merely catching contact, and another great earthqu~e might bring it down. . . .

The most distressing damage is the vertical fissurmg up the whole height of the sides of t~e west gate of K~mak. This is probably due to the heatmg by confla~ration of the great gates, followed by the modem blo":mg up of adjacent buildings, which shook the whole reg10n.

CHAPTER VIII

ROOFING

59. SLABS ON WALLS. The earliest stone roofing is always of slabs on walls, the wider spaces having to be met by overlapping. Where a wall was sloping, as in the Grand Gallery, the roof slabs are each retained by tilting into a notch on the wall.

Joints in compound roofs were usually packed with a slip of stone inserted at the joint ; sometimes the joint edges rose above the general level, to prevent rain reaching the joint.

60. ARCHITRAVES. These beams, which supported the ends of the roofing slabs above columns, usually extend to the axes of the columns. At Luqsor, in the colonnade of Amenhetep III, the architrave is 6·90 m. long, while it bridges 4·12 m. between the columns; at Karnak in the Great Hall, the architrave is 7·30, but the span 4·21.

The architrave on a large scale is usually formed of two parallel beams side by side, for easier handling without sacrificing strength ; see Luqsor, Karnak, Ramesseum, also the Parthenon. In the lintel of the pylon, where there was no added load, two superposed arc4itraves could be thinner.

Proportions of Architraves. The table opposite is in the order of the clear span, as that is the most essential detail. The dimensions are in metres.

Cols. I to VI explain themselves. VII is the load on the architrave distributed as a pile upon it, and so measured in metres. VIII, beam height for self-support of the beam. In X, the span of roof, between lines of

68

l

ROOFING

I II I III IV v Column Architraves Base Diam Height Length Span High

M. Habu, T . III, pill. 0·89 3·49 2·31 1·42 0·83 D. Bahri, T . III, pill. 0·79 3·80 2·33 1·65 0·61 Karnak, T . III, polyg 0·86 5·15 2·5 1"7 0·67 Karnak, T . III, hall . - - 2·95 2·0 0·96 Luqsor, Am. III 2·02 II"3 3·60 2·03 1·52 Ramesseum, pillar 2·38 9·76 4·28 2·10 1·47 Karnak, T. III . 1·08 6·35 3·07 2·11 0·98

0·81 Philae, outer pylon . - - 3·4 2·33 Ombos, Ptol . . 1·90 10·95 4·1 2·44 x·6

5·48 0·96* M. Habu, window - - 2·45 M. Habu, colonnade 2·34 10"3 4·65 2·52 1°22 Qurneh, portico 1·43 6·30 3·85 2·57 l"l

2·6 1·52 Luqsor, A. III 2·02 u ·3 4·17 Karnak, T. III 1·08 6·35 3·6 2·64 0·98 Abydos, Sety I 1"40 8·o 4·0 2·76 1·1

4·85 2·80 Dendereh, Ptol. 2·07 14·5 1·54 Ramesseum

' 1·72 7·2 4·3 2·90 0·99 2·46 12·3 4·8 3·03 1·6 Luqsor, lst court .

3·07 1·26 M. Habu, 2nd door . - - 5·95 Ramesseum, pillar 2·38 9·76 5·5? 3·30 1·47 M. Habu, door - - 4·15 3·35 1·30 M. Habu, door - - 5·48 3·35 1·45 Karnak, R. II. 2·70 14·26 5·70 3·50 1·80 Qurneh, portico 1"43 6·30 4·60 3·56 1°1 Ramesseum 2·04 II"3 5·7 3·7o 1·5 Ramessetim, pylori . - - 6·3 3·75 1°21 Karnak, Khonsu 1"7 9·0 5·25 3·78 1·13 M. Habu, court door - - 8·7 3·80 1·6 M. Habu, 2nd door - - 6·o 3·82 1·22 Luqsor, A. III 2·02 II"3 5·42 3·85 1·52 Luqsor, A. III 3·0 19·8 6·90 4·12 1°83 Karnak, R. II. 3·37 19"4 7·30 4·21 2·07 Qurneh, portico 1"43 6·3 5·65 4·2 7 l"l

8·42 62·06 Edfu, pylon - - 5·3 8·5 5·5 40·97 Karnak, Khonsu - -

Dendereh, portico 2·07 14·5 7·95 5·9 5 1"54

69

VI I VII VIII ~IX x Roof Load= For Self- Clear

Wide Height support eep Space

0·88 1·49 0·41 0·179 2·15 0·29 0·80 2·50 0·31

1·04 1·70 0·58 r6o* - -2·20* - -0·91 - -- - -

1·62 2·76 0·97 - -

1·9* - -- 1°96 0·63 1·6* - -0·91 - -1·4 2·15 0·64 2·44 - -1"33 1·83 0·59 1·77 - -- - -

1·05 0·72 1·21 - - -- - -

2·20* 2·50 1·17 1·16 1·96 0·63 0·62 2·88 0·88 - - -

1·47 2·2 0·66 - - -- - -

1·60* - -

2·60* - -3·08 * 4·3 1°18 1·16 1·96 0·63 - - -- - -- 1 - -

0·57 0·68 0·58 0·75 ----

0·88 -

-0·7? --

0·7? -

0·49 --

0·32 --

0·9 0·60 0·62 -

0·68 ---

-1"3 o·6 ---

3·0 1'7 2·65 1·98 2·6 ---3·47 --2·63 2·6 -2·9 -3·63 --2·7 --

3·9 2·63 4·52 -3·7 8 --2·!)

5·4 7·1 2·6

3 3

---

* Marks one of two equal beams together.

architrave, is often 2·6 or 2·63, 2·65 m., nearly half the instances ·' this is 5 cubits, and shows that the architects reckoned 'that as a normal element in the design.

The primary proportion of an architrave is th~ increase of depth to . agree wifh greater span. Four times the span requires qouble the depth of beam to be equally

I

70 EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE strong with a constant load, but it requires four times the depth if the load is the weight of the beam itself increasing with depth and length. To see the relatio~ of these examples, they are set out in a diagram (fig. 107). Each mark here may . be r~garded as the middle of the top of a beam, which lies on the base and ends in the left-hand corner, the vertical scale being double of the horizontal.

The X marks denote a beam bearing a top load. The 0 marks, a beam only carrying its own weight. The • marks are lintels of gateways. The - marks are roof slabs. The. c'?rves guide. the eye to see what examples have similar proportions ; the middle curve with 4 x

strength of lower, the upper one with 14 X strength of lower. The breaking strain at the bottom would be that of hard

English sandstone ; the soft Nubian stone with little cohesion, might be half-way up to the weak~st line here. Looking at the free architraves, marked 0 the lightest are the limestone ; the soft sandstone need~ more bulk. The ~actor o! safety of. columns was 5 to l 5 times the <:ru~hmg s~ram, for arc~itraves probably 5 to 10 times the hmit. It is only the misuse, and exposure of inner structure, which has produced failure.

6I. OVERLAPPING RooFs. The earliest system of stone r.~mfing was by corbelling over, each course projecting a httle; se.e the chamber of Sneferu (ro8), with projections of 5 to 8 ms. on courses of 21 to 24 ins.; also the Grand Gallery of Khufu. This type is only stable when the centre of gravity (C.G.) of the whole of the side is above the wall below it.

Curved Overlapping. This was done by cutting out a sm?oth curve in the overlapping stones, and was not practised before the xviiith dyn. At Deir el Bahri the lapping blocks were further secured by piling weight

Ii

11

II

ROOFING 71 on the haunches (109), and using the piles to support a gable roof of slabs butting above. . -In the Mykenaean tholoi, the overlap was held m pl~ce by being part of a ring of stones at each course, which prevented collapse, a kind. of horizontal arch. . ,, Ridge Roofs. The acquirement of large bloc~s m the ivth dynasty led to the simplest roof of buttmg slabs forming a ridge. In the Queen's Chamber of Khufu (no), the roof slabs are so long that the C.G. is over the wall and hence there is no pressure together at the top. The' same is almost the case in the ridge over the King's Chamber ( l l l). The same for~ of roofi~g is in the pyramids of Khafra and the later kmgs, also m the superchamber of Amenemhat III (n2). In all instances these sloping slabs are much deeper than the .width of the beam, those of the xiith dynasty being 371 ms. long, 88 deep, and 41 or 49 wide, and weighing about 40 tons. The angles of such roofs are :-

Chamber of Khafra Queen's Chamber, Khufu King's Chamber, Khufu Amenemhat, beams

2J0 121

30° 26' 33° 510 15'

In the pyramid of Menkaura the underside of the granite beams is cut out arched, and the slope between the ends is 29° 34'.

Flat Roofs Arched. At Abydos, Sety I had beam r~ofs cut into an arch below, beams 7 metres long, 1'14 wide, and 1·52 deep. The arch extends down into the su~porting courses. This is not like fig. 109, as the~e .1s overlapping but no beam. The arch form of roof is m the rock-cut tombs of Benihasan, and the earlier ones of Antaeopolis both most likely ·copied from brickwork. 62. ARCH, OF BRICK. The true arch was made in brickwork, at least as early as the beginning of the iiird dynasty,

'


in the tomb of Neterkhet, Zeser~ The bricks were spaced

at the outer ends with pebbles (u3). On a larger scale

in the vith dynasty, there is the long arched tunnel used

regularly in tombs ( l 14). In the xiith dynasty there are

arched buildings represented, one with 9 zed columns

across the front (u5). As a relieving arch in brick build

ing, it is seen on a large scale across the tomb of Amenem

hat III (u2), over 40 ft. wide. The house models also

show the arch freely used in the xith dynasty (u6).

There is no question that the arch was used ' early,

even in Neolithic times in Europe (Decorative Patterns lvi, x 2-4). ·

In the xixth dynasty, arched tunnels were used on a

grand scale, around the Ramesseum (u7). The four

courses of arch were laid slanting in opposite directions

(u8), to prevent cracks running through. On the top

was a thick bed of sand and broken pottery, to absorb any

rain, which was left to dry off rather than risk drains on

bricks. A small amount of moisture was welcomed in

brickwork, in order to be plastic rather than brittle under strains.

The size of arch is usually 12 ft. but sometimes 16 ft.

The height is 15 ft. inside. The galleries were lighted by

holes in the roof, at intervals of 12 ft. These holes cannot

have been over 13 ins. square, or less if they had a wooden

lining : probably only 6 or 8 ins., so that not eyen a child could be lowered through them.

The method . of building was by laying a tilted arch

against an end wall (u9), the bricks holding up, by

adhesion of mud-mortar, long enough to complete one

ring. The next layer must have been begun at the oppo,.

site end, for the tilt. The theoretical form of the arch,

a catenary curve, was closely followed by good instinct

in the Egyptians ; the rigidity of the material indicates at

what level the curve should be started (120), but the curve itself is invariable.

0 l'T!2.

' "U

;i: I

--f ;1l )>

< l'1 {JJ

FORM OF ARCHITRAVES. CANTILEVER ROOFS XXI

5 PAN of- AR.CHITF{AvEs 7 METl\ES

1:100 .L1MESTONE: l!Al\REL Mor, WITH l\ELIEVING R.OOF Al~OVE.

HAT&HEP.!;UT XVlll DYN.

1:z.oo L. IM t5TONE ROOF'. K11UF"U. IV J)YN.

1; 2.00 5UP£ 1' IMPOSED ROOFS. KHUf"U.

//// l.IM.Es•ONE -C.l\ANITE. IVDYN.

TUNNEL ROOFS, WINDOW, DOME XXll

/

/

ARCHES OF Ill, XII, XIX DYNASTIES XXlll

'1:70 BRICKAl\CH f'l<HALLAf. lllllVI(.

PA I\ T OF INN'E"' (.OUM£ IUH!)VED TO S.Ml.W C ... MSING OF' COUl\SE~-

I :z.oo ~~~C~ ~7~~~~:~~C:l<S, ROOf,A&OVE THE Q.UARTZ.ITE ROOF AND CHAM SER.. AJll\'N~MHAT Ill XII O'(N .

,,,, Ill/ LI.ME S TC r-iE. .

/I/Ill -it rA.R.TKtR &.a.ci<. .

.lbllll HOLLOW OVER WHOU: CHA M e£.R f\OOF",

'1'Q;I.. Q.U Al\TZ.ITE.

C.ALLEF\1£5, RA ,.. ES5£UM . XI X DYN.

120

SOP'T

..l.A..!...S:....! ------·---C.AT£NARY , C.UT AT DIFFERENT L£-V£L5 FO R ld\CHl!'.5 l"IT FOR OIFFER~NT 11\ATERIAL

'·

/

ROOFING 73

BRICK DOMING. This appears in ap unfinished brick tomb at Qumeh, of the xviiith dynasty ; the dome was regularly used at Ur more than a thousand years earlier. A good example of the later time is at the Deir el Ahmar or Red Monastery (122), where the brick structure shows the method of starting at the comers and closing to the centre of the dome. It is of the reign of "' Arcadius.

CHAPTER IX

DOORS AND WINDOWS

6~. DooRW~Ys. The Egyptian doorway is always

vertical at the sides, and not narrowing upward as in some

Greek and Etruscan doorways. Along the sides is

usually a bro~d and shallow border projection, which is

doubtless copied from the stone doorways set in brick

walls. Above the door is a lintel, which is generally

less in height than the lateral border. For outer doors

and gates there is also a torus roll and cavetto cornice above the lintel (23).

The largest doorways known are at Karnak. The river

pylon has perished, but the entry of the Great Hall was

about 82 ft. high to the top of the cornice, and 50 ft. wide

ac.ross the front; the doorway was 60 ft. high and 23 ft.

wide. The two gates extended to the top, as there is no

trace of a projection for the pivot. The pivot posts

ground against the corners of the wall ; the gates, of

course, opened back into recesses in the jambs. Each

val~e. was 60 ft .. hig~ by 14 ft. wide. If they were built in

position, the slightest scantling possible would be 3 ins.

tapering above to I in. boards, and half as much more for

t~e framing. This would take 2ro cubic feet, and the

pivot post must ha~e been at least 40 ft. more : amounting

to about 6 tons, with about ! ton of bronze nails and fit

tings. Probably it would be about double of this for

practical use. To swing a door of a dozen tons on its

pivot, with friction against the stone sides, seems almost superhuman.

The method of pivoting was by the post projecting into 74

DOORS AND WINDOWS 75

a cup-shaped pivot-hole belo~, and through a cylindrical

hole in the lintel. The bearing on the cup was usually

too shallow for the thrust of the door weight, and made the

pivot beam kick out against the jamb. Doors that could

be handled were usually set up by skewing, so that the

top of the post could go up into the lintel, and. t~en by ,,,

dropping the door pivot into the cup below: .. ~his 1s well

seen in the threshold of Pepy (Abydos_ II, 1111). In the

granite temple of Khafra, the pivot block is flat i:oli~hed

black basalt ; how the thrust of the door was mamtamed

is not visible. Conical pivot holes were used from the iind dynasty or

earlier (Hierakon. iii, 36). 64. PROPORTIONS. Taking the width of a doorway as

roo, the proportions are :-Projection of Width of

Height Side Top Cornice Dyn.

R 140 51 62 xii Ameny, inner shrine xx M. Habu, tower D 154 31 44

Ptol. Dendereh, pylon c 170 26 37

xvi ii M. Habu, T. III p 182 43 33 37 xix · Kamak, R. II D 182

Ptol. Kamak, Khonsu . c 188 53 xix Abydos, Sety I, recess R 203 53 84

Ptol. Deir el Medineh . c 205 50 40 69

Ptol. Philae, N. pylon c 230 63 50 33

Ptol. KomOmbo D 235 (92 162 90)

Ptol. Edfu, pylon c 239 62 37 48

xvi ii D. Bahri, recess. R 244 55 69 32

XVUl D. Bahri, colonnade p 255 54 46 44 c 261 59 52 45 xix Kamak, great gate

Ptol. Philae, side pylon c 263 59 54

Ptol. Philae, S. pylon . . c 270 70 56 73 Ptol. Karnak, Euergetes pylon c 270 61 51 63

M. Habu, 1st court c 291 56 43 49 xx xx M. Habu, 2nd court p 296 58 46 24

x Antaeopolis, tomb B . D 307 x Antaeopolis, tomb A . D 355

Those marked C are pylons or great gates with cor

nices; D are doorways, P are spaces between entrance

pillars, Rare recesses in walls. The Korn Ombo example

is exceptional. The height varies, apparently regardless of date or

EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE purpose, and no proportion is repeated so often as to prove a canon regularly recognized. The great wall gates are naturally tall in form, as the lintel could not well be longer, while the height had to agree with the great temenos wall.

65. WINDOWS were usually merely plain openings in the wall. In the granite temple of Khafra they were more of the nature of ventilators ; a slit a few inches high and 41 ins. wide led from the top edge of the wall into a vertical shaft which opened in the wall face above. The light only dimly entered by two internal reflections from the sides of the shaft. In the Ptolemaic temples which remain roofed, the lighting is by holes in the roof, only 8 or IO ins. square, widening downward so as to spread the light over the chamber. The great pylon chambers are lighted by a slit, 20 ins. wide and about 5 high, at the roof level, with the wall thickness splayed away in a slope down to the floor (P., Ath. xxxv). The great temples of the xixth dynasty had full lighting by means of a higher roof along the axis with clerestory openings. At the Great Hall of Kamak the clerestory openings are 4·85 m. wide and 5·26 m. high, about 16 X 17 ft. (121). These are filled by two grids of stone, one above another, each grid 16 X 8! X 1! ft. The bars are 23 cm. and spaces 15 cm., or 9 and 6 ins. wide. Such a grid weighs about IO tons. At the Ramesseum are plain openings 1·3 m. high, and, 1·6 to 2·2 m. wide (4 ft. high, 5 to 7 wide). Besides these, lighting the hall sideways, there were also two open courts in the middle of each hypostyle hall, at the sides of the nave, over an area of one bay wide and three bays long ; this formed a peristyle court, not a hypostyle as usually regarded. The Kamak hypostyle court has lost its roof, but it exhibits finer work around the middle part, showing its probable exposure.

In Ptolemaic and later times, various forms of grid

DOORS AND WINDOWS 77 appear, in the same taste as the .florid c~pitals.d ~h:~: are high i~ the walls, as seen i~ai~~;r:so~;inated in representations of ho:ises. Thhe. ph din all ages wooden railings to wmdows w ic were use for keeping out birds. 1 . riCf Architectural fancy varied the forms of th{ p a~n h~ o; "' and the head of Hat-hor was carve~ on ~ac :1J'~~~ ~ith the onkh sign of li~e was placed . m td ~ t mi In other . d igned m patterns aroun i · . ~;;~~f !s th;:e were vertical slit openings crossed with d' 1 bars or there were centres .encircled by a~ open iagona I 'hort the windows gave to the architect a rosette. n s ' d' · fair field of fantasy uncontrolled by tra it10n.

CHAPTER X

PLANS

HAVIN~ now dealt with the parts of a building and its construct10n, we tum to the· plans of the whole in Houses Temples! a!ld Tombs .. The brick house long preceded stone bmldmg, and contmued in use in all ages.

.66. PEASANTS' HousEs. Though all the simple shelters of the p~ople have long since decayed, yet fortunately at one penod we have a series of model houses of baked pottery, in the ixth to xith dynasties, which were placed upon the graves, for the soul to occupy when it wandered forth. These soul-houses have preserved to us the detail of the houses and furniture.

As some terms ~re needed in description, we can borrow the modem Arabic names ; the satah is a roof surrounded by a dwarf wall, the mulqaf a raised part of the roof to lead down the fresh breeze, the 'esha a light shelter on poles placed over an open water-tank. The tank for wat~r is usua.lly modelled in front of the rooms ; an ancient Egyptian song names the pool in the midst of the enclosure, and Oriental houses usually have this much as we ~ow them in ~lgiers, Spain, and Italy. '

The sui:iplest form 1s copied from the nomad tent, a mere awnmg propped by two posts, forming an open shelter to protect from s?? by day an~ chill by night (123).

Next, the roof was utilised by placmg a ledge round it, and the satah began, and needed access by some kind of steps (124).

Beneath .the roof the space was enclosed more or less by walls formmg chambers. These being shut in became

78

PLANS 79

hot, and a mulqaf was needed to catch the north wind

(125). The square house had existed in the Gerzean period

(El Amrah x) and even at the beginning of the Copper ... Age (Bethpelet II, ix) ; the tent shelter was thus influenced by a brick building system.

An enclosed chamber was thereby started, and divided " - into rooms as shewn by separate doorways : while the primitive supports became a portico in front of it. Columns were also placed in the chambers, to support the roof.

The roof satah was then developed into an upper storey, which in turn needed a satah upon it. The upper floor was the shelter by day when hot wind blew off the ground, and a chair is placed there. The ground floor was cooler at night and the bed is placed there. Up the side is the stairway to the roof (126).

The open court was next walled around, with an outer door. The usual arrangement was for the space under the stair to be a ·sheltered place for the woman grinding corn.

The brick roof was arched ; the highest roof is flatter at the side where it has a long thrust, and more upright against the house wall. The lower ro?f is much flatter, as it has weight on the haunches to resist thrust. These variations show an instinct for varying the structure in its details to suit the conditions (fig. 116).

The doorways and open windows had drip-courses or hJ>od mouldings (127), and the narrow windows were closely barred. The columns were always of the palm order. On the roof was the corn bin.

Having considered the ordinary houses of the peasantry, we now turn to workmen's quarters built by official order in a town. These are of the xiith dynasty, at Kahiin, the town of Lahiin pyramid.

The simplest house had an open court ; at the back lay

-------

80 EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE two rooms, one opening from the other ; at the side a larger room, with stairs to the roof. The smaller rooms 6 to 7 ft. wide, larger 13 X 7 ft. This is much the size of a small house in a village now (1,28). A superior workman's house had larger rooms (129). More ambitious houses o_f various types had sometimes a doorkeeper's hut at the side of the entrance ; passing the stairs, a storeroom was reached, and beyond this a court, from which opened a room with inner room ( 130 }.

The largest house, for overseers, had a passage to a court, from which opened three rooms, and a door to an inner court with two rooms. All of these courts were probably half roofed for shade, but must have been partly open to give light to the rooms (131). . Many changes were made by blockiI~g doors, and openmg others. Owing to the partial desertion of the town, when the public works were ended, the remaining occupants often added on the disused houses to their tenement. The whole number of rooms was probably over two thousand seven hundred ; these were in three hundred workmen's houses, ten or twenty larger houses, also storehouses, and ten large mansions, of about seventy rooms each, for the chief officials. . 67. M~SIONS wer~ mainly ?f one plan, and this type m the xuth dynasty is essentially retained even in the palace of the xxvith dynasty (132-34). It is therefore of long standing for great establishments. The plot for a mansion at Kahiin was 138 X 198 ft. of ground. Ttfe entrance was to the south, and from it three separate ways led to different portions of the house. To the left was a passage leading to a complex of offices and store-rooms, evidently ~h~ seryants' quarters. To the right the passage was divided m two by a long wall entirely cutting off the right side of the house, clearly for the women's quarters. The main entrance passage led to the large open court or mandara for reception at the north of the

PLANS 81

house · from this there were separate entrances to the maste;'s private rooms at the left, and to the winter h~ll and general rooms in the centre. Thus the house was m five divisions carefully separated from each other ; these were for the master, the public, the men servants, the women, and the women servants. .

Facing the entrance was a recess where the door~eep~r would sit, and his sleeping place, 7 X 4 ft., lay behmd it. He here controlled all who went in or out, like a modem bawwab. The visitor turned to the right, and went along a passage 93 ft. long and 8 ft . wide to the open court or mandara, about 63 x 37 ft. This court had a colonnade roof along the south side, resting on ~ine columns, an.d shading about half of the court. Facmg the north, this space caught the wir)Cl, and served for t~e general pl~ce for open-air reception and affairs, s~ch as is n~ed~d dunng most of the year in Egypt. A stairway proJectmg from the end led up to the roof of the house, and served· to screen off wind from the entrance to the master's rooms.

A doorway at the end of the court led to the more private rooms of the family, to which even the servants had no access without going through the public court. Hei,-e was a court about 32 ft. square, with a central tank and columns round it four on a side : . this was similar to the - ' . peristyle of the private apartments in a Roman mansion, but with the tank of the atrium in the centre. Doubtless the roof was open over the tank, and this would be the centre of family life. Five large rooms to the north were probably for stores. To the south is. the master's ~rivate sitting room, about 24 X 14 ft., with a column m the middle · only from this could four other rooms be reached' and these would be the master's bedroom (18 X 9 ft.) a~d three smaller store-rooms for the use of the master and mistress.

Returning to the public part of ~he house, another door led from the entrance to a corridor 93 ft. long and 8 ft.

6


wide, and, passing through a lesser hall with one column, the winter reception room was reached, about 25 ft.

· square, with four columns. Opening from this was a group of six rooms, probably for the more general use of the family, and for visjtors' rooms.

A passage from these public rooms led into the men servants' quarters, which were also reached from the main entrance. Here was a hall, 29 X 25 ft., probably open to the sky on the north, with a tank and a half-roof colonnade, with two columns along the south side. From this branched off three sets of rooms by different entrances. One set of five rooms, with stairways leading to upper rooms, were probably for servants' sleeping quarters. Another set of six smaller rooms were for food and stores, and three other rooms close to the south wall were for actual cooking. In one house the cook-places were found at the south wall, the object being to prevent the prevalent north wind from carrying the smoke and smell toward the living rooms.

Quite apart from the rest of the house, and only reached by a front and a back door, was the block of women's . apartments, the gynaeceum. The importance of this quarter depended on the domestic economy of the age. All the weaving and sewing of the large household were done here, all the washing and the starching so essentfal . to the decorative dress of that period, the training of servants, and teaching of music and other feminine arts. At the north there was a hall, about 24 ft. square, witll 'a tank, probably half covered by a colonnade of three columns along the south side. Six store-rooms lay to the north end. Twelve other rooms were to the south for the working and sleeping quarters of the staff of girls, probably equal in number to the men and lads who did the heavier and more public work of the large establishment. Seventy large halls and rooms must have needed a large staff to clean them and keep them tidy. Such was the

PLANS 83

internal system of a great official's house as shewn in the xiith dynasty. Half a dozen such officials were employed for the erection of a pyramid.

VILLAS. We now turn to another aspect, in the villas of the bureaucracy of the xviiith d1Uasty. These were built under very different conditions from that of th~ compact town of Kahiin. When Akhenaten started his new capital at Tell el Amarna, the wide expanse of d~sert was divided in allotments, the boundaries of which were marked with big rolled flints with the owner's name written in ink. The plots were generally enclosed by a

- brick wall. There was plenty of free space in the desert, and the villas of the officials were built to suit personal requirements, !hough all on one system of. p~rts and positions. The space covered by the bmldmg was between 30 ft. and 60 ft. square. The most complete house of this type we will now describe (133).

The flight of steps of approach, A, is usually on the north side of the house, sometimes on east or west, but never south. They were about 17 ins. in the tread, and 2 to 2! in the rise. The entrance is in a porch, P, where the doorkeeper would sit, and where he probably slept. This led to a lobby, Y, about 8 X 10 ft., on the way to the loggia, L, which was doubtle.ss open to the ~orth along the upper part of the wall, "'.'1th a ~rame~ lattice, as seen in many views of halls. This loggia vaned from 17 X 8 ft. to 26 x 15 ft., with two columns to car11'.' ~he roof. At the end of it is a room, 0, probably for v1s1tors. A door in the side of the loggia led into the central hall from 15 to 24 ft. square. Here there is laid a low platform or mastaba for the master to sit on, always facing the entrance, and with the fire pan before it. The roof is carried by a central column, sometimes by two columns.

On the left hand of the mastaba is the doorway to the master's rooms, B.C. The furthest of these is the largest closed room in the house, varying from 7! X 13 ft. to


16 X 17 ft. It has always a rather narrower raised floor at the south end for the bed place. The entrance chamber which leads to this has from two to five other rooms opening from it, which were doubtless for the women servants.

On the right hand of the mastaba is another door which opens on a smaller hall ( 1 ), usually with on~ column. This hall is from n! ft. square to 13 x 16 ft., and two or three small rooms open from it. This is the .men servants' quarter, with their living hall and sleeping rooms.

On the other side of the central hall are store-rooms (T.U.), and a stair (S) that led up to the foof. The space below the stair was often occupied by cupboards. Such was the system for the houses of ten to twenty rooms belonging to the well-to-do official class of the xviiith dynasty.

68. PALACE. As another class of dwelling, we may take the palace of the xxvith dynasty at Memphis (134) (The !'alace of Apries, P• l). This was on a great scale, covermg over two acres ; but the space was filled by the enormous size of a few parts, and not by a multitude of chambers. It was only needed for the personal service of the king and his family, the stores and guards being placed in other buildings. In all this area there are but twenty halls, and no small chambers.

The plan as a whole is exactly on the lines of the great mansions of the xiith dynasty. The entrance is to the south ; the main passage leads through to the great mandara court on the north. On the west, south of the mandara, is the great winter court ; south of that are the kitchen and servants' quarters. To the east of the main passage lie the halls of the women's ci1:1arter, and there also probably the king lived, as in the palace there is no parallel to the group of the master's rooms of the xiith dynasty mansions.

PLANS 85

The mandara, or open reception court, has been largely denuded away at the north end, but we can still see that it was 178 ft. long. The capitals of the great palm columns, which carried the roof along the southern side, are still lying on the spot ; from them we gather that it was about 45 ft. high. _

South of this were six store-chambers, each 35 ft. long. , Beyond them was the great court for winter use, 107 -X 1l5 ft., th,e roof of which was carried by columns about 40 ft. high, probably sixteen in number. Further south were the offices and kitchen ; the very thick walls ( 19 to 22 ft.), to the south-west, were probably the bas~ of a tower. In this part ;;i.lso was the guard room, openmg on the entrance passage. Th~s passage was about ~o ft. wide, ·and formerly led straight to the palace, but it had been blocked at a later time, and the entry was only by the harem passage on the east, crossing the berm and a

deep fosse. On the east were the private halls of the king and

harem, three of 4j x 23 ft., four others of 20 X 22 ft. They were paved with two co_urses of gr~at bl~cks of limestone, and had a dado of limestone 8 ms. thick and 3! ft. high. The slabs were up to lO ft. long. Above this was a white plastered wall.

The bulk of the structure was all of crude brick, the walls about 12 ft. thick. They rose about 45 ft. above the platform, and ran down below that for more than 45 ft. to form the substructure. To the south of the palace was a fosse dividing the platform from other great buildings, through which the approach ran up to the palace level. These buildings have been completely removed by the digging of earth for the -fields. . .

69. ToWN HousE, xviiith dyn. The sectional view of a house is well given at Thebes (135). On the ground floor is a weaving factory with vertical looms, and the spinning and the dressing of the finished linen. On the

86 EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE fi~st floor sit~ the owner with food and drink brought to him .. Ups~a1rs ~m the se~ond floor he sits again, fanned, an~ with his scribe squattmg before him, while grain and vanous goods are brought up to the store-rooms and the ~r.anaries on. the roof. The floors appear to be built with Joists, boardmg,.and .ceilings. This house was probably a town house, bmlt higher than was usual in the country where land was cheap. '

. 70. TEMPLES were of various types, connected with different forms of service. The chambers for the divine figures (A), side by side, are the oldest ; the processional tyl?.~ (B) for carrying out the barque of the god was of the xvmth dynasty ; the solid box shrine (C) for one sacred statue was usual in late times. Beside these, a different type (D) grew from the tomb chapel of the kings. All the plans here are to the same scale, l : 800.

':£'he oldest complete cellular plan is the small temple bmlt by Khufu (136), in which his ivory statuette was found. It has the peculiar entrance like the offering ·court of Sneferu (137), an outer door to one side of the front then one to the other side, and lastly a middle door. Th~ inner chamber is 17 ft. wide and 6 ft. across· of three cells side by side at the back, the middle o~e was the shrine of the god with a recessed door, the others may have been for other deities. For storage there was only a long passage, a couple of feet wide and twenty long, just ~o hold a .row of vases and utensils. A larger sanctuary 1s of the v1t~ dynas!y, also with three cells ( l 3 8), the front chamber bemg agam entered at one end. Buried in one of the c~ambers were the bronze figures of Pepy, and the hawk with gold head ; damaged sacra were thus disposed of, when the shrine was covered over by a later temple. . Another growth of this type, on a very expanded scale, is the temple of Sety I at Abydos (139), with a row of seven cells for as many deities. The little primitive chambers of Khufu were the origin of large halls of

PLANS columns and one cell led back into a wide complex of building' behind the cells. T~e plan drawn here is what the original design seems to have been ; . but the narrower portion was actually transferred to the side of the temple, in order to fit the site.

71. PROCESSIONAL TEMPLES. In the xviiith to ~th dynasties, the festivals were celebrated by pro~ess10ns bearing the ark of the god upon a barque, and this made it needful to have a shrine for the barque, open at both ends for the procession to pass, so as to deposit the ark on the central stand and then file out at the back and return outside. The examples of this are at Medinet Habu (built from Amenhetep I to Tehutmes III, fig. 140 ), Aswan (built.by Tehutmes III, sculptured by Amenhetep III, fig. 141), and the temple of Khons:u at Thebes (142, built by Ramessu III). The two earher examples have an open colonnade around the shrine, but in the later temple the shrine is hidden i~ ~ nest o~ chambers. The latest example is that of Ph1hp Arrh1daeos at Luqsor, which probably superseded a shrine of the xviiith dynasty. Within such a shrine there must have been a stand, shoulder high, to rest the barque upon, when the priests withdrew the staves and left it. Such a stand is preserved in the British Museum, a granite block with figures of gods around it (Belzoni, Travels, 107).

72. SHRINE TEMPLES. The la!er temp~es usua~ly contained a single box-shaped upright shrme, which was closed by locked doors, and was often a monolith. Such are seen in the Delta at Mendes, Saft, and Nebesheh, and another such shrine from· the southern Athribis was cut into paving slabs for the Whi~e M?nastery at Sohag.

The shrine at Edfu ( 143) is bmlt of blocks, and mea-sures 34 X 55 ft. That at Dendereh is similar. .

The temple of Edfu is a good example of successive addition. The box shrine has a portico of 12 columns, and was complete, as the outer wall of it ends in a torus

l' I

,\

'


roll at the comers. In front of that, a larger portico of 18 columns was added. Yet further in front was the open peristyle court with 34 columns, and around the whole is the f?rtification of a high wall and immense pylon.

73. Turmng now to the ROYAL TOMB TEMPLES the earliest is ~hat of Khufu, which has never been surv:yed. The next is that of Khafra (144), the earliest large plan preserved. The ascent from the granite temple enters askew, controlled by the shape of the ground. There comes first a varied version of the lower granite temple a wi~e hall leading to a long, narrow, colonnade h;ll. This leads to the great court with statues around and behind it, five long halls all alike. These seem to have~ special significance, as there are five halls in the Hierakonpolis temple of the Old Kingdom: possibly consecrated to the five divinities of the Osiris family. A side passage leads round to another group of five halls at the back and lastly, again~t the b~ck wall, is the place of the ~reat fu~eral stele m the axis of the temple. The ritual of these several halls has not yet been recovered. . 74· The temple of MENKAURA (145) has been left m~omplete, added to .largely by his son Shepseskaf with brick ~alls ; then, after a time of neglect, Mer-ne-ra of the vith dynasty remodelled the chambers near the pyramid face, using very coarse nummulitic limestone.

So fa.r as t.he d~tails are clear, the temple of Menkaura can be identified m the entrance avenue lined with black ~rani~e, the .great court also with black granite, the hall of s~x J?illars lmed with red granite, and the corridor contu~u~ng. west ~f it. The narrow passage on the north of this 1:S lmed with black granite ; the four small chambers north o~ that are reconstructed, probably on old lines. Proceedmg u~ to th~ pyra?1id face, the place of the great fun~ral stele is obv10us m the foundation, where ·the outh!le of an ea~ly court is seen by the pavement of red gramte. -The wide hall of six columns is a later work, as

PLANS

broken offering-vases of the old temple were beneath the floor.

Thus the original plan of Menkaura is practically complete, as far as the great enclosu~e ~all of Shepseskaf, built of mud brick. All west of this 1s so much altered that no details of chambers are original.

7 5. On reaching the V TH DYNASTY, we see a.ve~ different plan for the temple of Sahura (146), ~here an ~ial ch~~ber has, along the back of it, five shrmes. Behmd this is the long chamber with the funeral stele at the back.

Next in that dynasty, for Nefer-ar-ka-ra (147), the entrance hall and great atrium of columns is as before, but it is not centred on the pyramid ; the five parallel halls are brought close up to the pyramid face.

Still later, Ne-user-ra (148) continued a simil~~ hall ?f approach, and the square. peristyle court ; behmd this there are the five shrmes m a row, and the larger chamber, behind these again, was probably for the funeral

stele. · f 11 The plans of pyramid temples are given here m. u , as they show how a fundan:ei;tal type, for a si.ngle purpose, was retained, and varieties a~opted as reqmre~. There is no such closely related series to be fou~~ .m any other period, and they demonstrat~ the flexibility of ideas in the architecture of the Pyramid Age.

Two thousand years later, Ramessu I (149) aban~oned the early type of building. His temple stood unfimshed at his death, and was altered by Ramessu II to serve for Sety I. The great Ram~sseum wa~ begun by Sety I for himself, but was appropnated by his ~on.

76. ToMB STRUCTURES. The earliest surfac~ monument known above a tomb is the flat mound, retamed by a brick wall, which covered royal burials of th~ ist dyna~ty. Private tombs also had a square mound, with a vertical slit in the side where funeral offerings were presented ; this slit was fenced in front by a low wall, and b~ the


enclosure were piled the rough pottery vessels used for offerings (fig. 150). A lesser form of monument was a barrel-roofed pile with raised bands across it, plastered white and blue (151).

The standard tomb in the ivth-vith dynasties was of plain stone with sloping sides and flat top, the usual mastaba (152), which included chambers for statues and offerings.

The largest form of tomb was the brickwork copy of the chief's house of wooden planks (see figs. 27-32). For a small copy of this, see fig. 153 ; it is about 13 X 16 ft. surrounded by a fender wall, and it stood above the funeral chamber, which was entered by a pit and passage. The doorways modelled on the outside were capped by a stone slab, carved with a figure of the deceased accepting his funeral offerings. Of the xiith dynasty, and later· times, there are very few surface monuments recorded.

In the xth dynasty, a new type of tomb was formed by building in front of a rock chamber, beneath which a passage led to the burial. This was a Nubian t)rpe, copied from temples. The temple at Es Sebua (154) had an open forecourt, and behind that a roofed hall with I 2 pillars, which led to a cross-hall ; from that there opened out a chamber at each .end, and three chambers at the back. Of the same type is the tomb of Uahka (155), except that, being in sound rock, no pillars were needed in the hall.

This type led to the great rock halls of tombs of the xiith dynasty, in which there was no construction but only excavation, copying the columns and roofs of the dwelling house. The excavation of these tombs provided the blocks for the masonry of the houses of the living.

In Roman times, brick chambers in the cemetery were used for the funeral feasts at the graves. For the fuller account of the varieties of the tomb and its service, see the catalogue volume, Funeral Furniture, lately published.

PLANS 91

I the foregoing summary of architectural origins andd n · a eriod of about five thousan development, co~ermg . p th sub;ect as the ancient rs I have tried to view e J • 1 yea ' . d' d d to take into account the matena s, Egyptians I ' an · d the purposes the practical methods of construction, an the in enuity behind the system. We need to observ~ . g over of the architects in reaching a rhesult, theirftrt1huem1·rp~esign

1. · · d the armony o apparent 1m1tat10ns, an d" . I have tabulated the 'th the country and con it1ons. . WI • l' . t f the proportion and scale of the parts,

r~r~~~:r ~:~e~lrse how fr~~y ~~~:i~pi:~:st~:~~g~~~t~i~ and how contmuous was e ages.

~I

JI

I!

BRITISH SCHOOL OF EGYPTIAN ARCH.lEOLOGY

THE last few winters have been actively employed in excavation in the coasts of Palestine and Sinai, and the summers in researches consequent on. these.

A fourth and a fifth season at Ancient Gaza have yielded good results. Three seasons on a border fortress at Anthedon exposed twelve layers of frontier town of as many centuries ; the sequence of the finds illustrated the political conditions and the fluctuations of prosperity of each reign.

Shorter spells of work ·. included surface examinations in Syria and Moab, and a brief digging at Petra.

In these labours, however, we have been hampered by ,a falling off of funds, due to the decrease of personal intercourse with England and the enforced cessation of our college lectures, lantern lectures, and annual / exhibitions.

Help is urgently needed, therefore, that the present difficulties of our work in Palestine be not increased by a lack of resources.

Address : Lady Petrie, University College, Gower Street, London, W.C.1.

H. PETRIE,

Jerusalem.

Abacus, 55 Adze, 30 Arch bricks, 13

A

- of brick voussoirs, 71 -, catenary curve, 72 - cut in one piece, 71 - , tilted, 72 Architecture, scope of, 1

Architrave, 51 - proportions, 68--']o - strength, 64, 68 Axis marked out, 29

B Basalt, 25 Batter of walls, 8 Bes on capitals, 63 · . Bonding, absence of, 48 -, brickwork, 7 _-, stone, 48 Brick curved for arching, 13 - , decorative, 13 -, domed, 73 -, failure by damp, 4 -making,4 - materials, 3 - mouldings, 13 -sizes, 5 Bronze tools, 31 Building, 47 - before dressing, 49

c Capital, see Column. Carving, unfinished, 62 Causeways, 35-6

, Clerestory roofs, 76 Column, fluted, 56 -, Hat-hor, 62 -, palm, 57 -, papyrus, closed, 60 -, -, degraded, 6I -, - and lotus, 62 -, -, open, 58

INDEX

93

Column, polygonal, 55 -, rush bundle, 58 -, strength of, 64 - , tent pole, 56 Columns, dad or zed, 58 Copper tools, 3 1

Corbelling, 70 Core masonry, 47 Courses, adjusted, 47 Cradles, 40 Cramps, 48 Crowbars, 38 Curved courses, 10

Dad column, 58 Diorite, 26

D

Dome of brick, 72 Doorways, 74 Dovetails, 48 Drawings of capitals, 29 Dressing of stone, 29, 49, 50 Drills, 32 -, tubular, 32 Drying contraction, 9

E Earth banks, 40, 41 - filling, 41, 42 - movements, 9, 10 Earthquake, 67 Emery for stone-cutting, 31

F Facing-plate, 50 Facing stone, 50 Failures in structure, 66 Fencing, 14 Fire-pan in room, 83 Fluted columns, 56 Foundation deposits, 46 -depth, 47 -lay-out, 8 - sand bed, 46, 47

94 Foundation, slight, 9, lO Fulcrum for lever, 38

Graining, 20 Granite, 24, 27 Grid, 76

G

H Hammer dressing, 29 Hat-hor capitals, 62 Hauling h~avy blocks, 34 House, chief and retainers, 18 -, model for soul, 78 -, official's, 80-84 -, peasant's, 78 -plans, 78 -, portable, 17 -, workmen's, 79, 80 Hut, primitive, 14

J JoiI_lts in comers, 49 - m pyramid casing, 49

L La~pstand as support, 63 Laymg out plan, 8 Levers, 37 Lotus and papyrus forms, s8

M Mallet, 31 Marble, 23 Marking out work, 28, 29 Mortar, 6, 49 Mouldings, 13 Mud bricks, 3

N Nubian temple plan, 9o

0 Obeli~k raising, 42-4s - shipped, 34 Ochre, red, 30, so

p

Palace plan, 84, 8s Palm column, 37 Palm rib construction rs 16 Palm trunk roof, r8 ' '

INDEX

Pan-bed building, 10 Panelling of mastaba walls 20 Papyrus in building, 14, 16 Papyrus and lotus forms, s8 Pillars, 53, 54 Plane, testing, 30, 50 Plans, drawn out, 28, 47 -, house, 78 -, temple, 86 Plasterer's float, 7 Plastering, 6 -, completion of building, 7 Pole roofing, 20 Polygonal column, SS Portable house, 17

Quarrying, 26-28 Quartzite, 2s

Q

R Ra!n_ drip fender, 7, 47 Ra1smg stones, 38- 45 Reeds in construction, 15 Roads, 3s, 36 Roofing stone, s1, 68 Roofs, clerestory, 76 -, overlapping, 70 -, palm trunk, 18 -, ridged, 71 Royal tomb temples, 88 Rush-bundle column, s8 Rushes laid in walls, 8 Rushwork plaiting, 17

Salt in bricks, lO - in stones, 67 -, removal of, 67

s

Sanctuary, box shrine, 87 -, cellular, 86 - , processional, 87 Sand bed fo_i ~bsorption, 72 - - foundations, 46, 47 Sandstone, 24 Setting out work, 28, 47 Shipping of stone, 33 Shrines, box, 87 -, monolith, 87 -, primitive, 15 Sizes of bricks, 5 · Sledge for transport of stone 34 Soul houses, 78 ' Spans of architraves, 68 Statues, erection of, 42-45· S!one, 22

I

I

Stone, alabaster, 23 -, basalt, 25 -, building, 46-52 -, diorite, 26 -, granite, 24, 27 -, irregularities, 51 -, limestone, 22, 26 -, patched, 51 -, quartzite, 25, 28 -, sandstone, 24, 26 -, size of, 27, 28 Straw; chopped, 4, 7 Strength of architrave spans, 68 - of material, 64 Support, forms of, 53

T Temple plans, 86 Tent-pole column, 56 Thickness of walls, 12 Tomb structures, 87 Tools, bronze, 31 -, copper, 31 -, early use, 29 ·-;adze, 30 -, chisel, 31 -, hammer, 29, 30 -, mallet, 31 -, maul, 30 -, scraper, 30 Torus roll, 53 Town house, 85 Transport, 33 Tube drills, 31, 32

INDEX

v Villas, 83

w Walls, batter, 8 -, bonding, 7, 48 -, building, 6 -, defects in drying, l 1 -, facing, 6, 7 - filled with rubble, 49 -, pise, 8 - , plastering, 6 -, sag and straight, I I

-, sectional, 1 I -, setting out, 8 -, thickness, J2 -, wavy, JO -, wood in, 9 Wavy walls, JO Window, 76 - grids, 76 Women's quarter, 82 Wood construction, J7 -, grained, 20 - panelling, 20 -in walls, 9 Workmen's quarters, So

z Zed column, 58

95

I

MODELS OF PEASANT HOUSES XXIV

•

I

/

PLANS, ARTISAN'S, VILLA. MANSION XXV

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

._.[' __ _ • '0 0 0 0

ooo 0 . o 9 0 00

0 0

0 0 0

lol .......

/

1.,

PALACE AND HOUSE SECTION XXVI

• • • • •

• • • • • • • •

D

• • • • • • • •

I : 800 PLANS OF TEMPLES. IV, VI , XIX DYNASTIES XXVll

,f'

/

• • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • •, . • • • • --- ---• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••

I : SOO PROCESSIONAL TEMPLES. BOX SHRINE XXVlll

l

140, •

(] Il n .;

142

• • • • • •

/

• •

H • • . • •

I::: • •

• • • • • • •• •• •• •• • • •• •• • • •• •• • •

• • • ••

• • • • •

I : 800 PYRAMID TEMPLE OF KHAFRA XXIX

/

, . ·'··

I : 800 PYRAMID TEMPLE OF MENKAURA xxx

/

/

I : 800 PYRAMID TEMPLE OF SAHURA

=o··. • • • • • • • • ·• ...

XXXI

----•

'' I : 800 PYRAMID TEMPLE OF NEFER-AR-KA-RA XXXll

141

,,,

... ·:

=o··: : ': • • •••••

/

I : 800

/

. .

TEMPLES OF NE-USER-RA AND SETY I

••••••••••• • • • • • • ·• • ...... ··-· ..

149

• • • • • • •

•••••••••

XXXlll

TOMBS AND ROCK TEMPLE TOMB, X DYNASTY XXXIV

l.53

. ,

[] .

/

a a c a c:t c

c Cl

a IJ

0 0

a 0

a 0

egyptian architecture - internet archive

Documents